—  — mjmmmmmmmMmmmmmmgll* 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


BEQUEST  OF 

Alice  R.   Hilgard 


Household  and  Farmers' 
CYCLOPEDIA : 


OR, 


One  Hundred  Thousand 
Facts  for  the  People. 


A  Book  for  the  Farmer,  Mechanic,  and  "Working  Men  of  all  Trades  and 

Occupations,  the  Stock  Raiser,  the  Household,  and  every  Family 

who  wants  to  Save  Money;  a  Book  of  Solid  "Worth  and 

Practical  Utility,  containing  a  Remedy  for  every  111, 

a  Solution  for  every  Difficulty,  and  a  Method 

for  every  Emergency. 


By  DANIEL  R.  SHAFER,  AM. 

Author  of  "Foundations  of  Success  and  Laws  of  Trade,"  "Sexual  Pnilosophy,"  Etc* 


ILLUSTRATED. 


Sold  Only  by  subscription. 


Anchor  Publishing  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Branch  Offices  :  Philadelphia,  Pa.  ;  Chicago,  Ills.  ;  Atlanta,    Ga.  ; 
Schuyler,  Smith  &  Co.,  Odebolt,  Ia.  ;  C.  C.  Wick,  Ashland, 
Ohio  ;  A.  L.  Bancroft  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congreea  in  the  year  187S  by 

JAMES  H.   CHAMBERS, 

In  the  Offloe  of  the  Librarian  of  Coagrera  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


12m  h  jjIa 


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PREFACE. 


For  years  such  a  book  as  the  •  Household  and  Farmers  Cyclopaedia"  has 
"been  needed  by  the  public,  and  especially  by  the  American  Farmer,  but  up 
to  this  time  nothing  has  appeared  to  supply  the  want.  A  glance  at  the  within 
pages  will  satisfy  any  one  of  the  great  importance  of  such  a  demand,  and  the 
only  wonder  is,  that  such  a  book  as  the  "Cyclopaedia"  has  never  before  been 
published,  for  its  value  cannot  be  estimated  by  dollars  and  cents. 

The  design  was,  and  is,  to  produce  a  work  of  substantial  and  enduring  value,  and 
•of  universal  application  and  use.  To  sum  up,  then,  this  book  is  offered  as  one  con- 
taining more  that  has  been  proven  by  long  use  to  be  of  value,  more  that  is  necessary 
for  every  Farmer  and  Mechanic  to  know,  and  more  of  promising  novelty,  than  any 
other  that  has  ever  been  presented  to  the  Farmers  and  Mechanics  of  America.  It 
is  complete  in  every  particular  in  which  it  is  possible  for  such  a  book  to  be  com- 
plete; and,  in  addition  to  this,  it  is  sufficiently  suggestive  in  many  other  respects  to 
induce  its  readers  to  read  more,  to  think  more,  to  experiment  more,  and  to  become 
more  intelligent  and  more  successful  in  the  management  of  their  business,  as  well  as 
really  happier  and  wiser  men  and  women. 

In  its  editing  and  compiling  great  care  has  been  taken  to  avoid  all  difficult,  tech- 
nical and  scientific  terms,  and  to  make  the  language  so  simple,  as  to  insure  its  value 
as  a  useful  and  reliable  work  for  every  day  reference. 

To  compile  such  a  work  as  this,  is  an  amount  of  labor  that  one  not  familiar  with 
such  work  would  hardly  believe,  or  even  imagine.  Thousands  of  works  have  been 
examined,  public  libraries  and  private  book-cases  overhauled,  and  the  writings  of 
noted  writers,  both  in  this  cour.try  and  Europe,  have  been  carefully  compared,  and 
selections  made  from  the  best.  Where  selections  of  a  reliable  nature  could  not  be 
found,  original  articles  by  the  most  scientific  men  in  the  country  were  obtained,  thus 

M8G9158 


/v  PREFACE. 

giving  "  Facts  for  the  People  "  such  character,  prominence  and  reliability,  as  sure 
to  be  all  that  is  claimed  for  it. 

This  work  is  intended  especially  for  the  use  of  those  practical  working  men  and 
and^women — the  Farmer,  Mechanic,  Housewife,  the  rich  and  the  poor — who  are 
willing  to  believe  that,  while  they  have  learned  much  from  experience,  it  is  not  im- 
possible that  others  may  have  learned  something,  too — something  that  it  may  benefit 
them  to  learn  also,  and  who  are  liberal  enough  to  see  that  all  the  truth  and  value  of 
a  fact  is  not  destroyed  by  its  being  printed. 

The  editor  is  under  great  obligations  to  Prof.  C.  V.  Riley,  State  Entomologist 
of  Missouri,  for  permission  to  cull  information  on  injurious  Insects,  from  his  valuable 
reports;  to  Prof.  Townsend  Glover,  Entomologist,  and  Hon.  Fred.  Watts, 
Commissioner  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  Washington,  D.  C;  Hon.  Horace 
Capron,  Ex-Commissioner  of  Agriculture ;  Seth  Green,  the  noted  Fish  Breeder; 
Hon.  Geo.  Hussman,  the  well-known  Grape  Grower;  Prof.  John  H.  Tice,  known 
throughout  the  world  as  "  Old  Almanac,"  and  hundreds  of  others,  whose  names  will 
be  found  on  the  pages  of  the  book. 

We  leave  the  work  to  the  judgment  of  a  generous  public,  believing,  if  there  is 

merit  in  its  pages,  that  the  same  will  be  appreciated. 

D.  R.  SL 


INDEX. 


FACTS, 

HORSE — Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 7-144 

Care  and  Management  of. 7-144 

Training  and  Breaking — (Rarey's  Plan  Illustrated) 138-142 

COLTS— Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 143-144 

Care  and  Management  of. 143-144 

MULE — Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 143-144 

Care  and  Management  of. i 143-144 

CATTLE — Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 145—196 

Care  and  Management  ot 145-196 

CALVES— Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 145-196 

Care  and  Management  of. 145-196 

SHEEP — Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 197-228 

Care  and  Management  of. 197-228 

LAMBS— Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 197-228 

Care  and  Management  of. 197-228 

SWINE — Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for. 229-239 

Care  and  Management  of.... ,..  229-239 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS— Medicines  for 240-251 

POULTRY — Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 252-274 

Care  and  Management  of. 252-274 

DOGS— Diseases  of,  and  Remedies  for 275-278 

CURING  AND  STORING 279-306 

PRESERVING 279-306 

BEES —  Care  and  Management  of 207—317 

Diseases  and  Enemies  of,  and  the  Remedies 3°7_3I7 

ACCIDENTS  and  INJURIES  of  Everyday  Life,  and  how  to  meet  them.  318-332 

HOME  DOCTOR 333-349 

HOUSEHOLD  PESTS— How  to  Destroy  Them 350-353 

BUGS  and  other  INJURIOUS  INSECTS— How  to  Know  Them....  354-408 

How  to  Destroy  Them 354-408 

MECHANICAL 409-455 


vi  INDEX. 

PAGES. 

LAW — Or  Every  Man  his  own  Lawyer 556-487 

FARM— How  to  Make  it  Pay 488-560 

How  to  Raise  Large  Crops 488-560 

Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Crops,  and  the  Remedies 488-560 

DAIRY — And  its  Management 488-560 

How  to  Make  it  Pay 488-560 

ORCHARDS—Care  and  Management  of. 488-560 

Diseases  and  Enemies  of,  and  the  Remedies , 488—560 

FRUIT— Practical  Hints  on  Raising 488-560 

Diseases  and  Enemies  of,  and  the  Remedies 488-560 

FRUIT,  SMALL — How  to  Raise,  and  How  to  Make  it  Pay 488-560 

Diseases  and  Enemies  of,  and  the  Remedies 488-560 

GARDEN — Care  and  Management  of. 488-560 

Diseases  and  Enemies  of,  and  the  Remedies 488-560 

HOUSEHOLD 561-575 

DYEING 562-570 

FISH   CULTURE 572-575 

MISCELLANEOUS  AND  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE 56i-575 

CONTENTS 577-608 

When  an  article  cannot  be  found  by  its  proper  alphabetical  arrangement,  under  any 
of the  above  sections,  a  reference  to  the  very  copious  contents  at  the  end  of  the  work,  will 
lead  to  its  discovery. 


HOUSEHOLD  AND  FARMERS' 

CYCLOPEDIA. 


THE  HORSE-KEEPERS'  GUIDE. 


HORSE,  External  Form,  as  Indicated 
by  Points. — By  horsemen  in  general  this 
is  considered  under  certain  subdivisions, 


which  are  called  "  points,"  and  which  are 
severally  represented  by  figures  in  the 
following  outline : 


Fig.  i. — Poihts  of  ths  House. 


HEAD. 

FORE-QUAETEE, 

I.  Muzzle. 

8,  8.  Shoulder-blade. 

3.  Nostril. 

9.  Point  of  shoulder. 

3.  Forehead. 

10.  Bosom  or  breast. 

4.  Jaw. 

5.  Foil. 

II,  11.  True-arm. 

12.  Elbow. 

KECK. 

13.  Forearm  (arm). 

6,  6.  Crest 

14.  Knee. 

7.  Thropple  or  windpipe. 

15.  Cannon-bone. 

HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


16.  Back  sinew. 

17.  Fetlock  or  pastern-joint. 

1 8.  Coronet. 

19.  Hoof  or  foot. 

20.  Heel. 

BODY  OB.  MIDDLBPIBCB. 

31.  Withers. 
,    .     32.  Back. 

33,  23.  Ribs  (forming  together  the 

barrel  or  chest). 

34,  24.  The  circumference  of  the 

chest  at  this  point,  called  the 
girth. 

25.  The  loins. 

26.  The  croup. 

27.  The  hip. 

28.  The  flank. 

The  relative  proportions  of,  and  exact 
shape  desirable  in  each  of  these  points, 
vary  considerably  in  the  several  breeds. 
Thus,  when  speed  and  activity  are  essen- 
tial, an  oblique  shoulder-blade  is  a  sing 
qua  non;  while  for  heavy  harness  it  can 
scarcely  be  too  upright,  enabling  the 
pressure  of  the  collar  to  be  more  easily 
borne,  and  allowing  the  animal  to  exert 
his  strength  at  right  angles  to  its  long 
axis.  Many  men  are  good  judges  of 
hunters  and  hacks,  but  are  almost  wholly 
ignorant  of  the  qualities  desirable  in  a 
coach  or  cart-horse.  There  are  some 
«lements,  however,  which  are  wanted  in 
any  horse,  such  as  big  hocks  and  knees, 
flat  legs  with  large  sinews,  open  jaws 
and  full  nostrils.  It  will,  therefore, 
be  necessary  to  describe  the  points 
of  each  breed;  but  we  shall  here  give 
those  which  are  always  to  be  attended  to 
as  being  of  importance  in  any  kind, 
whether  used  for  racing  or  hunting,  for 
the  road  or  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Taking  first  the  Head : — It  should  be 
known  that  the  volume  of  brain  contain- 
ed within  it  determines  the  courage  and 
other  mental  qualities  of  the  individual. 
Now  as,  coeieris  paribus,  size  is  power,  so 
without  a  wide  forehead  (which  part 
marks  the  seat  of  the  brain),  you  cannot 
expect  a  full  development  of  those  facul- 
ties known  as  courage,  tractability,  good 
temper,  etc.  The  size  of  the  muzzle  is 
partly  regarded  as  an  element  of  beauty, 
and  partly  as  a  sign  of  high  breeding. 
Hence,  in  the  cart-horse,  a  coarse  jaw 
and  thick  muzzle  are  not  regarded.  A 
large  and  patent  nostril  cannot  be  dis- 
pensed with  in  horses  intended  for  fast 
work,  and  should  be  desired  even  in  the 
cart-horse,  for  in  drawing  heavy  loads  on 


29. 
30. 

3»- 
32. 

33. 
34- 

I 

39- 
40. 

4»- 

42. 

43- 
44. 


The  sheath. 

The  root  of  the  dock  or  taiL 

THB  HIND-QUABTBB. 
The  hip-joint,  round  or  whirl-bone. 
The  stifle-joint. 
33.  Lower  thigh  or  gaslrin. 
The  quarters. 
The  hock. 

The  point  of  the  hock. 
The  curb  place. 
The  cannon-bone. 
The  back  sinew. 
Pastern  or  fetlock-joint. 
Coronet. 
Foot  or  hoof. 
Heel. 
Spavin-place. 


a  hot  day,  his  breathing  may  be  rendered 
almost  as  laborious  as  that  of  the  highly- 
tasked  race-horse  or  hunter.  So  also  with 
the  jaw ;  if  there  is  not  ample  width  be- 
tween the  two  sides  for  the  development 
and  play  of  the  larynx  and  windpipe,  the 
wind  is  sure  to  be  affected,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, the  head  cannot  be  nicely  bent  on 
the  neck.  A  defect  in  this  last  point  is 
the  usual  cause  of  that  straight  and  in- 
elegant setting  on  of  the  head  which  is  so 
common,  and  which  the  practiced  horse- 
man avoids,  as  alike  unsightly  and  preju- 
dicial to  the  wind  and  the  mouth ;  for  a 
horse  which  cannot  give  way  to  the  press- 
ure of  the  bit  is  sure  to  become  dull  in  his 
mouth,  and  therefore  unpleasant  to  ride 
or  drive.  The  eye  is  to  be  examined  with 
a  twofold  purpose — firstly,  as  an  index  to 
the  temper,  the  nature  of  which  is  marked 
by  the  expression  of  this  organ;  and 
secondly,  in  reference  to  its  present  state 
of  soundness,  and  the  probability  of  its 
continuing  healthy.  A  full  and  clear  eye, 
with  soft,  gazelle-like  expression,  is  scarce- 
ly ever  associated  with  a  bad  temper,  and 
will  most  frequently  continue  sound,  if  the 
management  of  the  horse  to  which  it  be- 
longs, is  proper  in  itself.  The  ear  should 
be  of  medium  size,  not  too  small,  nor  too 
large,  nor  should  it  be  lopped,  though 
many  good  lop-eared  horses  have  been 
known,  and  some  very  superior  breeds, 
like  that  of  the  celebrated  Melbourne,  are 
notorious  for  this  defect. 

The  Neck  should  be  of  moderate  length, 
all  beyond  a  certain  dimension  being  waste, 
and  even  a  moderate-sized  head  at  the 
end  of  an  extremely  long  lever  being  too 
much  for  the  muscles  to  support.  It 
should  come  out  full  and  muscular,  with 
a  sweep  between  the  withers   and  the 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


bosom,  and  should  gradually  diminish  till 
it  runs  into  the  head,  with  an  elegant 
bend  just  behind  the  ear.  A  very  narrow 
throat  suddenly  bent  at  the  upper  part, 
marked  as  the  thropple,  is  apt  to  be  con- 
nected with  roaring,  and  on  that  account 
is  objected  to  by  horsemen. 

In  the  Fore-quarter  there  are  several 
points  to  be  attentively  examined,  and 
among  these,  the  shoulder  is  regarded  as 
of  most  consequence,  when  the  horse 
under  consideration  is  intended  for  the 
saddle.  It  is  evident  that  unless  there  is 
length  of  the  blade,  and  also  of  the  true 
arm,  there  cannot  be  a  full  surface  for  the 
attachment  and  play  of  the  muscles,  nor 
can  there  be  the  same  amount  of  spring 
to  take  off  the  jar  which  follows  each  foot- 
fall. The  straighter  the  angle  formed  by 
the  long  axis  of  each  of  these  bones,  the 
less  spring  there  will  be.  So,  also,  if  the 
angle  is  not  sufficient,  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulder-blade  will  not  thrust  forward  the 
true  arm,  nor  will  the  latter  be  sufficiently 
clothed  with  muscles  (without  being 
loaded)  to  act  on  the  fore-arm,  commonly 
known  by  the  horseman  as  the  arm. 
Hence  it  is  found  that  with  an  upright 
shoulder  not  only  is  the  stride  in  all  the 
paces  short  and  the  action  stumpy,  but 
there  is  not  that  elastic  movement  which 
enables  the  horse  to  carry  his  body  along 
rapidly  and  evenly,  without  rising  alter- 
nately behind  and  before,  and  thereby  jar- 
ring himself  or  his  rider.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  upright  shoulder,  loaded  with  a  thick 
mass  of  muscles,  is  useful  in  the  cart- 
horse, and  to  a  certain  extent  also  in  the 
carriage-horse,  in  both  of  which  the 
pressure  of  the  collar  requires  a  steady 
and  comparatively  motionless  surface  to 
bear  it.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  horses 
intended  to  have  high,  and  at  the  same 
time  forward  action,  should  have  oblique 
shoulders,  for  without  them  they  will 
almost  to  a  certainty  either  have  very 
Clean  and  low  action,  or,  if  they  do  bend 
their  knees,  they  will  put  their  feet  down 
again  nearly  on  the  same  place  as  they 
took  them  from,  which  peculiarity  we  so 
often  see  displayed  in  the  cart  breed,  or 
those  nearly  allied  to  it.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  important  uses  of  the  obliquity 
of  the  shoulder-blade  as  it  seems  to  us, 
and  one  which  has  not  been  generally 
admitted  by  writers  on  this  branch  of  the 
subject,  though  all   are  ready  to  admit 


that  in  some  way  or  other  this  formation 
is  essential  to  good  action.  Another  rea- 
son for  the  obliquity  of  the  shoulder  in 
the  riding-horse,  is  that  without  it  the  sad- 
dle is  not  kept  back  in  its  proper  place, 
and  the  horseman's  weight  being  thus 
thrown  too  forward,  the  action  of  the 
fore-quarter  is  impeded.  Mere  obliquity, 
however,  is  not  sufficient  for  this  purpose, 
for  without  a  proper  development  of 
muscle  the  blade  itself  will  not  keep  the 
saddle  in  its  place.  If,  therefore,  there  is 
a  hollow  just  behind  the  top  of  the  blade, 
even  if  this  is  slanting  enough,  you  must 
expect  the  saddle  to  slip  forward,  and 
should,  in  all  doubtful  cases,  be  careful  to 
put  one  on  before  concluding  a  purchase. 
The  point  of  the  shoulder  should  be  well 
developed,  but  not  showing  any  rough 
protuberances,  which  are  equally  objec- 
tionable with  a  fiat  or  ill-developed  point. 
The  length  of  the  true  arm  is  mainly  de- 
pendent upon  that  of  the  blade;  but 
sometimes,  when  this  is  oblique  enough, 
the  true  arm  is  short  and  upright,  and  the 
elbow  stands  under,  or  only  a  little  be- 
hind the  shoulder  point.  This  is  a  very 
faulty  conformation,  and  is  seldom  at- 
tended with  good  action.  The  chief  de- 
fect in  the  elbow  is  seen  when  it  turns 
inwards  and  rubs  so  closely  against  the 
ribs  that  the  finger  can  hardly  be  insinu- 
ated between  them  and  it.  Here  the 
elbow  is  said  to  be  tied,  or  confined,  and 
the  horse  is  very  apt  to  turn  his  toes  out; 
while  the  opposite  formation  is  indicated 
by  turned-in,  or  "  pigeon"  toes,  and  turned- 
out  elbows,  frequently  accompanying  long- 
standing rheumatism  of  the  shoulders.  It 
does  sometimes  happen,  however,  that  the 
toes  are  turned  in  or  out  without  affecting 
the  elbow,  but  this  is  an  exception  to  the 
rule.  A  long  and  muscular  fore-arm  is  a 
sure  accompaniment  of  strong  and  sweep- 
ing action,  and  should  bexarefully  prized; 
in  other  respects  there  is  little  to  be  noted 
here.  Next  comes  the  knee,  which  should 
be  broad,  and  when  looked  at  from  the 
front  should  be  much  wider  than  the  limb 
above  and  below.  It  should  taper  off 
backwards  to  a  comparatively  thin  edge, 
and  should  have  a  good  development  of 
the  pisiform  bone,  which  projects  back- 
wards at  its  upper  part.  The  leg,  imme- 
diately below  the  knee,  should  be  as 
large  as  any  other  part,  and  not  "  tied  in  " 
there,  which  indicates  a  weakness  of  this 


IO 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


part.  A  bending  of  the  knee  backwards 
is  called  a  "  calf-knee,"  and  is  not  objected 
to  in  cart-horses,  in  which  it  is  by  no 
means  uncommon ;  but  it  is  very  apt  to 
lead  to  strains  of  this  joint  in  the  race- 
horse or  hunter.  A  knee  naturally  bend- 
ing somewhat  forward  is  much  preferred 
by  good  judges,  though,  when  it  is  the 
-result  of  over-work,  it  is  almost  equally  to 
'be  avoided  with  the  calf-knee.  Flat,  and 
at  the  same  time  large  cannon-bones,  with- 
out gumminess,  are  of  great  importance, 
and  if  attended  with  a  full-sized  suspen- 
sory ligament,  and  with  strong,  clean,  and 
free  back  sinews,  the  leg  is  to  be  con- 
sidered faultless.  The  fetlock  joint  should 
be  of  good  size  and  clean,  whilst  the 
pasterns  should  form  an  angle  with  the 
ground  of  between  forty-five  and  sixty 
degrees.  Lastly,  the  foot  should  be  well 
formed,  but  the  construction  of  this  part 
being  hereafter  more  fully  described,  we 
shall  omit  its  consideration  here. 

In  the  Middlepiece  the  withers  come 
first  under  notice.  It  is  usual  to  desire 
them  high  and  thin,  but  they  are  very 
commonly  too  much  developed,  and  if 
the  bony  processes  stand  up  like  the  edge 
of  a  razor,  without  muscle  on  them,  they 
are  to  be  regarded  as  objectionable  rather 
than  otherwise.  The  inexperienced  horse- 
man is'  apt  to  consider  the  existence  of 
high  withers  as  a  sure  sign  that  the  sad- 
dle will  be  carried  well  back,  but  there 
are  some  horses  whose  withers  are  the 
greatest  annoyance  to  the  rider,  for  hav- 
ing upright  and  short  shoulder-blades,  to- 
gether with  high  withers,  the  saddle  rides 
forward  upon  the  latter,  and  Chafes  them 
in  spite  of  all  the  padding  which  can  be 
introduced.  In  looking  at  this  point,  we 
believe  the  purchaser  should  almost  en- 
tirely disregard  it,  excepting  to  take  care 
that  it  is  not  too  high  for  the  formation 
and  position  of  the  shoulder-blades.  If 
these  are  long,  and  therefore  slanting,  and 
especially  if  in  addition  to  a  proper  posi- 
tion of  the  bones  they  are  furnished  with 
plenty  of  muscle,  the  withers  may  be  dis- 
regarded, and  the  action  may  be  expected 
to  be  good,  even  if  they  are  so  low  as  to 
show  no  rise  between  the  neck  and  the 
back. 

The  volume  of  the  chest  is  the  measure 
not  only  of  the  capacity  of  the  lungs,  but 
of  that  of  the  large  organs  of  digestion. 
Hence,  unless  there  is  a  middlepiece  of 


proper  size,  the  wind  is  seldom  good,  and 
the  stamina  of  the  individual  will  scarcely 
ever  be  sufficient  to  bear  hard  work.  But 
there  is  a  limit  to  the  development  of  this 
part  in  those  breeds  which  are  required  to 
move  with  much  velocity,  where  weight 
is  a  great  object;  and  if  the  body  of  the 
race-horse  or  hunter  was  as  heavy  as  that 
of  the  dray-horse,  the  speed  would  be 
greatly  reduced,  and  the  legs  would  give 
way  during  the  first  severe  gallop.  So, 
also,  a  wide  chest  interferes  with  the  free 
and  rapid  action  of  the  shoulders  and 
arms  as  they  glide  on  the  ribs;  and  an 
open  bosom  is  almost  always  fatal  to  high 
speed.  In  the  race-horse  and  hunter, 
therefore,  capacity  of  chest  must  be  ob- 
tained by  depth  rather  than  width ;  while 
in  the  cart-horse,  a  wide  chest  and  a 
frame  roomy  in  all  directions  is  desired, 
so  as  to  give  good  wind,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  enable  the  animal  to  keep  up  his 
flesh  while  working  eight  or  nine  hours 
per  day.  For  light,  quick  draught,  a  for- 
mation intermediate  between  the  two  is 
the  proper  one ;  the  large  frame  of  the 
cart-horse  being  too  heavy  for  the  legs  to 
bear  at  a  fast  pace,  and  leading  to  their 
rapid  destruction  in  trotting  over  our 
modern  hard  roads.  The  capacity  of  the 
lungs  is  marked  by  the  size  of  the  chest 
at  the  girth ;  but  the  stamina  will  depend 
upon  the  depth  of  the  back  ribs,  which 
should  be  especially  attended  to. 

A  short  Back,  with  plenty  of  ground 
covered  nevertheless,  is  the  desideratum 
of  every  practised  horseman.  Unless  the 
measurement  from  the  shoulder-point  to 
the  back  of  the  quarters  is  somewhat  great- 
er than  the  height  of  the  withers,  the 
action  is  confined,  especially  in  the  gal- 
lop, for  the  hind  legs  cannot  be  brought 
sufficiently  forward  on  account  of  the  in- 
terference of  the  fore-quarter;  and,  in- 
deed, from  the  want  of  play  in  the  back, 
they  are  generally  too  much  crippled  in 
that  respect.  A  horse  "  short  above  and 
long  below  "  is  the  perfection  of  shape  in 
this  particular,  but  he  is  not  very  com- 
monly met  with.  Where  length  below  is 
seen,  there  is  generally  too  much  space 
between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip,  while  on 
the  other  hand  coupled  with  a  short  back 
we  too  often  see  the  legs  all  "jumped  up 
together,"  and  the  action  short  and 
stumpy.  Next  to  these  points  in  the 
middlepiece  it  is  important  to  pay  atten- 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


IX 


tion  to  the  upper  line  of  the  back,  which 
should  bend  down  a  little  behind  the 
withers,  and  then  swell  out  very  gently 
to  the  junction  with  the  loins,  which  can 
hardly  be  too  wide  and  muscular.  The 
inexperienced  eye  will  often  be  deceived 
by  the  hips,  for  if  these  are  narrow  the 
muscles  rise  above  them,  and  make  the 
loin  and  back  look  stronger  than  they 
really  are,  the  contrary  being  the  case 
where  the  hips  are  wide  and  ragged. 
This  latter  formation;  though  not  so  ele- 
gant as  the  level  hip,  is  prized  by  the 
man  who  wishes  to  be  carried  well  to 
hounds,  and  he  will  jump  at  a  horse 
which  would  be  passed  over  with  con- 
tempt by  the  tyro  as  "  a  great  raw-boned 
brute."  A  slightly  arched  loin  is  essen- 
tial to  the  power  of  carrying  weight ;  a 
much  arched,  or  "  hog  "  back,  is  almost 
sure  to  give  uneasy  action  from  its  want 
of  elasticity. 

In  examining  the  Hindquarter,  so 
much  depends  upon  the  breed,  and  the 
purposes  to  which  the  animal  is  to  be 
put,  that  only  a  few  general  remarks  can 
be  given.  Thus,  for  high  speed,  there 
should  be  plenty  of  length  in  the  two 
bones  which  unite  at  the  stifle-joint,  with- 
out which  the  stride  must  be  more  or  less 
limited  in  extent.  The  exact  position  of 
the  hip-joint  not  being  easily  detected, 
the  tyro  has  some  difficulty  in  estimating 
the  length  from  it  to  the  stifle-joint,  but 
he  can  readily  measure  the  length  from 
the  root  of  the  tail,  either  with  his  eye  or 
with  a  tape,  if  he  cannot  depend  upon 
his  organ  of  sight.  In  a  flat  outline  this 
will  come  to  twenty-four  inches  in  a  horse 
of  fifteen  hands  three  inches,  but  meas- 
ured round  the  surface  it  will  be  two 
inches  more.  Again,  the  lower  thigh  or 
gaskin  should  be  of  about  the  same 
length ;  but  if  measured  from  the  stifle  to 
the  point  of  the  hock  it  will  be  fully 
twenty-eight  inches  in  a  well-made  horse 
of  high  breeding.  These  measurements, 
however, will  be  much  greater  in  proportion 
than  those  of  the  cart-horse,  who  requires 
strength  before  all  things,  and  whose 
stride  is  of  no  consequence  whatever.  In 
him  the  length  of  the  upper  or  true  thigh 
is  generally  as  great  as  that  of  the  thor- 
oughbred, but  the  lower  thigh  is  much 
shorter,  and  the  horse  stands  with  a 
much  straighter  hind  leg,  and  conse- 
quently with  his  hocks  having  a  very 


slight  angle.  Muscular  quarters  and  gas- 
kins  are  desirable  in  all  breeds ;  for  with- 
out strong  propellers,  no  kind  of  work  to 
which  the  horse  is  put  can  be  duly  per- 
formed. The  judge  of  a  horse  generally 
likes  to  look  at  the  quarters  behind,  so 
as  to  get  a  full  view  of  their  volume,  and 
unless  they  come  close  together,  and  leave 
no  hollow  below  in  the  anus,  he  suspects 
that  there  is  a  want  of  constitution,  and 
rejects  the  animal  on  that  account.  But 
not  only  are  muscles  of  full  size  required, 
but  there  must  be  strong  joints  to  bear 
the  strain  which  these  exert,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  of  all  the  points  of 
the  horse  is  the  hock.  This  should  be 
of  good  size,  but  clean  and  flat,  without 
any  gumminess  or  thoroughpins,  and  with 
a  good  clean  point  standing  clear  of  the 
rest  of  the  joint ;  the  "  curby  place  "  and 
the  situation  of  spavin  should  be  free 
from  enlargement;  but  to  detect  these 
diseases  a  considerable  amount  of  prac- 
tice is  required.  Lastly,  the  hocks  should 
be  well  let  down,  which  depends  upon 
the  length  of  the  thigh,  and  ensures  a 
short  cannon  bone.  The  pasterns  and 
feet  should  be  formed  in  correspondence 
with  those  of  the  fore  extremity,  to  which 
we  have  already  alluded. 

Such  are  the  recognized  points  to  be 
desired  in  the  horse ;  but  in  spite  of  the 
general  opinion  of  good  judges  being  in 
favor  of  them,  as  we  have  described,  no 
one  can  predicate  with  certainty  that  a 
horse  possessing  them  all  in  perfection, 
will  have  a  corresponding  degree  of  ac- 
tion out  of  doors.  No  one  who  has 
bought  many  horses  will  be  content  with 
an  inspection  in  the  stable,  even  if  the 
light  is  as  good  as  that  of  the  open  air, 
for  he  well  knows  that  there  is  often  a 
vast  difference  between  the  estimate  of 
the  value  of  a  horse  which  he  forms  in- 
doors and  out.  Much  of  this  depends 
upon  the  temper  of  the  individual,  for  if 
he  is  dull  and  heavy,  he  will  not  "  make  a 
good  show,"  though  still  he  may  be  capa- 
ble of  being  sufficiently  excited  at  times, 
and  many  such  horses  are  invaluable 
racers.  Independently,  however-y  of  this 
element,  it  will  be  sometimes  found  that 
the  frame  which  looks  nearly  perfectly 
symmetrical  while  at  rest,  becomes  awk- 
ward and  comparatively  unsightly  while 
in  motion ;  and  the  horse  which  is  ex- 
pected to  move  well  will  often  be  sent. 


12 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


back   to   his   stall  with   "That  will   do, 
thank  you,"  after  a  single  performance. 

HORSE,  Proportions  of  the  Various 
Points. — The  proportions  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  the  horse,  as  we  have 
already  remarked,  vary  a  good  deal  in 
the  different  breeds.  The  following,  how- 


ever, may  be  taken  as  the  most  perfect; 
but  they  refer  especially  to  the  racer, 
hunter  and  hack,  as  well  as  to  the  lighter 
and  more  blood-like  harness  horses,  and 
must  not  be  strictly  applied  to  the  draught- 
horse  in  any  of  his  varieties : 


Fig.  2. 


Inches. 

-  63 

-  66 


"Height  at  withers  and  croup,     -    - 
length  from  shoulder-point  to  quarter, 
From  the  lowest  part  of  the  chest  to  the 

ground,     --. 36 

•From  the  elbow -point  to  the  ground,     -    -    39 
From  the  withers  to  the  pole,  just  behind 

the  ears,  in  a  straight  line,  -  -  -  -  30 
'  The  same  measured  along  the  crest,  -  -  32 
Length  of  head, 22 


Width  across  the  forehead, 

From  the  withers  to  the  hip,  -  -  -  - 
From  the  stifle  to  the  point  of  the  hock,  in 
the  attitude  shown  in  the  plan,  -  - 
From  the  root  of  tail  to  stifle-joint,  -  - 
From  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  ground, 
Length  of  arm  from  the  elbow  to  the  pisi- 
form-bone,    ---• 

From  the  pisiform-bone  to  the  ground,     - 


Inches. 

-  9# 

-  22 


28 
26 

22^ 

«9# 
*9lA 


Girth  varies  from  76  to  79. 

Circumference  of  fore  cannon-bone,  1%,  8,  8,  8,  %%,  and  9  inches. 

Circumference  of  arm  just  below  the  elbow,  16^  to  18  inches. 


This  scale  is  drawn  in  inches,  and,  in 
'the  outline,  the  horse  is  supposed  to  be 
fifteen  hands  three  inches,  or  sixty-three 
inches  high.  The  measurements  are  the 
average  of  those  carefully  taken  from  six 
horses  considered  to  be  perfect  of  sym- 
metry. Two  of  these  were  celebrated 
stallions,  two  thoroughbred  hunters,  and 
two  chargers  of  great  value. 

The  scale  which  we  have  given  differs 
in  many  particulars,  though  only  slightly, 
from  that  which  is  usually  found  in  treat- 
ises on  the  horse ;  but  we  have  preferred 


trusting  to  nature  herself  rather  than  to 
the  observations  of  previous  writers,  which 
may  be  consulted  by  the  reader  at  any 
time. 

HORSE,  Maturity.— The  horse  com- 
pletes his  dentition  at  five  years  old,  when 
he  may  be  said  to  be  mature.  At  eight 
or  nine  years  the  lower  teeth  lose  their 
marks  or  black  concavities,  after  which 
there  is  no  reliable  evidence  of  age, 
which  can,  however,  be  tolerably  accu- 
rately guessed  at  from  the  length  of  the 
front  teeth  or  nippers,  and  from  the  gen- 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


*$ 


eral  appearance  of  the  horse,  especially 
rfbout  the  eyes,  as  will  be  hereafter 
shown. 

Mares  are  very  commonly  allowed  to 
breed  in  their  third  year,  being  put  to 
the  horse  at  two  years  old.  They  often, 
however,  come  "  in  season  "  as  yearlings, 
and  many  would  then  breed  if  allowed 
to  be  covered.  It  is  found  by  experience 
that  the  foal  robs  the  dam  of  some  of  the 
nourishment  which  is  destined  by  nature 
to  develop  the  maternal  frame,  and  hence 
the  young  mare  is  injured  in  size  and 
substance  if  she  breeds  before  she  has 
come  very  near  maturity. 

HORSE,  Age,  Average. — The  average 
age  of  the  horse,  when  allowed  to  live 
without  the  risk  of  accidents  and  disease 
which  he  incurs  in  his  usual  work,  is 
about  twenty-five  years.  Instances  of 
greater  longevity  are  recorded  on  good 
authority,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  occasionally  he  has  reached  to  thirty- 
five  or  even  forty  years,  but  these  are 
rare  exceptions,  and  there  are  few  which 
live  beyond  the  twenty-eighth  year,  while 
a  large  proportion  die  before  the  twenty- 
fifth.  Stallions  are  over-fed  and  under- 
exercised  in  proportion,  so  that  it  is  no 
wonder  they  become  diseased,  and  sel- 
dom die  from  old  age ;  but  brood-mares 
are  not  so  mismanaged,  and  it  is  found 
that  they  become  quite  worn  out  soon 
after  their  twentieth  year;  and  even  if 
allowed  to  live  they  waste  away  and  die 
by  degrees,  generally  somewhere  between 
their  twenty-third  and  twenty-eighth  year. 

HORSE,  Moulting  Periodical.  —  The 
horse  sheds  his  coat  once  a  year  in  all 
countries,  and  in  our  climate  a  second 
half-moult  is  performed  in  the  autumn, 
when  the  summer  short  coat  is  partially 
shed.  This  second  change  consists,  how- 
ever, chiefly  in  a  growth  of  the  already 
existing  hairs,  which  become  coarser  and 
longer,  especially  about  the  legs  and  un- 
der-parts  of  the  body.  At  the  same  time 
the  coat  loses  its  gloss,  and  the  color  is 
less  rich,  blacks  becoming  rusty  brown, 
and  bays  more  yellow  or  sandy-colored 
than  before,  The  hair  of  the  mane  and 
tail  is  constantly  in  a  state  of  growth,  and 
is  not  shed  periodically. 

HORSE,  Development  Mental.  —  In 
mental  development  the  horse  ranks  be- 
low the  dog,  but  he  is  capable  of  a  consid- 
erable degree  of  education,  though  in  coun- 


tries where  he  is  kept  constantly  confined 
he  does  not  appear  to  great  advantage  in 
this  respect.  That  he  may  be  made  to 
understand  what  is  said  to  him  is  clear 
enough  from  the  mode  of  managing  farm 
horses,  which  are  all  taught  to  obey  the 
voice.  I  have  on  one  occasion  seen  a 
circus  horse  walk,  trot  and  gallop  at  the 
word  of  command,  and  change  his  pace* 
on  the  instant ;  but  this  feat  I  have  never 
known  performed  by  any  other  exhibitor, 
nor  do  I  think  it  would  easily  be  imitated. 
It  requires  a  high  order  of  intellect  to 
distinguish  between  the  three  paces  and 
change  them  on  the  instant,  and  if  I  had 
not  myself  witnessed  the  performance  on 
two  several  occasions  I  should  scarcely 
have  credited  it.  The  brain  of  this  ani- 
mal does  not  require  much  rest  by  sleep, 
and  four  or  five  hours  in  quiet  are  suffi- 
cient to  keep  him  in  health  if  he  is  not 
very  hard  worked.  He  readily  sleeps 
standing,  and  some  individuals  never  lie 
down ;  but  this  habit  of  sleeping  stand- 
ing should  not  be  encouraged,  as  it  greatly 
distresses  the  legs,  and  tends  to  produce 
fever  of  the  feet,  or  some  other  mischief 
in  the  lower  extremities. 

HORSE,  Stomach,  Small.— One  of  the 
greatest  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the 
horse  is  the  small  size  of  his  stomach,  which 
is  also  of  a  very  simple  nature.  He  is 
likewise  without  a  gall-bladder,  showing 
that  the  digestion  must  be  continuous 
and  not  interrupted  by  distinct  intervals, 
as  in  the  ruminants  and  carnivora.  Na- 
ture has  thus  framed  this  animal,  in  order 
that  he  may  be  at  all  times  able  to  exert 
his  utmost  speed,  which  he  could  not  do 
with  the  mass  of  provender  in  his  stom- 
ach which  is  carried  by  the  cow  or  sheep. 
The  same  provision  is  shown  in  the  udder 
of  the  mare,  which  is  not  larger  than  that 
of  the  goat  or  sheep. 

HORSES,  Breeding  Mares,  best  kind 
of. — First:  Size,  symmetry,  and  sound- 
ness are  mostly  to  be  regarded  in  the 
mare — blood  from  the  sire,  beauty  from 
the  dam,  is  the  golden  rule.  Second: 
She  should  have  a  roomy  frame,  hips 
somewhat  sloping,  a  little  more  than  the 
average  length,  wide-chested,  deep  in  the 
girth,  quarters  strong  and  well  let  down, 
hocks  wide  apart,  wide  and  deep  in  the 
pelvis.  Third:  In  temper  she  should  be 
gentle,  courageous,  free  from  all  irritability 
and  viciousness.     Fourth:   Previous  to 


*4 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


putting  her  to  the  horse,  she  should  be 
brought  into  the  most  perfect  state  of 
health,  not  over-fed,  or  loaded  with  fat, 
or  in  a  pampered  state,  but  by  judicious 
exercise  and  an  abundance  of  nutritious 
food  and  grooming,  she  should  be  in  the 
very  best  condition.  Fifth :  During 
gestation  she  should  have  generous  and 
nourishing,  but  not  heating  diet.  For  the 
iirst  three  or  four  months  she  may  be 
■worked  moderately,  and  even  to  within  a 
few  weeks  of  her  foaling  she  may  do  light 
work  with  advantage  to  her  system. 

HORSES,  Feeding,  directions  for. — 
With  regard  to  mere  farm-horses,  it  is 
usually  the  habit  to  feed  them  entirely  on 
hay  or  cut  straw,  with  now  and  then  a 
mash,  giving  them  little  or  no  oats  or  corn. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  this  is  a  mis- 
take. That  the  value  of  the  work  which 
the  horse  can  do,  and  of  the  horse  him- 
self, arising  from  his  improved  condition 
and  increased  endurance,  will  be  materi- 
ally increased  by  the  diminution  of  the 
quantity  of  the  cheaper  and  less  nutritious 
food  given  to  him,  and  the  addition  of  a 
smaller  or  larger  portion  of  the  more  nu- 
tritive grain,  which  furnishes  stamina  and 
strength  in  a  degree  greatly  in  excess  of 
its  own  increased  value,  may  be  assumed 
as  facts. 

Slow- working  horses  do  not,  of  course, 
require  so  much  nutriment  of  a  high 
quality,  as  those  which  are  called  on  to 
do  quick  work,  and  perform  long  dis- 
tances ;  but,  as  a  rule,  all  animals  which 
have  to  do  hard  work,  and  much  of  it, 
must  necessarily  be  so  kept  as  to  have 
hard  flesh,  and  they  cannot  be  so  kept 
unless  they  are  fed  on  hard  grain. 

HORSES,  how  to  Judge  and  Select- 
Having  found  a  horse  whose  exterior 
conformation,  size,  and  apparent  strength 
seem  suitable  to  your  purpose,  we  will 
now  proceed  to  give  such  information  as 
will  enable  the  buyer,  by  careful  examina- 
tion, to  recognize  those  defects,  blemish- 
es, symptoms,  and  appearances  which 
latent  disease  and  injuries  assume,  and 
thus  prepare  him  to  detect  the  multitudin- 
ous impositions  which  have  been  resorted 
to  by  the  lower  class  of  dealers,  to  dis- 
guise indications  of  unsoundness. 

Unless  proper  precaution  is  used  in  the 
examination  of  horses  for  purchase,  the 
law  will  not  protect  a  man  for  the  conse- 
quences of  his  own  neglect;  and  it  has 


been  held  that  a  warrantry  against  appar- 
ent defects  is  bad  in  law,  the  purchaser 
being  expected  not  only  to  possess  ordi- 
nary skill,  but  to  exhibit  ordinary  cau- 
tion. 

A  defective  horse  is  dear  at  any  price, 
whilst  the  value  of  a  good  one  is,  as  com- 
pared with  a  bad  one,  as  infinity  to  noth- 
ing. In  choosing  a  horse,  let  the  buyer 
be  never  so  good  a  judge,  and  his  inspec- 
tion never  so  minute,  he  must  take  some 
things  on  trust.  A  perfect  knowledge  can 
only  be  obtained  on  trial,  which  should 
always  be  taken,  if  possible,  but  which  is 
not  always  to  be  had.  For  instance, 
some  horses,  when  turned  of  six  or  seven 
years  old,  are  subject  to  a  dry,  chronic 
cough,  which  comes  on  at  uncertain 
times,  perhaps  twice  or  thrice  a  day, 
sometimes  after  feeding  or  drinking;  or 
changes  of  temperature  may  induce  it,  as 
when  he  comes  into  or  goes  out  of  stable. 
Occasionally  a  dose  of  physic,  and  in 
some  cases  a  little  attention  to  his  diet, 
will  prevent  re-occurrence  of  his  cough 
two  or  three  days,  or  even  weeks,  when 
it  will  reappear. 

With  a  respectable  dealer,  after  using 
your  eyes  and  discretion,  you  had  better 
depend  on  the  warrantry,  and  his  charac- 
ter, than  by  any  unnecessary  display  of 
suspicion,  offensively  question  his  honesty. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  trade  is  taken  up  by 
needy  gentlemen  of  good  standing  in  so- 
ciety, and  broken-down  black-legs  of  re- 
spectable connections,  who  are  ever  ready 
to  give  a  warrantry  not  worth  a  dump,  or 
satisfaction  if  you  are  dissatisfied  thereat ; 
if  you  have  reason  to  suspect  the  horse, 
or  his  master,  the  directions  here  laid 
down  will  be  found  useful.  Always  bear 
in  mind  that  the  observation  of  one  symp- 
tom should  induce  the  examiner  to  follow 
up  the  inquiry  into  those  other  symptoms 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  suspected 
disease,  defect,  or  unsoundness. 

The  best  time  to  view  a  horse  is  early 
in  the  morning,  in  the  stables,  as  then  if 
there  is  any  stiffness  in  the  joints,  or  tend- 
ency to  swelled  legs,  it  will  be  most  ap- 
parent. 

The  horse  should  always  be  examined 
from  a  state  of  rest.  If  there  are  any 
symptoms  of  his  having  been  previously 
exercised,  such  as  sweat  about  his  with- 
ers, or  his  legs  have  been  recently  wash- 
ed, it  is  advisable  he  should  be  left  in  his 


HORSE— CARE  AND    MANAGEMENT. 


*5 


stall  till  cool ;  for  there  is  more  than  one 
species  of  lameness,  which  becomes  less 
apparent  after  exercise,  and  where  there 
is  a  tendency  to  swelled  legs,  a  smart  trot 
and  grooming  will  fine  his  legs  and  render 
them  clean. 

This  precautionary  measure  is  more 
especially  to  be  taken  when  you  suspect 
your  man ;  for  in  horse-buying  we  have 
to  deal  with  gentry  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  science  of  imposition  in  all  its 
ramifications.  A  stable  examination  is 
the  best  for  observing  indications  of  wind- 
sucking,  crib-biting,  chronic  cough,  the 
state  of  the  respiration,  and  for  discover- 
ing vice. 

For  this  purpose  always  have  a  horse 
shown  quietly ;  when  there  is  much  noise 
and  bustle  there  is  generally  something 
wrong,  and  when  the  animal  is  agitated, 
slight  lameness  will  escape  the  eye. 

The  first  thing  to  be  observed  is  that 
when  standing  evenly  the  weight  is  thrown 
equally  on  both  feet.  If  there  be  any 
complaint  in  the  fore  feet,  one  will  prob- 
ably be  "  pointed,"  that  is,  extended  be- 
fore the  other,  or  he  will  frequently  alter 
the  position  of  them,  taking  one  up,  and 
setting  the  other  down;  or  the  hind  legs 
will  be  brought  under  the  body  to  relieve 
the  fore  feet  of  some  portion  of  the  weight. 
Any  of  these  symptoms  will  direct  your 
attention  to  the  feet  when  you  see  him 
out. 

To  judge  of  his  respiration,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  be  acquainted  with  the  indications 
of  health.  Observe  if  the  flank  alternately 
rises  and  falls  with  regularity.  In  health 
the  respiration  of  the  horse  is  from  four 
to  eight  per  minute,  average  six  in  the 
day  time ;  during  sleep  it  is  seldom  more 
than  four.  If  quicker  than  ordinary,  it 
betokens  present  fever ;  other  symptoms 
will  be  developed,  such  as  increased 
pulse,  heat  of  mouth  and  dullness,  while 
the  delicate  pink  appearance  which  the 
membrane  covering  the  partition  of  the 
nostrils  assumes  in  health,  will  be  in- 
creased in  color. 

But  if  none  of  these  symptoms  of  ill 
health  are  present,  and  yet  the  horse 
heaves  at  the  flank  more  than  ordinary, 
if  the  weather  be  moderate,  and  the  sta- 
ble not  oppressively  hot,  it  is  probable 
such  a  horse  is  thick-winded. 

When  inspiration  appears  to  be  per- 
formed readily  and  quickly  as  in  health 


by  a  single  action,  but  expiration  with 
difficulty  by  an  irregular  and  prolonged 
movement,  or  double  action,  the  respira- 
tory muscles  appearing  as  if  interrupted 
in  the  act  of  expelling  the  air,  and  then 
the  flank  drops  suddenly,  it  is  a  symptom 
of  broken  wind.  His  cough  should  then 
be  tried.  The  cough  of  a  broken- winded 
horse  is  a  peculiar  Tow,  hollow  grunt,  diffi- 
cult to  describe,  but  when  once  heard 
easily  recognized. 

The  cough  can  generally  be  elicited 
by  pinching  the  larynx  or  trachea,  though 
occasionally  this  fails,  for  some  sound  as 
well  as  broken-winded  horses  cannot  be 
made  to  cough  at  all.  In  these  cases, 
when  there  is  any  irregularity  in  the 
movement  of  the  flank,  which  would  lead 
to  the  suspicion  of  broken  wind,  and 
there  is  unusual  hardness  of  the  wind- 
pipe, which  does  not  give  way  on  pinch- 
ing, it  may  be  taken  as  a  symptom  of 
disorganization,  in  addition  to  the  broken 
wind. 

If  the  hair  is  rubbed  off  in  some,  espe- 
cially about  the  head,  flanks  and  tail,  or 
he  is  observed  rubbing  himself  against 
the  sides  of  the  stall,  there  is  danger  of 
his  being  mangy;  and  in  this  case  his 
coat  will  be  found  rough  and  staring. 

The  absence  of  the  vice  of  kicking  and 
biting  may  be  inferred  from  the  manner 
of  the  groom  when  entering  the  stall, 
and  by  the  quiet  method  with  which  he 
unclothes  and  dusts  him  over  and  combs 
out  his  mane  and  tail.  If  he  be  a  biter, 
his  head  will  probably  be  tied  short  to 
the  neck,  or  the  groom  will  seize  hold  of 
him  short  by  the  halter  or  bridle,  some- 
times giving  him  a  shake  or  looking 
sternly  at  him.  Desire  to  see  his  hind 
and  fore  feet,  and  by  the  manner  in  which 
he  permits  the  groom  to  lift  them,  a  guess 
may  be  made  as  to  his  quietness  to  groom 
his  heels  or  shoe. 

While  the  horse  is  in  the  act  of  being  led 
out  of  the  stable  to  the  light,  closely  ob- 
serve his  manner  and  action ;  if  the  ears 
move  in  quick  changes  of  direction,  as  if 
alarmed  at  every  noise,  and  he  hangs 
back  on  the  halter,  raising  his  feet  higher 
than  ordinary,  and  putting  them  down  as 
if  fearful  and  uncertain  of  his  step,  it 
leads  us  to  suspect  his  eyes,  though  some- 
times these  symptoms  will  be  observed 
when  the  eyes  are  perfect,  if  the  stable 
has  been  a  dark  one. 


i6 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


When  the  horse  is  shewn  out,  notice  if 
he  stands  firm  on  his  feet,  with  his  weight 
thrown  boldly  on  his  back  sinews  and 
pasterns.  If  there  is  any  appearance  of 
shaking  or  tottering  of  the  fore  limbs,  in- 
dicative of  grogginess,  it  will  be  endeav- 
ored to  be  diguised  by  the  groom  con- 
tinually pulling  at  the  bit  to  make  him 
shift  his  legs  and  stand  advantageously. 
A  lame  horse  is  never  permitted  to  stand 
still  a  moment,  and  the  groom,  though 
pretending  to  soothe,  is  in  reality  agitat- 
ing him,  while  the  shrewd  and  crafty  sel- 
ler will  most  probably  endeavor  to  with- 
draw your  scrutiny  from  the  defective 
point  by  calling  your  attention  to  his 
spirit  or  playfulness.  If  any  of  these 
maneuvers  are  apparent,  be  upon  your 
guard.  The  groggy  horse  inclines  a  lit- 
tle forward  at  the  knee,  or  it  is  readily 
bent  by  the  least  touch  behind,  he  rests 
his  weight  on  his  toes,  and  when  stand- 
ing undisturbed  brings  his  hind  legs  un- 
der him.  Some  young  horses,  before  they 
had  been  backed,  have  this  deformity 
from  malformation  of  the  knee ;  but  if,  in 
addition  to  this  bending  forward,  there  is 
any  tremulous  motion  of  the  limbs,  it  is 
a  decided  proof  of  the  existence  of  that 
most  destructive  affection,  Navicular  dis- 
ease. Whatever  his  age,  he  should  be  re- 
jected.  Never  buy  a  tottering  horse. 

Another  deception  is  effected  by  stand- 
ing a  horse  up  hill ;  the  shoulder  is  made 
more  sloping,  and  dealers,  to  give  that 
appearance,  desire  the  near  leg  to  stand 
before  the  other. 

Though  the  dealer  is  perfectly  justified 
in  these  little  maneuvers  to  show  off  his 
goods  to  the  best  advantage,  more  espe- 
cially in  so  fancy  an  article  as  a  horse, 
which  is  no  more  than  is  done  and  al- 
lowed by  every  tradesman,  the  prudent 
purchaser  will  not  please  his  eye  at  the 
expense  of  his  judgment,  but  see  the 
horse  on  level  ground,  and  with  his  feet 
placed  even. 

If  one  foot  is  more  upright  than  the 
other,  that  foot  is  diseased;  the  same 
weight  is  not  thrown  on  it,  and  the  horse 
never  shams ;  if  it  is  of  a  different  tem- 
perature, active  disease  is  going  on ;  if  an 
old  standing  complaint,  the  feet  will  be 
found  of  different  size,  and  possibly  the 
muscles  of  the  arm  and  shoulder  dimin- 
ished in  size. 

Taking  our  position  in  front  of  the 


horse,  we  examine  his  fore  legs;  that 
they  are  in  proper  position ;  that  there  is 
no  weakness  in  the  pasterns,  or  enlarge- 
ment of  the  fetlocks ;  and  that  the  feet 
are  of  the  same  size,  and  stand  square  to< 
the  front. 

We  judge  of  the  general  state  of  the 
animal's  health  by  his  breathing  condi- 
tion, the  brightness  of  his  eye,  the  color 
of  the  membrane  lining  the  lid,  and  that, 
of  the  membrane  lining  the  nostril,  which 
in  health  is  of  a  pale  pink.  If  it  is  a  florid 
red,  there  is  excitement  of  the  system ; 
and  if  it  is  pale,  approaching  to  white,  it 
is  a  sign  of  debility. 

Each  nostril  should  be  alternately 
closed  by  the  hand  to  ascertain  that  the 
air  passages  are  not  obstructed  by  poly- 
pus, or  enlargement  of  the  turbinated 
bones. 

If  there  is  any  increased  discharge  from 
the  nostrils,  you  will  probably  be  told  it 
proceeds  from  slight  cold;  in  that  case, 
an  accelerated  pulse  and  affection  of  the 
eyes  are  usually  concomitants;  neverthe- 
less, as  a  precautionary  measure,  the 
branches  of  the  under  jaw  should  be  felt, 
for  enlargement  of  the  glands ;  if,  although, 
enlarged,  they  are  moveable  and  tender, 
it  is  probably  nothing  more  than  a  catar- 
rhal affection.  And  here  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  observe  that  in  deciding  upon  the: 
disease  with  which  the  horse  is  afflicted,, 
it  is  requisite  to  bear  in  mind  the  age  of 
the  animal.  In  examining  the  head  of  a 
young  horse,  should  the  space  between 
the  branches  be  hot,  tumid  and  tender, 
the  membrane  of  the  nose  intensely  red,, 
with  profuse  discharge  from  both  nostrils, 
and  cough  and  fever  present  itself,  we 
maymore  than  suspect  strangles.  Where, 
however,  there  is  neither  cough  or  fever, 
but  one  nostril,  and  that  the  left,  affected, 
the  discharge  lighter  in  color,  and  almost 
transparent,  yet  clammy  and  sticky,  and 
the  gland  on  that  side  adherent  to  the 
jaw  bone,  glanders  is  indicated.  In  this 
case,  should  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
nostril  be  found  pale,  or  of  a  leaden  color, 
with  small  circular  ulcers,  having  abrupt 
and  prominent  edges,  there  can  be  no 
second  opinion  on  the  subject. 

But  we  caution  the  inexperienced  ex- 
aminer not  to  mistake  the  orifice  of  the 
nasal  duct,  which  is  situated  in  the  inner 
side,  just  within  the  nostril  on  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  common  skin  of  the  muz- 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


*7 


zle,  and  which  conveys  the  tears  from  the 
eye  into  the  nose,  for  an  ulcer;  and  warn 
him,  in  all  suspicious  cases,  to  be  careful 
he  has  no  chaps  or  sore  places  on  his 
head  or  face;  as  this  dreadful  disease  is 


Fig.  3.— At  One  Year  Old, 


Fig.  5.— At  Three  Years  Old. 


Fig.  7.— At  Five  Years  Old, 


man,  in  case  any  of  these  symptoms  make 
their  appearance  after  purchase. 

His  crest  should  feel  hard  and  full, 
and  firmly  and  closely  attached  to  his 
neck ;  if  it  be  lax,  he  is  out  of  condition. 


Fig.  4.— At  Two  Years  Old- 


Fig.  6.— At  Four  Years  Olev 


Fig.  8.— At  Six  Years  Old. 


Fig.  9. — At  Seven  Years  Old.  Fig.  10. — At  Eight  Years  Old. 

AGE  CF  THE  HORSE,   AS  INDICATED  BY  THE  TEETH. 


unquestionably  communicable  to  the  hu- 
man being.  As  few  persons  will  buy  a 
horse  with  any  symptoms  of  actual  dis- 
ease, however  slight,  if  they  can  help  it, 
the  inquiry  is  better  left  to  a  professions1 


His  skin  should  feel  kind,  and  look  glossy, 
and  the  muscles  of  the  body  feel  hard  and 
spongy  to  the  touch.  In  the  old  horse 
the  head  grows  lean  and  fine,  and  the 
features  more  striking  and  blood-like,  the. 


i8 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


neck  fine,  withers  short,  and  the  back 
sinks ;  the  lips  exhibit  a  lean  and  shrivel- 
led appearance,  and  the  lower  lip  hangs 
considerably  below  the  upper.  In  youth 
they  are  round  and  plump,  and  meet  to- 
gether, and  the  ridges  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  will  be  found  prominent.  In  age, 
the  middle  of  the  nose  will  sometimes  be 
found  indented  by  the  long-continued 
pressure  of  the  nose-band  of  the  head- 
stall. In  lifting  his  lip,  if  the  incision 
teeth  shut  close,  even,  and  are  perpen- 
dicular, he  is  young.  As  he  grows  older 
they  project  forward  in  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion, and  the  upper  and  under  edges  do 
not  meet  with  evenness,  the  upper  pro- 
jecting over  the  under  teeth.  The  longer 
his  teeth  are,  the  gums  being  dry  and 
shrunk  from  them,  the  more  advanced  he 
is  in  age. 

This  appearance  of  his  teeth  cannot  be 
altered  by  the  arts  of  the  dealer.  In 
youth  the  teeth  are  flattened  at  front  and 
rear,  and  long  from  side  to  side;  at  eight 
years  old  they  are  oval ;  as  age  advances 
they  become  round,  and  in  extreme  old 
age  triangular,  yellow  and  incrusted,  and 
the  tusks  become  blunt. 

If  there  are  any  marks  of  extraordinary 
wear  in  the  central  teeth,  there  is  reason 
to  suspect  crib-biting,  and  in  old  cribbers, 
the  outer  edge  of  the  front  teeth  are  worn 
away,  and  little  pieces  are  sometimes 
broken  off  by  the  attrition  against  the 
manger ;  if  such  is  the  case,  look  to  the 
neck  for  marks  of  the  "crib-biting  strap." 

Dishonest  dealers  attempt  to  disguise 
age,  by  reproducing  the  mark  in  the  cor- 
ner teeth  by  means  of  a  hot  iron  or  caus- 
tic. The  fraud  is  easily  detected  by  a 
horseman,  as  it  is  usually  over-done,  and 
the  marks  do  not  correspond  with  the 
length,  shape,  and  duration  of  the  teeth, 
and  the  "  bishoped"  horse  is  usually  loth 
to  have  his  mouth  meddled  with. 

Having  attentively  looked  over  the 
horse  as  he  stands,  and  discovered  noth- 
ing objectionable  to  the  eye,  it  is  prudent 
to  see  him  through  his  paces,  before  pro- 
ceeding to  ascertain,  by  careful  examina- 
tion, what  defects,  blemishes,  etc.,  which 
may  have  a  tendency  to  produce  un- 
soundness, he  is  afflicted  with;  as  the 
action  of  a  horse,  when  closely  observed, 
guides  us  to  his  defective  points. 

He  should  first  be  walked,  and  then 
trotted,  without  any  whip  near  him,  slow- 


ly down  the  ride,  allowing  the  animal  to 
have  the  whole  of  the  halter  to  himself; 
his  head  will  then  be  entirely  uncon- 
strained, and  any  irregularities  in  his 
action  are  easily  detected. 

The  action  should  be  scrutinized  most 
attentively  immediately  he  steps  off,  as 
defects  are  then  most  visible,  for  not  un- 
frequently  lameness  disappears  after  a  few 
moments'  exercise. 

Should  one  of  the  fore  feet  be  much 
affected,  it  will  be  evident,  by  the  up 
and  down  motion  of  the  head,  and  the 
different  degree  of  force  with  which  he 
puts  his  feet  to  the  ground.  Horses  that 
are  lame  before,  drop  their  heads  when 
stepping  on  the  sound  leg,  and  raise  it 
when  the  weight  is  thrown  on  the  lame 
leg ;  but  when  they  are  lame  behind,  the 
action  (though  not  perceptible)  is  re- 
versed; they  throw  up  their  head  a  little 
when  the  sound  leg  comes  to  the  ground, 
and  depress  it  when  the  lame  leg  propels 
the  body,  and  the  motion  of  the  lame  leg 
is  slow,  while  the  sound  one  is  jerked 
quickly  forward  to  sustain  the  weight. 

When  both  fore  feet  are  equally  tender 
(which  is  not  uncommon  in  groggy  horses) 
it  is  more  difficult  to  judge  of  his  action ; 
it  is  not  uneven,  and  the  limp  is  not  per- 
ceptible, but  he  steps  short  and  feelingly, 
with  a  general  appearance  of  contraction. 
Dishonest  dealers,  at  fairs  and  auctions, 
resort  to  a  scheme  by  which  groggy  lame- 
ness in  one  leg  is  disguised  by  making  the 
motion  even.  It  is  known  in  various 
parts  by  the  slang  terms  of  diamonding, 
beaning,  balancing,  or  wedging. 

It  is  performed  by  removing  the  shoe 
of  the  sound  foot,  and  paring  out  the  sole 
until  it  yields  to  the  pressure  of  the  thumb. 
The  shoe  is  then  replaced,  and  a  wedge 
of  wood,  a  pebble,  or  a  bean  is  driven  in 
between  the  sole  and  shoe,  until  sufficient  i 
pain  is  produced  to  make  the  horse  equal- 
ly lame  on  both  legs.  Although  the  lame- 
ness is  less  evident,  yet  a  person  accus- 
tomed to  the  action  of  horses,  will  easily 
detect  it,  and  if  the  animal  is  allowed  to 
stand  undisturbed,  it  will  be  evident  some- 
thing is  wrong  by  his  repeatedly  shifting 
his  legs. 

Another  trick  of  these  ruffians,  resorted 
to  to  conceal  lameness,  or  to  give  an  ap- 
pearance of  energy  to  the  sluggard  or 
worn-out  horse,  is  the  torture  of  the  lash, 
termed  firing.     The   poor   animal,   pre- 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


19 


viously  to  being  shown,  is  so  barbarously 
flagellated,  that  under  the  influence  of 
terror  of  the  further  application  of  the 
whip,  his  attention  is  withdrawn  from  the 
disease,  he  feels  not  the  lesser  pain,  but 
trots  off  heedless  of  his  lameness,  or  at 
least  showing  it  much  less.  Whenever 
there  is  much  punishment,  or  a  threat  of 
it,  while  showing  a  horse,  be  sure  there 

IS  SOMETHING  TO  CONCEAL. 

In  his  trot,  if  the  action  is  good,  the 
foot  is  boldly  delivered  with  what  may  be 
almost  termed  an  allegro  movement.  Its 
course  is  straightforward  and  downward, 
not  dishing  to  either  side;  the  motion 
should  be  from  the  elbow  as  well  as  the 
knee;  the  hind  legs  gathered  well  under 
the  body,  following  with  regularity  and 
precision ;  the  toes  fairly  raised  from  the 
ground,  and  spread  pretty  accurately  in 
the  impress  of  the  fore  feet;  if  they  pass 
beyond,  they  are  likely  to  over-reach. 
In  the  trot,  he  should  go  lightly  with  the 
fore  feet,  but  strike  the  ground  energetic- 
ally with  the  hind,  taking  a  long,  darting 
stride,  and  shooting,  as  it  were,  the  body 
forward. 

In  trotting,  the  horse  that  throws  his 
legs  confusedly  about  should  be  rejected, 
for  though  most  young  and  uneducated 
horses  have  an  ungraceful  and  disorderly 
action,  the  sluggard  is  never  precise  and 
uniform  in  his  trot. 

In  criticising  action,  attention  must  be 
paid  to  breed,  but  it  should  be  sufficiently 
high  in  a  hack  to  clear  all  ordinary  ir- 
regularities on  the  ground;  if  it  is  very 
high,  look  out  for  trace  of  having  worn  a 
knee-cap.  Be  careful  to  observe  that  he 
does  not  occasionally  drop ;  a  casual  giv- 
ing way  on  either  leg,  in  the  trot,  is  a  suf- 
ficient hint  to  reject  the  animal;  he  will 
certainly  fail  when  put  to  work. 

Though  the  best  horses  may  stumble, 
if,  after  tripping,  he  springs  out  as  if  he 
feared  the  whip  or  spur,  you  may  justly 
suspect  him  to  be  an  old  offender,  which 
will  induce  you  to  look  to  his  knees  and 
head.  Observe  that  he  goes  clear  in  all 
his  paces,  and  that  one  leg  does  not  in- 
terfere with  the  other;  horses  that  go 
very  near  are  more  likely  to  cut  when 
tired. 

•  The  carriage  of  the  head  and  tail  are 
points  to  which  the  eye  of  a  good  judge 
will  be  directed.  If  the  tail  goes  to  and 
fro  when  in  action,  like  the  pendulum  of 


I  a  clock,  it  is  a  good  sign  of  blood  and 
steadiness. 

He  should  now  be  mounted,  and  the 
trial  be  repeated  on  the  stones  or  hard 
road,  or  what  is  preferable,  on  a  rough 
and  stony  declivity;  for  there  are  many 
cases  of  slight  lameness  which  do  not 
show  on  soft  ground,  at  a  walking  pace, 
or  when  the  horse  is  unburdened.  If  he 
step  away  boldly,  the  toe  in  a  direct  line 
with  the  body,  the  knee  fairly  bent,  and 
his  foot  up  and  planted  firmly  down 
again  on  the  ground,  fearlessly  and  flat, 
without  any  dropping  of  his  head,  you 
may  conclude  him  sound  in  action.  His 
hind  legs,  well  lifted  up  and  tucked  well 
under  him,  should  follow  his  fore  legs 
with  regularity ;  and  if  in  running  him  up 
hill  he  goes  without  dragging  his  toe,  you 
may  infer  the  same  behind.  In  the  gal- 
lop, if  he  takes  up  his  legs  quick  and 
dashes  in  his  haunches,  not  bringing  his 
hind  legs  after  him,  his  action  is  good. 
During  this  display  of  action,  the  exami- 
nant  will  have  an  opportunity  of  judging 
of  the  perfection  of  his  wind ;  if  he  does 
not  ride  the  animal  himself,  he  should 
stand  close  to  the  horse  at  the  moment 
he  comes  into  the  gallop. 

The  thick-winded  horse  breathes  with 
difficulty  and  is  soon  distressed.  The 
flanks  heave  much  and  rapidly ;  there  is 
some  little  noise ;  but  the  laborious  heav- 
ing of  the  flank  is  the  principal  indica- 
tion. A  horse  unused  to  exercise,  or  if 
fat,  or  exercised  on  a  full  stomach,  will 
show  symptoms  of  thick  wind;  and  it 
has  been  observed  of  great  feeders,  who 
never  breathe  freely  until  they  have  gone 
a  mile  or  two,  or  begin  to  sweat,  that 
they  are  able  to  do  more  work  than  others 
that  do  not  labor  under  the  same  diffi- 
culty. 

The  wheezer,  in  addition  to  being  thick- 
winded,  utters  a  sound  like  an  asmathic 
person  when  a  little  hurried.  Wheezing 
may  frequently  be  heard  while  at  rest  in 
the  stable. 

The  piper  or  whistler  utters  a  shriller 
sound  than  the  wheezer,  but  it  is  only 
heard  after  exercise,  and  that  of  some 
continuance;  a  short  gallop  up  hill  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  develop  it,  but 
the  whistler  is  soon  distressed.  "  Never 
buy  a  whistler;  he  cannot  improve  on 
your  hand,  and  he  is  almost  sure  to  get 
worse,"  said  Sir  Henry  Peyton  to   Nun- 


20 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


rod,  an  opinion  to  which  we  most  cordially 
subscribe ;  .and  the  same  advice  may  be 
given  of  all  these  affections  of  the  air 
passages. 

Roaring  is  not  heard  at  rest.  In  the 
majority  it  is  only  developed  by  exertion, 
which  quickens  the  breathing,  and  the 
noise  is  increased  in  proportion  as  the 
pace  is  accelerated,  though  in  a  few  it  is 
audible  as  soon  as  put  into  the  trot. 
Knowing  dealers,  who  wish  to  prevent 
the  noise  from  reaching  the  ears  of  an 
experienced  purchaser,  when  showing  a 
"  Bull "  of  good  action,  start  the  horse 
a  considerable  distance  before  putting 
him  to  the  gallop,  and  in  returning  slacken 
the  pace,  so  that  the  breathing  becomes 
tranquil  before  the  horse  reaches  the  ex- 
aminer ;  this  is  called  "  coming  the  long 
trot."  Many  of  these  lesions  are  conse- 
quences of  inflamed  lungs  or  diseased 
alterations  of  the  air  passages,  and  most 
of  them  are  modifications  of  the  same 
disease.  Sometimes  they  exist  in  so  slight 
a  degree  as  to  be  discoverable  only  by 
quick  and  long-continued  exertion ;  but, 
when  suspected,  they  should  be  tried  by 
a  brushing  gallop,  though  this  is  not  al- 
ways allowed. 

The  only  other  simple  and  practicable 
plan  to  get  at  the  state  of  the  breathing 
is  the  common  way  of  making  the  horse 
cough,  which,  if  gross  and  accompanied 
by  a  short  groan,  is  conclusive,  and  the 
characteristic  grunt,  when  alarmed,  is  not 
to  be  misunderstood.  But  the  cough  is 
not  always  marked,  and,  therefore,  not 
infallible.  If,  therefore,  there  is  any  cause 
for  doubt  and  suspicion,  it  is  better  to 
call  in  a  professional  man,  more  especi- 
ally as  the  slighter  affections  are  apt  sud- 
denly to  terminate  in  the  greater,  without 
much  warning,  in  a  very  short  time. 

We  now  proceed  to  search  for  blem- 
ishes and  those  indications  of  unsound- 
ness, which  are  apparent  to  external  ex- 
amination, bearing  in  mind  any  symptoms 
or  suspicious  appearances  in  his  action, 
that  may  lead  us  to  suspect  particular 
parts,  which  should  then  be  subjected  to 
the  severest  scrutiny. 

Any  scars  about  the  head  should  direct 
attention  to  the  knees,  or  they  may  lead 
one  to  suspect  there  may  have  been  an 
attack  of  megrims  or  staggers. 

The  neck  should  be  searched  to  ascer- 
tain that  both  jugular  veins  are  perfect, 


which  is  discovered  by  pressing  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  neck,  with  sufficient 
force  to  stop  the  return  of  blood  from  the 
head ;  if  the  vein  be  perfect,  it  will  fill 
and  swell  from  that  point  upward  toward 
the  head.  The  loss  of  one  of  them,  if 
recent,  predisposes  the  horse  to  staggers 
or  apoplexy,  and  he  cannot  be  turned  out 
to  grass  or  straw  yard  without  risk.  The 
withers  should  be  examined  for  bruises 
from  the  saddle,  as  he  is  unserviceable  as 
long  as  heat  or  swelling  continues. 

The  slightest  tendency  to  sore  back 
makes  a  horse  unserviceable  for  many 
months,  and  not  unfrequently  causes  him 
to  rear  and  plunge  on  mounting. 

The  shoulders  should  be  examined  for 
tumors.  If  there  are  any  marks  of  setons 
or  blisters  about  the  points,  it  is  probable 
he  has  been  treated  for  shoulder  lame- 
ness, and  the  attention  of  the  examinant 
will  be  directed  to  the  foot,  which,  ninety- 
nine  times  out  of  a  hundred,  is  the  seat 
of  lameness  before.  If  that  is  found 
round  and  strong,  with  the  heels  high,  we 
may  suspect  navicular  disease. 

The  chest  and  breast  should  also  be 
searched  for  marks  of  rowels,  setons  and 
blisters,  for  the  remains  of  them  render 
it  probable  that  the  horse  has  been  under 
treatment  for  inflamed  lungs  or  chest  af- 
fections, and  should  in  prudence  direct  the 
purchaser  to  ascertain  by  a  smart  gallop 
whether  the  mischief  is  of  a  permanent 
nature,  more  especially  if  the  horse  is 
narrow-chested. 

The  knees  should  be  examined  with 
the  utmost  care — first,  that  they  correspond 
in  shape;  and  secondly,  to  ascertain  whe- 
ther the  skin  has  been  broken  by  falls  ; 
but  it  does  not  follow  that  a  mark  or  scar 
indicates  a  stumbler,  and  an  accidental 
blemish  should  not  induce  us  at  once  to 
condemn  a  well-formed  animal. 

A  broken  knee  may  happen  from  a 
variety  of  causes.  The  safest  horse  may 
fall  by  an  unavoidable  accident,  such  as 
a  false  step,  from  any  thing  giving  way  un- 
der the  foot,  as  a  round  stone,  from  fatigue 
and  over-exertion,  or  from  a  bad  rider. 
But  a  broken  knee  is  a  suspicious  circum- 
stance; it  may  be  taken  as  an  indication 
of  existing  or  recent  unsoundness,  and 
the  slightest  mark,  calls  for  the  most  care- 
ful observation  of  every  part  of  the  horse, 
of  his  make  and  action,  and  suggests  the 
narrowest  scrutiny  of  the  legs  and  feet ; 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


21 


a  tight  shoe,  a  nail  driven  too  close,  or 
from  bad  shoeing.  The  toe  being  left  too 
long  open,  causes  a  horse  to  trip,  tender- 
ness in  the  feet,  contraction,  groggy  lame- 
ness, corns  and  thrush;  a  scar  on  the 
head  above  the  eye  (for  a  decided  fall  of 
the  horse  leaves  unequivocal  signs  there) 
is  a  suspicious  sign;  when  no  trace  of 
local  disease  can  be  found  to  account  for 
them,  the  inquiry  should  be  followed  up 
into  the  horse's  constitution,  for  the  stag- 
gers or  megrins  may  have  occasioned  the 
accident. 

When  a  scar  on  the  knee  is  observed 
in  connection  with  low  withers,  a  thick 
and  upright  shoulder  and  pasterns,  with 
the  legs  inclined  under  the  bone,  he  is 
unwise  who  does  not  take  the  hint  that 
the  faulty  formation  has  not  produced  its 
natural  consequence.  To  discover  the 
integrity  of  the  kr.se,  is  not  so  easy  as 
some  suppose,  a  -^asionally  the  hair 
grows  so  well  over  h  .  wound,  as  to  leave 
it  hardly  discernible;  but  on  minute  in- 
spection, when  there  has  been  a  scar,  an 
interception  of  the  gloss  is  apparent,  as  if 
the  hair  grew  in  an  oblique  direction ; 
should  this  be  observed  on  bending  the 
joint,  the  secret  will  be  exposed. 

The  shank  should  be  examined  for 
splint,  strained  or  enlarged  flexors,  and 
the  marks  of  firing  or  blisters. 

In  inspecting  the  leg,  the  eye  alone 
should  not  be  trusted,  particularly  in 
hairy-legged  horses;  but  after  minutely 
comparing  the  appearance  of  the  two 
limbs,  the  hand  should  be  deliberately 
passed  down  both  shanks  before  and  be- 
hind ;  any  difference  before,  or  behind, 
points  to  a  deviation  from  health. 

In  the  sound  flat  limb,  the  tendon  is 
well  denned,  perfectly  distinct,  and  has 
a  hard,  tense  feel  that  resembles  the  touch 
of  a  cord  tightly  strung.  If  *he  back 
sinews  feel  thick,  the  flexor  tendons  and 
their  sheaths  swelled  and  rounded,  leav- 
ing no  distinctive  marks  as  it  were  be- 
tween the  one  and  the  other,  but  all 
swelled  into  one  mass  with  the  bone, 
great  mischief  has  at  some  time  happen- 
ed; either  some  of  the  ligaments  have 
been  ruptured,  or  there  has  been  inflam- 
mation, effusion,  and  adhesion  of  the  va- 
ginial  bursse,  or  synovial  sheaths  of  the 
flexor  tendons;  or  such  relaxation  has 
taken  place  from  strain  and  subsequent 
inflammation   as  will   always   keep  him 


weak.  When  the  injury  is  recent,  it  is 
accompanied  with  more  or  less  swelling, 
heat  and  lameness;  by  time  and  treat- 
ment the  first  are  removed,  but  the  swell- 
ing remains,  and  the  thickening  of  the 
tendons  shows  the  mischief  that  has  been 
done.  Whenever  there  is  manifest  altera- 
tion of  structure  here,  and  yet  the  animal 
is  apparently  sound  in  action,  the  pur- 
chaser should  bear  in  mind  that  the 
soundness  is  often  the  effect  of  rest,  and 
should  the  animal  be  again  put  to  work 
he  will  become  lame.  And  bear  in  mind 
in  such  case  you  cannot  return  him,  for 
no  man  in  his  senses  would  give  a  special 
warrantry  against  it. 

Splints,  if  large,  are  apparent  by  the 
deviation  of  the  outline  of  the  leg;  if 
small,  the  hand  discovers  them. 

Every  excrescence  on  the  cannon 
bone,  in  horseman's  language,  is  termed 
a  splint.  The  true  splint  is  in  fact  a  local 
conversion  into  bone  of  a  part  of  the  tem- 
porary cartilage,  connecting  together  the 
large  and  small  metacarpal  bones.  The 
inflammation  is  set  up  by  concussion  or 
strain.  Horses  are  lame  from  them  while 
there  is  inflammation  in  the  cartilage. 
But  when  the  tumor  is  formed,  the  inflam- 
mation has  subsided,  and  the  periostrum 
has  accommodated  itself  to  the  enlarge- 
ment, the  horse  is  no  longer  lame,  nor 
more  likely  to  become  lame  from  that 
splint  than  one  without ;  the  same  causes 
that  produced  the  first,  may  produce 
a  second. 

The  splint,  if  so  large  as  to  interfere 
with  action,  rendering  the  horse  liable  to 
strike,  is  objectionable,  or  so  near  the 
knee  or  ligaments  as  to  interfere  with 
their  freedom  of  action ;  otherwise  they 
are  of  very  little  consequence  beyond  the 
blemish  destroying  the  line  of  beauty. 
The  worst  splints  are  those  not  discern- 
ible but  by  the  lameness  they  produce. 

Any  marks  of  firing  or  blistering  should 
make  the  purchaser  cautious,  and  en- 
deavor to  ascertain  the  cause  of  the  treat- 
ment; after  blistering,  the  hair  is  some- 
times a  shade  different  in  color,  and  stares 
a  little,  is  shorter  and  bristly,  and  wants 
the  natural  gloss. 

The  fetlock  joint,  from  being  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  motion  below  the  kaee,  and 
from  its  complicated  structure,  is  particu- 
larly subject  to  injuries.  The  fetlock 
should  be  subjected  to  the  strictest  ex- 


22 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


amination  for  enlargements,  which  are 
best  ascertained  by  carefully  comparing 
them  with  each  other,  as  any  difference 
in  size  is  indicative  of  strained  or  even 
ruptured  ligaments,  and  consequently 
permanent  weakness  of  that  important 
part. 

If  the  injury  is  recent,  there  probably 
will  be  heat,  and  pain  on  pressure;  and 
any  signs  of  blistering  or  other  treatment, 
though  no  enlargement  or  lameness  is 
apparent,  should  induce  the  buyer  to  view 
the  animal  with  the  utmost  suspicion. 

If  there  are  any  sore  or  callous  places 
about  the  fetlocks  or  pasterns,  he  is  a  cut- 
ter, and  possibly  the  marks  of  the  foot 
may  be  visible.  If  there  is  no  malforma- 
tion to  account  for  it,  it  may  have  been 
done  when  fatigued,  or  it  may  have  arisen 
from  improper  shoeing ;  his  feet  should 
then  be  examined. 

If  an  old  offence,  he  may  probably 
have  a  peculiar  shoe,  rather  thicker  and 
narrower  in  the  web  on  the  inside  than 
the  outside,  and  nailed  only  on  the  out- 
side of  the  foot,  and  round  the  toe ;  or  the 
opposite  shoe  is  found  filed  away  or  bevel- 
ed off,  with  the  hoof  projecting  a  little 
over  the  shoe.  Where  the  feet,  though 
well  formed,  are  placed  closer  than  de- 
sirable in  narrow-chested  horses,  and 
therefore  apt  to  cut,  particularly  when 
tired,  we  sometimes  find  a  shoe  is  adopt- 
ed thinner  on  the  inside  than  the  out- 
side. 

At  other  times  various  ingenious  de- 
vices, calculated  rather  to  increase  than 
remedy  the  evil,  have  been  resorted  to, 
such  as  putting  on  shoes  narrower  on  the 
inside,  and  set  within  the  crust,  and  the 
wall  of  the  quarters  reduced  in  thickness 
by  the  rasp.  If  none  of  these  schemes 
have  been  resorted  to,  to  obviate  the  de- 
fect, the  horn  of  the  opposite  foot  will 
sometimes  be  found  polished  by  the  attri- 
tion, for  it  is  not  the  shoe  that  cuts  once 
in  a  hundred  times,  but  the  hoof.  In 
horses  that  interfere,  we  generally  find 
the  inside  quarter  lower  than  the  outer, 
or  the  toes  turned  outwards — the  fault 
being  in  the  leg  that  receives  the  mischief 
while  sustaining  the  weight,  not  in  the 
foot  that  gives  the  blow.  The  tired  horse 
throws  his  legs  about,  and  frequently  cuts 
himself;  and  it  is  the  fault  of  most  young, 
uneducated  horses,  especially  if  they  have 


been  backed  or  inconsiderately  worked 
too  early. 

If  there  are  any  symptoms  of  knuckling 
or  inclination  of  the  fetlocks  forward,, 
serious  injury -has  happened. 

The  hair  above  and  below  the  fetlock 
joint  should  be  carefully  searched  for  the 
scars  left  by  the  operation  of  neurotomy 
(the  division  of  the  nerves  that  supply  the 
foot  with  sensation) ;  pricking  the  fetlock 
with  a  pin  if  you  have  reason  to  suspect 
it  has  been  destroyed.  About  the  fetlocks 
are  frequently  found  little  puffy  tumors, 
absurdly  denominated  wind-galls,  from  a 
supposition  of  the  farrier  that  they  con- 
tained wind. 

Whenever  parts  move  and  press  on 
each  other,  and  between  tendons,  par- 
ticularly about  the  extremities,  there  are 
placed  little  vesicles,  or  shut  socks,  techni- 
cally termed  bursas  mucosae,  containing 
synovia,  or  joint-oil,  a  lubricating  fluid  to 
prevent  friction,  in  sufficient  quantity  for 
all  ordinary  purposes  of  the  animal.  But 
when  the  horse  has  been  compelled  to 
undergo  exertion  beyond  that  which  is 
natural  and  beneficial,  an  increased  supply 
of  synovia  is  secreted,  which  distends  the 
capsule :  a  repetition  sets  up  chronic  in- 
flammation of  the  synovial  membrane — 
morbid  secretion  and  visible  enlargement 
is  the  result.  There  are  very  few  horses 
that  have  done  much  work  that  are  with- 
out them. 

Though  rest  and  pressure  will  diminish 
them,  when  once  enlarged,  labor  will  be 
sure  to  reproduce  them;  they  seldom 
occasion  any  local  disturbance,  and  are 
of  no  consequence  beyond  the  blemish, 
unless  they  are  very  large,  and  in  most 
cases  may  be  regarded  as  mere  indica- 
tions of  hard  work. 

The  pastern  is  the  seat  of  a  bony  tu- 
mor termed  ring-bone.  It  is  the  result 
of  inflammation  and  partial  conversion 
into  bone  of  that  portion  of  the  cartilages 
of  the  foot  which  rise  above  and  nearly 
encircle  the  coronet,  These  cartilages,, 
extending  backward  considerably  beyond 
the  coffin  bone,  form  the  elastic  frame  of 
the  posterior  parts  of  the  foot;  they  here 
take  on  the  name  of  the  lateral  cartilages. 
When  once  ossified,  inflammation  is  set 
up  in  this  part;  from  its  tendency  to  spread 
around  the  pastern  joint,  it  has  taken  its 
name  of  ring-bone.  When,  however,  the 
ossification  appears  only  at  the  quarters, 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


*S 


it  is  termed  ossification  of  the  lateral  carti- 
lages, or  side  bones.  It  is  discovered  by 
their  prominency  aud  their  rigidity,  when 
pressed  between  the  finger  and  thumb. 
Upon  the  integrity  of  these  parts  depend 
the  elasticity  and  consequent  usefulness 
of  the  foot.  However  trifling  the  appa- 
rent alteration  of  structure,  it  is  a  serious 
detraction  from  the  efficiency  of  a  hack ; 
though  on  soft  ground,  at  a  slow  pace, 
the  draught  horse  will  work  apparently 
sound. 

We  now  arrive  at  the  foot,  the  founda- 
tion of  the  horse,  and  too  much  attention 
cannot  be  paid  to  it.  If  it  is  imperfect,  all 
other  perfections  are  valueless.  The  best 
way  of  judging  whether  there  is  any  mal- 
formation of  the  feet,  either  natural  or  the 
result  of  disease,  is  to  front  the  horse,  and 


PERPENDICULAR     SECTION     OF 
FOOT  AND  PASTERN. 


THE 


FIG.    II. 

a  Flexor  tendon,  which  continues  by  b,  nearly 
down  to  g,  where  it  is  inserted  in  the  coffin  hone. 

c  Sessamoid  bones. 

d  Ligament  uniting  sessamoid  bone  to  large 
pastern. 

e  Navicular  or  nut  bone. 

h  Elastic  matter  or  sensible  frog. 

/  Part  of  coffin  bone  where  the  flexor  tendon  is 
inserted. 

g  Ligament  uniting  navicular  bone  to  coffin 
bone. 

k  Part  to  bleed  in  severe  inflammation  of  foot. 

m  m  The  shank  bone. 

r  Ligament  extending  from  pasterns  to  knee. 

j  Tendon  uniting  pasterns  to  coffin  bone. 

n  The  large  pastern. 

c  Small  pastern  or  coronary  bone. 

t  Coffin  bone. 

q  Crust  or  wall. 

/  Horny  sole. 

c  Elastic  matter  or  sensible  sole. 


compare  the  two  feet  together.  Small 
feet  are  objectionable,  and  so  a  very  large 
foot,  that  is  disproportionate  to  his  size,. 
is  to  be  avoided. 

Its  wall  should  be  round,  smooth,  level, 
and  of  a  shining  dark  color ;  full  in  front, 
of  a  proper  obliquity,  and  free  from  ribs 
or  seams,  and  perfectly  cool.  Its  proper 
obliquity  ought  to  be  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees  with  the  plane  of  the 
shoe.  If  the  angle  is  materially  less,  the 
sole  is  flat,  or  perhaps  convex;  if  the 
angle  exceeds  it,  the  foot  is  contracted. 

When  the  outward  line  or  profile  of  the 
hoof  is  irregular,  it  marks  what  is  called  a 
"  shelly  foot."  This  is  decidedly  bad.  If 
there  are  any  protuberances  or  rings 
round  it,  they  indicate  that  the  feet  have 
been  affected  with  fever  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  produce  an  unequal  growth  of  horn, 
which  frequently  leaves  some  injurious- 
consequences  in  the  internal  part  of  the 
hoof,  such  as  a  deposition  of  lymph  be- 
tween the  horny  and  cartilaginous  pro- 
cesses, which  connect  the  foot  and  hoof 
together.  If  there  is  any  depression  or 
hollow,  it  betrays  separation  of  the  foot 
from  the  hoof,  and  sinking  of  the  coffin 
bowl,  and  the  sole  will  be  found  bulging.. 

No  man  should  trust  to  a  superficial! 
judgment  of  the  foot,  for  though  he  may 
see  the  form  and  shape  of  the  foot  to  be 

SECTION    OF    THE    FOOT    OF    THE 
HORSE. 


Fig.  12. 

a  The  outside  crust  of  the  hoof. 

e  e  Hollow  surfaces  on  the  inner  part  of  the  horny 
frog. 

b  Coronary  ring. 

c  Horny  plates  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
crust. 

g  g  The  bars. 

dd  Continuation  of  horny  lining. 

/  External  cleft  of  the  frog. 

h  Rounded  part  of  heel. 


34 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


promising,  yet  there  are  other  things  to 
be  considered.  It  may  be  well  formed, 
yet  thin  and  weak;  and  those  feet  ex- 
ternally the  most  perfect,  are  sometimes 
contracted  internally,  and  are  liable  to 
the  insidious  affection  termed  navicular, 
or  joint  capsular  disease.  Contraction  is 
a  serious  defect ;  it  is  apparent  and  gen- 
eral, or  occult  (hidden)  and  partial. 

When  apparent  externally,  which  is 
very  common  among  high-bred  horses, 
with  light  heads  and  necks,  high  in  the 
withers  with  sloping  shoulders,  and  that 
go  near  the  ground,  the  foot  presents 
more  an  oblong  than  a  circular  shape; 
the  curved  line  towards  the  heels  becom- 
ing straight,  .and  the  heels  approaching 
each  other.  The  frog  is  hard,  dry,  and 
compressed,  the  foot  small,  and  the  heels 
upright.  Altogether  the  foot  more  re- 
sembles that  of  a  mule  than  a  horse. 

But  though  a  contracted  foot  it,  often 
an  indication  of  past  disease,  and  there 
is  a  diminution  of  elasticity,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  it  is  an  unsoundness, 
or  incapacitates  a  horse  from  work. 
With  care,  such  feet  will  work  soundly 
to  the  end  of  their  lives ;  for  this  change 
in  shape  has  been  effected  by  gradual 
and  slow  absorption  and  deposit ;  so  that 
nature  has  had  time  to  adapt  the  internal 
parts  and  accommodate  itself  to  the 
change,  for  elongation  of  the  foot  has 
taken  place.  When  such  feet  feel  hotter 
than  ordinary,  distrust  should  be  awak- 
ened, more  especially  if  there  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  temperature  of  one 
and  the  other.  If  there  is  indisputable 
pointing,  then  the  horse  is  unsound. 

Occult  or  partial  contraction  is  not  ob- 
vious externally,  but  there  is  diminished 
cavity  of  the  horny  box  from  increase  of 
the  sole  in^bickness.  In  this  case  we 
usually  find  the  foot  of  a  circular  figure 
more  upright  than  natural,  and  displaying 
unusual  appearance  of  compactness  of 
force  and  strength,  the  soles  usually  hard 
and  thick;  and  if  you  have  a  firm,  un- 
yielding sole  in  a  circular  foot,  it  is  a  rock 
of  danger  and  the  forerunner  of  navicular 
disease. 

The  inner  quarter  of  the  hoof  must  be 
most  minutely  inspected  for  sand-crack; 
and  it  is  not  always  easy,  without  minute 
scrutiny,  to  detect  a  sand-crack,  where  an 
attempt  has  been  made  to  conceal  it.     A 


month's  run  in  marshy  ground  will  often 
close  it  up,  and  low  dealers,  particularly 
at  fairs  and  markets,  and  others  who  gain 
a  livelihood  by  dealing  in  "  screws,"  have 
a  knack  of  neatly  covering  the  crack  with 
pitch,  and  the  foot  oiled,  so  as  adroitly  to 
conceal  the  crack.  Any  oily  appearance 
about  the  hoof  should  excite  suspicion, 
and  any  fissure  at  all  resembling  sand- 
crack  should  cause  the  horse  to  be  per- 
emptorily rejected.  Cracks  indicate  a  dry 
and  brittle  hoof.  The  heels  should  be 
examined  for  any  cracks,  or  appearance 
of  heat  and  tenderness,  as  they  are  ex- 
ceedingly troublesome  to  cure. 

The  frog,  in  its  healthy  state,  must  be 
firm,  yet  pliable  and  elastic.  If  there  is 
any  smell,  or  if  on  squeezing  the  frog 
matter  exudes,  there  is  a  thrush.  By 
many  people  thrushes  are  considered  of 
little  importance ;  but  when  it  is  consid- 
ered that  where  there  is  purulent  matter 
there  must  have  been  inflammation ;  and 
that  when  a  horse  with  a  thrush  steps  on 
a  stone,  he  frequently  drops  with  the  pain 
as  if  he  was  shot,  to  the  peril  of  his  rider 
and  the  ruin  of  his  knees,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted they  are  serious  objections  in  a 
saddle  horse.  If  it  can  be  ascertained 
that  they  are  not  of  long  standing,  or 
that  the  horse  has  been  placed  in  a  situ- 
ation so  as  to  favor  their  approach,  such 
as  confinement  in  a  hot  moist  litter,  they 
are  of  no  more  consequence  than  so 
much  diminution  in  his  price  as  will  cover 
the  expense  of  keep  and  attendance  while 
healing;  but  when  a  thrush  accompanies 
a  foot  smaller  than  usual,  the  heels  wind 
in,  and  the  frog  rotten,  let  him  go  as  he 
will,  he  will  not  long  remain  sound. 

The  sole  of  the  foot  should  be  subject 
to  close  examination;  in  its  healthy  and 
natural  state  it  is  inclined  to  be  concave, 
but  if  in  connection  with  high  heels  an 
extraordinary  concavity  is  present,  it  is  a 
sign  of  internal  contraction;  if  the  sole 
is  morbidly  thick,  and  does  not  give  way 
during  great  exertion,  the  elasticity  of  the 
foot  must  be  diminished.  If  the  sole  is 
less  concave  than  natural,  or  approaching 
to  flat,  the  foot  is  weak. 

If  the  foot  appears  to  have  been  cut 
unusually  deep  at  the  angles  where  the 
shoe  meets  the  inside  heel,  or  if  there  is 
any  peculiarity  of  shoeing  at  that  part, 
the  examiner  may  infer  all  is  not  right, 
and  that  he  has  corns ;  and  if  he  waits 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


25 


for  the  proof,  send  for  the  farrier  to  re- 
move the  shoe. 

The  stifle  is  very  rarely  diseased ;  but 
it  should  be  examined  for  enlargement 
or  any  marks  of  firing  or  blistering;  and 
the  groin  should  not  be  overlooked  for 
rupture. 

The  hock  is  one  of  the  most  important 
joints  in  the  animal  machine,  and  should 
always  undergo  a  most  rigid  examination 
previous  to  purchase,  as  from  its  compli- 
cated structure,  and  the  work  it  has  to  per- 
form, it  is  the  seat  of  lameness  behind  in 
nine  cases  out  of  ten. 

When  standing  behind  the  horse,  if  one 
of  the  hocks  is  diseased,  the  observer  will 
perceive  the  bone  does  not  incline  gradu- 
ally, as  in  the  sound  limb,  but  there  is  an 
abrupt  prominence.  Though  to  the  un- 
practiced  eye  this  is  not  always  percepti- 
ble on  comparing  them,  yet  by  passing 
the  hand  down  the  inside  of  both  hocks, 
this  abruptness  will  be  felt.  If  there  is 
any  tenderness  or  heat  on  pressure,  or  the 
marks  of  recent  cutting  on  the  inside  of 
the  fetlock,  or  unequal  wear  of  the  shoes, 
especially  at  the  toe,  you  may  suspect 
spavin.  Sometimes  both  hocks  present 
an  enlarged  appearance,  though  there  is 
neither  heat,  pain  nor  lameness  (for  hock 
lameness  is  frequently  intermittent),  such 
hocks  should  always  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion;  they  are,  in  fact,  unsound:  for 
though  the  animal  may,  with  natural  mal- 
formation or  exostial  growth,  the  result 
of  disease,  discharge  his  usual  functions 
through  life  without  a  return  of  lameness 
in  careful  hands;  yet  the  probability  is 
he  will  fail  if  called  upon  for  any  unusual 
exertion,  and  that  one  day's  extra  work 
will  ruin  him  forever.  In  this  case  the 
examinant  must  be  guided  by  circum- 
stances; if  the  horse  has  excellencies 
which  counterbalance  the  defect,  the 
price  is  correspondingly  low,  and  if  the 
work  required  is  but  moderate,  he  may 
be  serviceable  for  many  a  year. 

Certain  forms  of  hock  are  more  subject 
to  disease ;  those  approaching  each  other, 
termed  low  hocks,  are  predisposed  to 
spavin  and  curb;  those  in  which  the 
point  of  the  hock  inclines  too  much  back- 
ward, are  liable  to  spavin ;  and  when  the 
hock  is  too  upright,  narrow  and  straight, 
it  is  subject  to  thoroughpin.  Capped 
hock  is  a  soft,  fluctuating  tumor  on  the 
point  of  the  hock ;  it  is  an  enlargement 


of  one  of  the  mucous  capstdes  which  sur- 
round the  tendons  inserted  into  that  part. 
It  is  produced  by  blows,  lying  on  rough 
stones,  or  kicking  in  the  harness  or  stable, 
and  is  therefore  frequently  a  sign  of  vice. 

Curb  is  a  longitudinal  swelling  at  the 
back  of  the  hind  leg,  three  or  four  inches 
below  the  hock,  seen  best  from  the  horse's 
side;  the  enlargement  is  the  result  of  a 
sudden  strain  of  the  annular  ligaments, 
or  inflammation  of  the  sheaths  of  the 
tendon.  It  is  attended  with  a  good  deal 
of  lameness  and  swelling  at  first;  but 
when  that  has  subsided,  and  if  any  titae 
has  elapsed  without  a  recurrence  of  the 
lameness,  it  is  of  no  more  consequence 
than  the  unsightly  blemish ;  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that  curby  hocks  are  lia- 
ble to  spavin. 

Thoroughpin  is  situated  above  the 
hock  joint,  between  the  flexors  of  the 
hock  and  foot,  projecting  on  each  side ; 
it  is  of  the  same  nature  as  wind-galls, 
being  an  enlarged  mucous  capsule,  and 
is  indicative  of  severe  work  or  over  ex- 
ertion. 

Bog,  or  blood,  or  spavin,  is  a  swelling 
situated  in  front  of  the  hock,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  joint ;  it  is  also  an  enlarged 
mucous  capsule,  but  deeper  seated,  over 
which  one  of  the  subcutaneous  veins 
passing,  the  blood  in  which  becoming 
obstructed  in  the  return,  increases  the  size 
of  the  tumor. 

The  shanks  should  be  scrutinized  for 
any  symptoms  of  weakness,  and  the  fet- 
locks for  marks  of  cutting  ar*i  wind- 
galls. 

The  front  of  the  hind  feet  should  be 
examined  for  fissure ;  it  is  a  most  serious 
defect,  and  generally  produces  lameness. 
Notice  the  way  in  which  he  is'  shod,  as 
it  leads  to  the  discovery  of  lameness  and 
defects  in  action ;  though  in  dealers' 
stables  you  will  rarely  see  any  peculiarity 
in  shoeing. 

If  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  is  found  to 
extend  a  little  over  the  shoe,  it  is  to  pre- 
vent "hammer  and  click"  from  being 
audible.  If  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  drag, 
or  we  find  the  shoe  squared  off  or  worn, 
we  may  suspect  disease  of  the  hocks ;  and 
if  the  inside  of  the  shoe  is  beveled  off,  it 
is  the  sign  of  a  cutter. 

He  should  now  be  backed,  to  ascertain 
if  he  has  received  any  injury  of  the  spine. 
If  he  backs  with  difficulty,  his  hind  quar- 


26 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


ters  swaying  from  side  to  side,  and  when 
compelled  to  retrograde  suddenly  he  ap- 
pears as  if  about  to  fall,  he  has  received 
some  injury.  Some  horses  cannot  be 
made  to  back,  but  when  urged,  rear  on 
their  hind  legs.  His  loins  should  be 
searched  for  marks  of  setons,  or  blisters. 
Among  stable-men  it  is  termed  "  chinked 
in  the  chine,"  or  rigged  in  the  hock. 

A  singular  symptom  of  diseased  spine 
sometimes  shows  itself  where  nothing  had 
been  previously  suspected;  that  is,  of 
sometimes  dropping  when  turned  sud- 
denly in  the  trot,  the  hinder  quarters  ap- 
pearing as  if  paralyzed;  in  one  case,  after 
several  ineffectual  attempts  to  reproduce 
it,  it  was  developed  by  a  man  startling 
him  from  a  stable  door  as  he  trotted  past 
it  up  the  ride. 

There  are  many  blemishes  and  defects 
that  render  a  hack  unserviceable,  which 
are  of  little  or  no  consequence  in  harness. 
The  greatest  virtue  in  a  gig  horse  is 
steadiness,  which  can  only  be  ascertained 
by  trial ;  and  do  not  trust  to  the  steadi- 
ness he  evinces  while  the  reins  are  in  his 
owner's  hands.  The  author  of  that  ad- 
mirable little  work,  "  The  Adventures  of 
a  Gentleman  in  search  of  a  Horse,"  truly 
says,  "  whoever  buys  a  carriage  horse 
without  first  driving  him  himself,  is  a  fit 
subject  for  a  commission  of  lunacy;  it 
is  not  enough  to  put  him  on  the  break, 
he  should  be  harnessed  at  once  to  the 
carriage,  and  it  is  prudent  to  observe 
how  he  bears  the  ceremony  of  harness- 
ing, and  what  kind  of  start  he  makes. 
Much  may  be  predicted  by  his  qualifica- 
tions for  draught,  or  at  all  events  his  fa- 
miliarity with  the  collar,  by  the  degree  of 
quiet  with  which  he  allows  himself  to  be 
put  to. 

If  the  ostler  runs  alongside  of  him  at 
setting  off,  as  is  often  the  case,  you  may 
be  sure  the  horse  is  distrusted;  if  you 
distrust  it  yourself,  have  nothing  to  do 
with  him. 

The  horse  should  now  be  returned  to 
the  stable  for  the  purpose  of  examining 
his  eyes,  the  most  favorable  position  for 
which  is  about  half  a  foot  within  the  sta- 
ble door.  There  should  be  no  back  or 
side  lights,  or  the  rays,  falling  between 
the  eyes  of  the  examiner  and  the  animal, 
will  prevent  him  seeing  distinctly.  The 
head  should  be  so  placed  that  a  mode- 
rate light  should  fall  on  the  eye  of  the 


horse,  and  the  quantity  of  light  can  be 
easily  regulated  by  bringing  the  horse's 
head  more  or  less  forward,  until  it  is 
placed  in  the  most  favorable  direction 
for  observation. 

Though  every  horseman  can  detect 
absolute  blindness,  yet  the  eye  of  the 
horse  is  susceptible  of  so  many  diseases, 
in  which  defective  vision  or  partial  blind- 
ness exists  in  such  a  form,  long  before 
the  sight  is  lost,  that  it  requires  not  only 
more  observation  than  most  people  imag- 
ine, but  a  person  unacquainted  with  its 
anatomical  structure,  and  the  different 
appearances  it  assumes,  cannot  perceive 
it  at  all.  There  are  certain  forms  of  the 
eye,  and  structural  peculiarities,  that 
show  a  constitutional  predisposition  to 
disease — thus,  small  sleepy  eyes,  of  a 
blueish  grey  color,  or  when  they  have  a 
flat,  retracted,  and  sunken  appearance, 
or  those  of  a  longish,  oval  figure,  are 
predisposed  to  ophthalmia,  or  when  the 
eyes  appear  full,  with  a  fleshy  circle 
around  them,  these  are  all  symptoms  of 
badness  of  eye,  and  are  the  forerunners 
of  blindness,  particularly  in  the  heads  of 
coarse  and  fleshy  horses,  with  heavy 
countenances,  who  usually  go  blind  with 
cataracts  at  seven  years  old. 

Slight  thickenings  of  the  lid  or  pucker- 
ing towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye, 
a  difference  in  size,  a  cloudiness,  or  dull- 
ness of  the  iris,  are  several  indications  of 
disease,  that  a  purchaser  should  beware 
of. 

In  examining  the  eyes,  both  must  have 
an  equal  degree  of  light ;  if  any  differ- 
ence is  apparent  between  them,  one  must 
be  diseased.  The  cornea,  or  transparent 
part  of  the  eye,  should  be  perfectly  clear. 

Specks  are  best  detected  by  standing 
at  the  shoulder ;  if  one  is  evident,  and  it 
can  be  clearly  proved  to  be  no  more 
than  the  effect  of  accident,  no  import- 
ance need  be  placed  on  it.  But  it  is  im- 
possible to  ascertain  this,  and  therefore 
the  safest  course  is  to  assume  that  natural 
irritability  and  consequent  inflammation 
of  the  eye  is  the  cause. 

Specks  on  the  transparent  cornea  are 
generally  the  result  of  external  injury; 
there  is  seldom  more  than  one;  when 
very  small  and  near  the  circumference,, 
they  are  of  no  consequence ;  but  if  large,, 
or  near  the  centre,  they  interfere  with 
distinctness  of  vision,  and  make  the  horse 


HORSE—CARE  AND    MANAGEMENT. 


27 


shy.  If  opaque  or  milky  lines  are  traced 
on  its  surface,  it  bespeaks  the  remains  of 
former  inflammation. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that 
horses,  before  they  are  six  years  old, 
have  not  that  transparency  in  their  eyes 
which  they  display  afterwards,  because, 
while  young  and  growing,  the  vessels  of 
the  eye  are  full;  therefore,  before  that 
age,  it  is  not  the  brilliancy  of  the  eye  that 
denotes  its  goodness. 

If  there  is  an  excess  of  tears,  it  denotes 
debility,  and  should  occasion  a  more 
than  ordinary  scrutiny;  in  fact,  all  horses 
with  weeping,  dull,  cloudy  eyes,  should 
be  rejected  as  unsound. 

It  may  be  remarked,  as  a  general  rule, 
that  all  diseases  of  the  eye  are  incurable. 
Have  nothing  to  do  with  a  horse  when  the 
slightest  trace  of  disease  of  the  eye  is  visible. 
As  it  is  impossible,  from  a  superficial  ex- 
amination, to  distinguish  between  simple 
ophthalmia  and  inflammation  of  the  con- 
junctiva, the  cause  of  which  has  been  a 
blow,  or  the  introduction  of  some  irritat- 
ing matter,  such  as  a  piece  of  dirt  or  hay- 
seed, which  is  curable  by  simple  means, 
and  the  specific  ophthalmia,  as  spontane- 
ous affection,  which  ultimately  terminates 
in  cataract  and  blindness. 

Viewed  in  front,  the  depths  of  the  eye 
should  be  looked  into;  then  sideways, 
which  will  assist  in  ascertaining  the  clear- 
ness and  absence  of  specks  on  or  within 
its  surface. 

Floating  in  the  aqueous  humor  (which 
preserves  the  convexity  of  the  cornea)  is 
the  iris,  a  muscular  membrane,  whose  di- 
latation and  contraction  forms  an  oval 
aperture,  termed  the  pupil,  which  varies 
in  size  according  to  the  quantity  of  light 
which  falls  upon  the  eye. 

The  iris  varies  very  little  in  color  in 
the  horse,  though  it  bears  some  analogy 
to  the  color  of  the  skin.  It  is  rarely 
lighter  than  a  hazel,  or  darker  than  a 
brown;  except  in  milk  white,  cream-col- 
oied,  or  pied  horses,  when  it  is  white, 
and  they  are  termed  wall-eyed.  If  it  is 
of  a  pale  variegated,  cinnamon  color,  it  is 
good. 

The  pupil  or  aperture  of  the  iris  is 
that  horizontal,  oblong,  blueish  opening 
which  admits  the  light  to  the  posterior 
chambers  of  the  eye.  It  is  important 
that  the  oval  shape  of  the  pupil  is  per- 
fect, for  if  any  irregularity  or  unevenness 


is  perceived,  it  is  a  symptom  that  the  or- 
gan has  received  partial  injury.  In  look- 
ing into  the  depth  of  the  eye,  through 
the  pupil,  in  a  strong  light,  it  should  ex- 
hibit a  lively  blueishness ;  in  a  moderate 
light,  it  should  be  perfectly  transparent; 
if  milky  or  turbid,  it  is  the  remains  of 
former  inflammation,  which  will  probably 
recur. 

In  bringing  the  horse  out  of  the  stable 
to  the  light,  if  the  pupil  is  large,  it  is  a 
bad  sign ;  by  alternately  shading  and  ad- 
mitting light,  if  it  enlarges  and  lessens 
under  its  stimulus,  it  is  an  infallible  sign 
the  eye  is  good.  But  if  the  retina  is  un- 
movable,  the  pupil  larger  than  natural, 
and  of  one  invariable  size  when  shaded 
or  exposed  to  intense  light,  though  no 
disorganization  is  apparent,  the  eye  ap- 
pearing bright,  of  a  peculiar  glossy  as- 
pect, and  of  a  greenish  color,  the  animal 
is  blind  from  the  disease  termed  "  glass- 
eye  " — a  palsy  of  the  optic  nerve. 

A  decided  cataract,  or  opacity  of  the 
crystalline  lens,  or  its  capsule,  is  easily 
detected ;  but  when  very  small,  they  may 
escape  observation.  It  appears  as  a 
cloudy  or  pearly  white  substance  within 
the  pupil  towards  the  bottom  of  the  eye. 
If  the  pupil  be  round  instead  of  a  flat 
oval,  it  is  an  indication  of  cataract ;  when 
there  is  the  slightest  deep-seated  cloudi- 
ness, the  eye  should  be  condemned ;  but 
if  there  is  any  white  object  before  it,  such 
as  a  white  hat,  neckcloth,  waistcoat,  or 
wall,  the  reflection  on  the  cornea  pro- 
duces a  mark,  having  so  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  cataract  as  to  have  misled 
many  an  experienced  observer.  There- 
fore, before  deciding,  hold  the  crown  of 
a  black  hat  against  the  eye,  and  observe 
at  the  same  time  if  the  mark  disappears, 
which  it  will,  if  it  is  only  a  reflection. 

If  your  examination  has  proved  satis- 
factory, and  you  decide  on  purchasing, 
before  you  part  with  your  money,  learn 
something  of  the  seller.  For  should 
your  bargain  not  turn  out  as  you  antici- 
pate, upon  further  acquaintance,  trial, 
and  second  examination,  you  will  know 
what  chance  of  remedy  you  have  against 
the  vender. 

The  horse,  if  returned,  must  of  course 
be  in  the  same  condition  in  which  he  was 
received,  except  so  far  as  the  disease  for 
which  he  is  returned  may  have  progress- 
ed in  the  meantime. 


38 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


It  is  advisable  to  inquire  of  the  seller 
how  he  has  been  accustomed  to  diet  and 
clothe  the  animal ;  whether  his  feet  were 
stopped ;  and  the  same  treatment  should 
be  pursued  till  his  soundness  is  ascer- 
tained. 

Note  the  temperature  of  the  stable ;  if 
his  new  habitation  should  be  hotter,  it  is 
probable  you  may  induce  an  inflammatory 
attack  of  the  lungs. 

Beware  of  putting  a  saddle  on  a  new 
horse  that  does  not  fit  him;  while  the 
■question  of  soundness  is  still  doubtful,  it 
is  far  better  to  use  the  saddle  he  has  been 
.accustomed  to. 

If  his  back  becomes  galled  while  tryr 
ing  him,  which  is  not  an  unusual  occur- 
rence, the  dealer  will  object  to  take  him 
back,  unless  full  compensation  is  made; 
and  reasonably  so,  for  he  is  unfitted  for 
sale  or  for  work  till  it  is  healed,  which  is 
not  to  be  effected  in  a  day ;  and  it  is  also 
a  point  for  calculation,  whether  he  may 
not  chance  to  fall  sick,  while  standing  in 
high  condition  in  stable;  in  which  case 
the  dealer  would  be  subjected  to  heavy 
loss. 

It  is  therefore  not  prudent  to  remove 
his  shoes,  or  in  fact  to  do  anything  with 
the  animal  which  may  cause  doubt  or 
cavil,  until  you  have  finally  decided  upon 
.keeping  him. 

HARE,  BROOD,  General  Management 
of  the.  —  When  it  has  been  decided  to 
breed  from  a  mare,  if  she  is  not  already 
thrown  out  of  work,  it  will  often  be 
necessary  to  cool  her  down,  by  turning 
her  out  to  grass  and  taking  away  her 
corn,  before  she  will  become  stinted. 
Thorough-bred  mares  are  not,  as  a  rule, 
allowed  to  take  the  horse  while  in  work ; 
but  sometimes  they  are  so  constantly  "  in 
use  "  that  no  other  means  will  enable  the 
trainer  to  go  on  with  his  work  of  prepa- 
ration. There  is  a  wonderful  difference 
in  this  respect :  some  animals  are  rarely 
M  in  use,"  once  or  twice  a  year  being  the 
outside;  while  others  are  so  every  nine 
days  throughout  the  spring — the  average 
perhaps  being  in  that  state  at  about  inter- 
vals of  two  or  three  months,  from  the 
time  of  shedding  their  coats  till  the  be- 
ginning of  autumn.  Again,  some  are  not 
upset  in  their  work  by  this  natural  pro- 
cess; while  others  refuse  to  feed,  lose 
condition,  and  cannot  be  depended  on 
for  half  their  usual  exertions.     Either  ex- 


treme requires  a  change  of  feeding;  for, 
on  the  one  hand,  the  cool  temperament  is 
excited  by  the  freedom  of  a  run  at  grass, 
and  on  the  other,  the  warmer  one,  is  bene- 
fited by  losing  the  heating  qualities  of 
her  corn.  At  all  events,  it  is  found,  in 
practice,  that  though  the  majority  ot 
maiden  mares  will  become  stinted  while 
at  work,  yet  that  a  large  number  require 
a  run  at  grass  before  they  will  become  in 
foal.  As  we  before  remarked,  thorough- 
bred mares  are  generally  entirely  devoted 
to  the  stud  from  the  time  they  are  put  to 
the  horse ;  but  there  are  many  others  of 
lower  breeding  which  their  owners  desire 
to  work  on  for  some  months  afterwards. 
It  is  often  apparent  that  the  legs  of  a 
hack  or  harness-mare  are  wearing  out, 
and  her  owner  decides  upon  having  a  foal 
from  -her,  but  wishes  to  avoid  the  expense 
of  keep  from  the  spring,  when  he  puts 
her  to  the  horse,  till  the  next  January  or 
February,  varying,  of  course,  with  the 
time  of  foaling.  All  mares  are  the  better 
for  slow  work  up  to  within  two  months  of 
foaling;  but  they  should  not  be  ridden  or 
driven  so  fast  as  to  occasion  exhaustion. 
Cart-mares  are  generally  used  to  within  a 
few  days  of  their  time,  taking  care  to 
keep  them  at  light  work  and  to  avoid 
straining  them.  With  these  precautions, 
if  the  legs  keep  tolerably  sound,  a  mare 
may  be  made  to  earn  her  keep  for  nine 
months  out  of  the  eleven,  which  are  the 
duration  of  her  pregnancy. 

The  time  of  sending  the  mare  to  the 
horse  will  vary  with  the  purposes  for 
which  her  produce  is  intended.  If  for 
racing,  it  is  desired  that  she  shall  foal  as 
soon  as  possible  after  the  first  of  January; 
and  as  she  carries  her  foal  about  eleven 
months,  the  first  time  of  her  being  "  in 
use  "  after  the  first  of  February  is  the  pe- 
riod chosen  for  her.  All  other  horses 
take  their  age  from  the  first  of  May ;  and 
as  this  is  the  time  when  the  young  grass 
begins  to  be  forward  enough  for  the  use 
of  the  mare,  the  breeder  is  not  anxious 
to  get  his  half-bred  foals  dropped  much 
before  that  time.  As,  however,  mares 
are  very  uncertain  animals,  he  will  do 
well  to  take  advantage  of  the  first  oppor- 
tunity after  March,  as  by  putting  off  the 
visit  to  the  horse,  he  may  be  disappointed 
altogether,  or  the  foal  may  be  dropped  so 
late  that  winter  sets  in  before  it  has  ac- 
quired  strength  to   bear  it.     These   re- 


HORSE—CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


marks  apply  to  maiden  mares  only;  those 
which  have  dropped  a  foal  are  generally 
put  to  the  horse  nine  or  ten  days  after- 
wards, when  almost  every  mare  is  in  sea- 
son. For  this  reason,  valuable  thorough- 
bred mares  are  often  sent  to  foal  at  the 
place  where  the  sire  stands  who  is  intend- 
ed to  be  used  next  time.  The  traveling 
to  him  so  soon  after  foaling  would  be  in- 
jurious to  both  the  dam  and  her  foal,  and 
hence  the  precaution  we  have  named  is 
adopted.  The  mare  then  remains  to  be 
tried  at  intervals  of  nine  days,  and  when 
she  is  stinted  the  foal  is  strong  enough  to 
bear  any  length  of  journey  with  impuni- 
ty. Mares  and  their  foals  commonly 
travel  by  road  twenty  miles,  or  even 
more,  for  this  purpose ;  but  they  do  not 
often  exceed  that  distance,  and  about  fif- 
teen miles  a  day  is  quite  as  much  as  a 
nine  days'  old  foal  can  compass  without 
injury,  and  that  done  very  quietly,  the 
mare  being  led  at  a  slow  pace  all  the 
way. 
MARE,  FOAL,  Treatment  When  In.— 
When  the  mare  is  in  foal,  if  not  in- 
tended to  be  kept  at  work,  she  should  be 
turned  out  in  good  pasture ;  but  it  should 
not  be  so  rich  and  succulent  as  to  disa- 
gree with  her  stomach,  or  make  her  un- 
wieldy from  fat.  The  former  mistake  is 
a  constant  cause  of  miscarriage,  the  bow- 
els becoming  relaxed  from  the  improper 
nature  of  the  food.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  it  is  not  sufficiently  good,  the  mare  will 
become  thin,  and  will  starve  her  foal  in 
its  growth.  Mares  that  have  been  corned 
highly  all  their  lives  should  have  a  feed 
or  two  daily,  after  they  are  six  months 
gone,  and  especially  if  the  autumnal 
grasses  are  not  rich  and  plentiful.  Most 
half-bred  animals,  however,  do  very  well 
till  about  Christmas ;  after  which  hay  and 
corn,  with  a  few  carrots,  should  be  liber- 
ally given  them,  still  allowing  them  to 
pick  up  what  grass  they  can  find  in  their 
paddocks.  Excessive  fat  is  a  state  of  dis- 
ease, and  interferes  with  the  due  nutrition 
of  the  fcztus,  while  it  is  very  dangerous 
at  foaling-time,  when  it  not  only  inter- 
feres with  the  process,  but  also  tends  to 
produce  fever.  Supposing  the  mare  to  be 
at  work,  she  should  have  some  kind  of 
green  food — lucerne  being  the  best,  and 
vetches,  perhaps,  the  worst  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  latter  being  too  heating,  es- 
pecially to  the  organs  contained  within 


the  pelvis.  Any  of  the  grasses  or  clo- 
vers answer  well;  and,  after  they  are: 
done,  carrots  form  an  excellent  succeda- 
neum,  given  sliced  in  a  bran  mash  every 
night.  By  adopting  these  articles  of 
food  the  mare  is  kept  free  from  inflamma- 
tion, and  yet  the  foal  is  well  nourished, 
which  are  the  two  essential  points  to  be 
considered. 

Excitement  of  every  kind  is  a  fertile 
source  of  "  slipping  "  the  foal,  and  every- 
thing which  is  at  all  likely  to  have  that 
effect  should  be  carefully  avoided.  The 
smell  of  blood  is  said  to  have  a  very  pre- 
judicial influence  in  this  way ;  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  one  mare  miscarrying 
will  in  some  mode  affect  others  in  prox- 
imity to  her.  Possibly  the  same  cause 
may  act  on  all,  but  it  seems  to  be  gener- 
ally concluded  that  the  act  is  really  con- 
tagious, either  from  what  is  called  sym- 
pathy, or  in  some  other  as  inexplicable 
way.  If  a  mare  has  "  slipped  "  a  foal  in 
a  previous  pregnancy,  double  care  should 
be  taken,  as  she  will  be  far  more  likely  to 
do  so  again  than  another  which  has  hith- 
erto escaped  the  accident.  It  occurs 
most  frequently  about  the  fourth  or  fifth 
month,  therefore  extra  care  should  be 
taken  at  that  time.  The  suspected  indi- 
vidual should  be  kept  quiet  by  herself; 
but  it  is  better  to  allow  her  the  run  of  a 
small  retired  paddock  than  to  confine  her 
to  her  hovel,  where,  for  want  of  exer- 
cise, she  will  become  restless  and  anx- 
ious. Purging  physic  should  not  be 
given,  unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary  -> 
and  if  the  bowels  are  so  confined  as  to 
require  some  stimulus  of  this  kind,  and 
bran  mashes  and  other  changes  in  the 
food  fail  to  produce  any  effect,  choice 
should  be  made  of  the  mildest  aperient 
which  is  likely  to  answer  the  purpose. 

MARE,  FOALING,  Treatment  After.— 
In  a  healthy  state  the  mare  very  soon  re- 
covers the  efforts  which  she  has  made  in 
bringing  forth  the  foal;  and,  in  fine 
weather,  she  may  be  allowed  to  enter 
her  paddock  on  the  second  day  after- 
wards, which  is  generally  soon  enough  to- 
suit  the  strength  of  the  foal,  though  oc- 
casionally the  young  animal  is  very  ac- 
tive within  six  hours  after  it  comes  into 
the  world.  For  a  couple  of  months,  or 
perhaps  less  in  some  cases,  the  mare  and 
foal  are  better  kept  in  a  paddock  by 
themselves;  but  in  a  large  stud  this  is 


3° 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


difficult  when  the  foals  come  very  quickly ; 
and  then  several  mares  of  quiet  tempera- 
ment are  put  together,  still  keeping  sepa- 
rate those  which  are  shy  or  vicious. 
Until  the  mare  can  get  plenty  of  grass 
she  should  have  carrots,  bran  mashes, 
and  a  feed  or  two  of  oats,  which  at  first 
are  better  given  in  the  shape  of  gruel — 
the  water  with  which  this  is  made  having 
the  chill  taken  off.  Rye  grass  is  culti- 
vated and  cut  for  the  mares  daily  by 
those  who  have  early  foals ;  but,  though 
it  is  better  than  hay,  it  is  not  equal  to 
good  upland  clover  grass.  Lucerne  is 
excellent,  but  it  cannot  be  grown  so  ear- 
ly as  rye.  We  have  already  described 
(see  Mare,  the  time  of  sending  to  horse,) 
the  proper  time  for  again  putting  the 
mare  to  the  horse,  so  that  we  need  not 
enter  into  that  subject  here.  During  the 
remainder  of  the  time  of  suckling  no 
special  treatment  is  required,  except  to 
see  that  the  mare  is  well  fed  and  pro- 
tected from  the  weather.  At  weaning- 
time  she  sometimes  requires  a  dose  or 
two  of  cooling  medicine,  but  generally 
she  is  so  nearly  dry,  that  no  interference 
is  required. 

MARE,  FOAL,  Early  Treatment  of 
the.  —  If  the  young  animal  is  well 
formed  and  healthy,  it  will  require  no  at- 
tention beyond  that  which  we  have  spec- 
ified as  necessary  for  the  dam.  There 
are,  however,  several  accidents  to  which 
it  is  liable ;  such  as  rupture  either  at  the 
navel  or  flank,  inversion  of  the  feet,  etc., 
all  of  which  will  be  treated  of  in  their 
proper  places.  About  the  time  of  the 
mare  being  "  in  use  "  the  foal  is  generally 
purged  a  good  deal,  and  a  warm  drench 
will  often  be  required.  At  the  end  of  a 
month,  or  sometimes  earlier,  the  foal 
will  eat  bruised  oats;  and  highly 
bred  young  stock  are  generally  allowed, 
from  this  time,  first  a  single  quartern,  and 
then  by  degrees  two  quarterns  of  oats. 
Half-breds,  and  even  cart-horses,  would 
be  the  better  for  this  stimulus  to  devel- 
opment; but  if  it  is  begun  it  should  be 
continued;  and,  unless  the  foal  shows 
such  promise  that  it  is  expected  to  turn 
out  extraordinarily  well,  the  extra  ex- 
pense will  not  be  reimbursed.  The  half 
peck  of  oats  cannot  be  put  down  as  cost- 
ing less  than  twenty  dollars  a  year;  and 
thus,  at  five  years  of  age,  the  colt  will  have 
cost  one  hundred  dollars  more  than  if  he 


had  been  fed  on  hay  or  grass  alone. 
Now,  between  a  race-horse  reared  on 
corn  and  another  confined  to  hay  and 
grass,  the  difference  in  value  would  be  a 
thousand  per  cent.,  and  in  first-class 
hunters,  though  not  so  great  as  this,  it 
would  be  very  considerable.  But  among 
inferior  horses,  on  the  average,  would 
scarcely  reach  the  sum  we  have  named  as 
the  prime  cost  of  the  oats;  and,  there- 
fore, in  the  depth  of  winter  a  quartern  or 
half  a  peck  is  generally  given  with  a  lit- 
tle bran ;  yet,  when  there  is  good  grass, 
this  is  neither  necessary  nor  is  it  econom- 
ical. Shelter  from  the  weather  should, 
however,  be  afforded  to  colts  of  all  classes 
during  the  winter  season;  and  unless 
they  have  this  they  soon  grow  out  ot 
form  and  lose  flesh,  however  well  they  may 
be  fed.  It  is  now  fully  recognized  that 
warmth  and  protection  from  the  rain  en- 
courage the  growth  of  all  our  domestic 
animals,  but  in  none  are  they  more  influ- 
ential than  in  the  one  which  we  are  now 
discussing.  A  colt  neglected  in  its  first 
winter  never  recovers  its  proper  shape, 
nor  does  it  grow  into  the  size  or  strength 
of  body  and  limbs  which  naturally  ap- 
pertain to  its  breed.  Independently, 
therefore,  of  the  cruelty  in  exposing  the 
young  animal  to  a  climate  for  which  it  is 
not  fitted,  the  plan  does  not  pay ;  and  on 
the  latter  account,  if  not  on  the  former, 
even  the  most  heartless,  who  consider 
their  own  interests,  will  make  suitable 
provision  for  protecting  their  young  horse 
stock  from  the  inclemency  of  our  winter 
climate. 

The  foal  should  be  handled  from  the 
very  first  week  of  its  existence ;  but  there 
is  no  occasion  to  use  it  roughly  in  ac- 
customing it  to  the  pressure  of  the  hand 
on  all  parts  of  its  body  and  limbs.  If 
this  process  is  very  gradually  com- 
menced, no  resistance  will  at  any  time  be 
offered,  and  the  foal  will  allow  its  feet  to 
be  picked  up,  and  its  head  and  ears  to  be 
rubbed,  without  taking  offense.  Grooms 
are  sometimes  in  the  habit  of  showing  off 
their  powers  in  this  way,  by  taking  the 
foal  up  in  their  arms ;  but  this  can  do  no 
good,  and  may  possibly  lead  to  injury  of 
the  walls  of  the  abdomen.  About  the 
fourth  or  fifth  month,  and  before  wean- 
ing is  commenced,  a  light  head  collar 
should  be  put  on;  and  after  the  foal  is 
accustomed  to  its  pressure,  by  repeatedly 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


3r 


handling  the  part  on  successive  days,  a 
leading-rein  should  be  buckled  on,  and 
the  young  thing  enticed  to  follow  the 
groom  without  any  absolute  coercion. 
At  the  same  time  it  must  be  made  to  feel 
that  resistance  is  useless ;  and  if  it  begins 
to  pull,  it  must  on  no  account  be  allowed 
to  get  away,  the  groom  yielding  as  long 
as  the  foal  pulls  straight  back,  but  coerc- 
ing it  gently  with  a  side  strain.  A  care- 
fully handled  foal  will  rarely  give  any 
trouble  in  this  way;  but  there  is  an  aston- 
ishing variation  in  the  power  which  dif- 
ferent men  have  over  the  animal  creation. 
Some  will  gain  control  without  using 
the  slighest  violence,  while  others  will  be 
always  fighting  with  their  charge,  and 
after  all,  will  not  be  able  to  do  nearly  as 
much  with  them  as  their  more  quiet  and 
clever  rivals.  The  latter  class  should 
never  be  allowed  to  have  anything  to  do 
with  young  horses ;  and  though  there 
may  be  occasional  exceptions  which  re- 
quire severe  measures,  yet  if  once  a  man 
is  found  resorting  to  violence  with  a  foal 
which  he  has  had  the  management  of 
from  the  first,  he  should,  in  our  opinion, 
be  removed  from  his  post;  or,  at  all 
events,  he  should  be  carefully  watched, 
and  a  repetition  of  the  offense  ought  to 
be  considered  as  a  notice  to  quit.  Long 
before  the  coming  among  us  of  Mr. 
Rarey,  this  was  recognized  amongst  the 
most  extensive  breeders  of  horses  in  this 
country;  and  though  cruelty  was  not 
unknown  among  them,  any  more  than  it 
is  now,  it  was  fully  recognized  as  not 
only  an  unnecessary  but  an  unsatisfactory 
means  of  mastering  the  horse. 

MARE,  FOAL,  Weaning  and  After 
Treatment  of  the. — The  usual  age  for 
weaning  the  foal  is  about  the  end  of 
the  sixth  month,  that  time  being 
selected  because  the  dam  is  generally 
about  "half  gone"  with  her  next  foal 
and  cannot  bear  the  double  drain  upon 
her  system.  Nor  does  the  foal  benefit 
much  by  the  milk  after  this  age,  the 
teeth  and  stomach  being  quite  strong 
enough  to  crop  and  digest  the  succulent 
grasses  that  are  to  be  had  from  August 
to  October,  those  being  the  months  dur- 
ing which  the  several  breeds  attain  the 
middle  of  their  first  year.  If  the  autumn 
is  a  dry  one,  and  grass  is  scanty,  a  few 
steamed  turnips  or  carrots  may  be  mixed 
with  bran  and  given  to  the  foal  night  and 


morning;  but,  as  a  rule,  unless  it  is  to  be 
highly  forced  into  its  growth  for  the  pur- 
pose of  early  using,  it  will  require  only 
the  grass  which  it  can  pick  up  when  it  is 
turned  out.  Three  or  four  foals  are  gen- 
erally placed  together  in  the  same  pad- 
dock for  company,  and  in  this  way  they 
miss  their  dams  far  less  than  if  confined 
by  themselves.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  nothing  is  left  within  their  reach 
which  can  do  injury,  every  fence  and 
gate  being  carefully  examined  to  see  that 
no  projecting  bolt,  nail,  or  rail  is  likely  to 
lay  hold  of  their  bodies  or  limbs  as  they 
gallop  about  in  their  play.  Foals  of  all 
ages  are  mischievous  animals,  and  the 
better  fed  they  are  the  more  inclined  they 
seem  to  lay  hold  of  anything  which  at- 
tracts their  notice. 

Besides  the  shelter  of  a  hovel,  which 
we  have  already  insisted  on,  the  foal  re- 
quires throughout  its  first  winter,  good 
feeding  proportioned  to  its  breeding  and 
the  purposes  for  which  it  is  intended. 
Racing  colts  are  allowed  three  or  four 
feeds  of  bruised  oats  with  steamed  car- 
rots or  turnips,  and  sometimes  steamed 
hay ;  but  the  general  plan  is  to  give  as 
much  as  they  will  eat  of  the  best  upland 
hay,  in  its  natural  state,  after  they  have 
finished  their  allowance  of  corn.  Young 
stock  intended  to  be  sold  as  hunters  and 
first-class  carriage  horses  are  always  al- 
lowed half  a  peck  of  bruised  oats,  and  a 
few  carrots  and  turnips  will  not  be 
thrown  away  upon  them.  Hacks,  and 
inferior  young  stock  of  all  kinds,  get 
through  the  winter  upon  hay  and  barley- 
straw,  part  being  sometimes  cut  into 
chaff,  and  mixed  with  a  quartern  of  bran, 
daily,  and  if  they  are  very  low  in  flesh, 
a  few  oats  being  added.  During  severe 
frosts  the  straw-yard  is  the  best  place  for 
the  foal,  on  account  of  the  hardness  of 
the  ground  in  the  fields,  and  here  he  will 
easily  keep  himself  warm  and  dry,  and 
he  can  be  attended  to  according  to  his 
wants.  Let  the  breeder,  however,  con- 
stantly bear  in  mind  that  a  check  given 
to  the  growth  in  the  first  winter  is  never 
afterwards  entirely  recovered,  and  that  if 
the  colt  which  has  experienced  it  turns 
out  well  he  would  have  been  still  better 
without  it. 

COLTS,  BREAKING,  How  to.— Colts, 
generally,  are  not  taken  in  hand  early 
enough   for  breaking,  and  become  wild 


3* 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


and  unmanageable    when   breaking  be- 
comes necessary.     Then  they  have  to  be 
reduced   to   obedience    by   violent   and 
barbarous  usage,  by  which  they  are  often 
permanently   injured,    besides   acquiring 
evil   and  mischievous  habits.     Breaking 
should   begin  so  early  and   proceed   so 
gradually  that  the  horse  will  grow  up  in 
those   habits   of  obedience  and  docility 
which  give  him  really  his  highest  value. 
The  colt  should  be  made  docile  and  fear- 
less  by  familiar   handling   and   petting. 
No  such  thing  as  a  whip  should  ever  be 
allowed  to  touch  the  very  young  foals. 
But  man,  however,  should  always  appear 
among  his  stock   as  master.     Colts,  and 
sometimes   horses,   are  spoiled  by  being 
petted  and  played  with  by  children  and 
others,  who,  half  afraid  of  them,  do  not 
maintain    the    proper     attitude    toward 
them.     The  feed  for  colts  must  not  be 
heavy ;  during  the  first  year  they  should 
depend  upon  the  mare   and  what  grass 
and  fodder  they  pick  up  on  the  pasture, 
with   one  or   two  quarts  of  oats  a  day, 
after   weaning  and     during  the  winter. 
Plenty   of  fresh  air  is  an  important  re- 
quisite for  horses,  whether  young  or  old. 
After  the  colt  is  accustomed  to  being 
led  about  by  the  halter,  it  is  time  to  be- 
gin his  education  as  a  trotter.     He  can 
be  led  on  a  trot  around  the  yard,  never 
being  led  too  fast  or  too  long.     It  should 
be  made  a  game  or  play,  and  the  colt 
should  enjoy  it,  being  always  encouraged 
to   trot   and  never  allowed  to  break  or 
run.     After  the   first  year  the  feed  may 
be  increased  to  four  or  five  quarts  of  oats 
a  day,  decreasing  it  during  the  months 
of  good  pasturage  and  increasing  it  in 
winter.     A  suitable  bitting  apparatus  may 
now  be  put  on,  the  reins  substituted  for 
the  halter.     The  colt  should  be  exercised 
on  the  road  and  made  familiar  with  pass- 
ing vehicles  and  the  common   sights  and 
noises.     When  two  years  and  a  half  old, 
the  colt  may  be  safely  broken  to  go  un- 
der  the  saddle.     Before    attempting   to 
use  him  in  that  way,  he  may  be  accus- 
tomed to  the  saddle,  and  by  occasionally 
placing  a  child  on  his  back,  while  stand- 
ing beside  him,  there  will  be  no  trouble 
in  using  him  in  that  way  at  the  proper 
time.     Too  much  weight  in  the  saddle  is 
apt  to  affect  the  symmetry  of  the  line  of 
the  back  and  otherwise  injure  a  young 
horse,  and  a  rider  of  light  weight  should 


always  be  selected.  After  being  accus- 
tomed to  the  road,  under  the  saddle,  the 
colt  may  be  harnessed  and  driven  with  a 
well-broken  horse.  And  after  being  thus 
accustomed  to  harness,  the  colt  may  be 
hitched  to  a  sulky,  but,  as  soon  as  it  is 
safe,  should  be  changed  to  a  skeleton 
wagon.  This  is  preferred  to  a  sulky,  as. 
the  weight  of  the  sulky  and  driver  presses 
too  much  on  the  back  and  loins.  This  is 
the  time  of  the  principal  danger  by  over- 
driving. The  young  horse  is  going  nice- 
ly to  the  skeleton  wagon,  and  every  time- 
he  shows  a  fine  gait  and  burst  of  speed, 
the  driver  is  anxious  to  keep  it  up,  or 
make  him  do  it  again.  These  evidences 
of  capacity  and  promise  should  make  the 
driver  doubly  cautious;  and  the  young 
horse  be  allowed  to  make  only  short 
spurts  of  speed,  and  those  for  a  short 
distance,  and  very  few  at  any  one  drive. 
Many  young  horses  are  urged  and  driven 
until  they  get  tired  of  trotting;  thus, 
whole  seasons  are  lost,  and  frequently 
they  are  put  permanently  back. 

HORSE,  Diet  for  the. — In  acute  dis- 
eases no  food  whatever  ought  to  be  given 
until  improvement  has  taken  place,  and 
even  then  only  in  a  sparing  manner;  the 
articles  of  diet  most  suitable  are  bran,, 
oats,  hay,  carrots,  Swede  turnips,  and 
green  food,  either  grass  or  clover. 

The  bran  may  be  given  either  dry  or 
wetted,  whichever  way  the  animal  pre- 
fers it. 

Oats  may  be  given  mixed  with  the 
bran,  either  raw  and  crushed,  or  whole 
and  boiled. 

It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  animal 
without  food  or  water  half  an  hour  be- 
fore and  after  administering  the  medi- 
cine. 

HORSE,  Clipping,  Singeing  and  Trim- 
ming.— The  coat  of  the  horse  is  changed 
twice  a  year,  the  long  hair  of  the  winter 
coming  off  in  April  and  May,  or  some- 
times earlier  when  the  stables  are  warm 
and  there  is  no  exposure  to  severe  cold. 
A  slight  sweat  hastens  this  shedding,  as 
every  horseman  knows  by  experience,  and 
even  in  harness  the  hairs  are  cast  in  the 
face  of  the  driver  to  his  great  annoyance 
on  a  windy  day.  Clipped  horses  are 
I_nger  than  others  in  shedding  their 
coats,  and  present  a  most  disagreeable 
mottled  appearance,  which  makes  the 
state   still   more  noticeable.     The  long 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


33 


hair  on  the  legs  is  about  a  month  later  in 
coming  off,  and  indeed  it  will  not  fall  till 
midsummer,   unless   some   more   violent 
means  than  are  used  in  ordinary  dressing 
are  adopted.     With  some  breeds  and  in- 
dividuals  the   winter   coat   is   not   very 
much  longer  and  coarser  than  that  of  the 
summer ;  but  all,  save  blind  horses,  show 
more  or  less  difference  in   favor  of  the 
summer  coat.     Curiously  enough,  horses 
which  are  totally  deprived  of  sight  have 
almost  invariably  a  good  winter's  coat, 
often  better  than  that  which  they  show  at 
other  seasons ;  but  why  this  is  so,  no  one 
has  ever  been  able  to  explain,  though  we 
have    never    known  the  fact  disputed. 
About  the  middle  of  October,  or  early  in 
November,  the   summer  coat  is  thrown 
off;  but  some  of  the  hair  appears  to  re- 
main  as   a   sort    of   undercoat,   among 
which   the   long,  coarse  hairs  of  winter 
make  their  appearance.     These  continue 
growing  for  six  weeks  or  two  months  if 
they  are  clipped  or  singed,  and  even  after 
Christmas,  if  the  weather  is  cold  and  the 
skin  is  much  exposed,  there  will  be  an  ev- 
ident increase  in  length  of  some  of  the 
hair.     In  accordance  with  the  growth  of 
this  on  the  body  is  that  of  the  hair  on 
the  legs,  which  become  feathered  all  the 
way   down  below  the  knees  in  the  fore 
legs,  and  half  way  down  the  backs  of  the 
canna  bones  in  the  hind  legs.     Low-bred 
horses  have  more  hair  on  those  parts  than 
thorough-breds;  but  even  these  latter,  if 
they  are  not  stabled  tolerably  warmly,  ex- 
hibit a  great  deal  of  hair  on  their  legs. 
Those  who  can  see  no  possibility  of  im- 
proving on  nature  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  long  hair  is  a  defence  against  the 
cold,  which  ought  not  to  be  removed, 
and  they  argue  that  clipping  and  singe- 
ing are  on  that  account  to  be  rejected  al- 
together.     But  these   gentlemen  forget 
that  the  horse  in  his  native  plains  has  al- 
ways a  short  coat,  and  that  the  winds  and 
rains,  which  cause  him  here  to  throw  out 
an  extra  protection,  are  not  natural  to 
him.     Moreover,  if  the  animal  is  left  to 
follow  his  own  impulses,  even  when  turned 
out  in  this  country,  he  will  be  all  the  bet- 
ter for  his  long  coat,  for  while  it  has  the 
great  advantage  of  protecting  him  from 
the  cold,  it  is  not  wetted  by  sweat,  be- 
cause he  does  not  voluntarily  gallop  long 
and  fast  enough  to  produce  that  secre- 
tion.   The  natural  protection  is  therefore 


undoubtedly  good  for  the  horse  when  left 
in  a  state  of  nature ;  but  when  man  steps 
in  and  requires  the  use  of  the  horse  for 
such  work  as  will  sweat  him  severely,  he 
discovers  that  a  long  coat  produces  such 
great  exhaustion,  both  during  work  and 
after  it,  that  it  entirely  forbids  the  employ- 
ment of  the  horse  for  hunting,  or  any  fast 
work.     We  have  many  times  found  it  im- 
possible to  extend  a  horse  for  any  dis- 
tance on  account  of  his  long  coat,  which 
distressed  him  so  much  as  to  make  him 
blow   directly,  whereas  on  removing   it 
with  die  clipping  scissors  he  could  gallop 
as  lightly  as  a  race-horse,  and  be  able  to- 
go  as  fast  and  as  far  again  as  before. 
When  this  happens  in  the  course  of  the 
week  following  the  previous  failure,  the- 
only   change   made   being  in   the  coat, 
there  can  be  no  mistake  made,  and  a  con- 
stant repetition  of  the  same  result  leaves 
no  room  for  dispute  as  to  the  beneficial 
effects  of  removing  the  hair.     But,   say 
the  opponents  of  the  plan,  "  All  this  may 
be  true,  yet  it  is  unsafe  to  expose  the- 
clipped  horse  after  he  has  been  warmed,, 
or  indeed  at  at  any  time."     Experience 
tells  a  very  different  tale,  and  informs  us- 
that  so  far  from  making  the  horse  more 
liable  to  cold,  clipping  and  singeing  ren- 
der him  far  less  so.     Suppose  one  of  our- 
selves to  be  exposed  to   a  cold  wind, 
should  we  rather  have  on  a  thin  dry  coat 
or  a  thick  wet  one  ?     Assuredly  the  for- 
mer, and  undoubtedly  the   wearer  of  it 
would  be  less  liable  to  cold  than  he  who- 
has  the  wet  one  on.     So  with  the  horse. 
As  long  as  his  winter  coat  can  be  kept 
dry  he  is  protected  by  it,  and  the  slow 
worker,  who  is  not  made  to   pull    such 
heavy  weight  as  to  sweat  him,  will  be  all 
the  better  for  its  protection,  but  the  mo- 
ment the  pace  is  sufficiently  accelerated"- 
to  warm  the  skin,  the  sweat  pours  forthr 
and  is  kept  up  in-doors  by  the  matted* 
mass  of  moist  hair  with  which  the  horse 
is  covered.     In  former  days  we  have  had* 
horses  wet  for  weeks  together,  from  the- 
impossibility  of  getting  them  dry  in  the. 
intervals   of   their  work.      They  would: 
break  out  afresh  when  apparently  cool,, 
and  by  no  possible  means  could  they  be 
thoroughly  dried.     This  of  course  wasted 
their  flesh  to  a  frightful  extent,  but  on 
clipping  them  it  was  soon  put  on  again, 
showing  the  great  advantage  of  the  plan. 
A  chronic  cough  almost  always  accom- 


34 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


panies  this  state  of  constant  sweat,  and  it 
will  be  lucky  for  the  owner  of  a  horse  so 
treated  if  it  does  not  become  acute  and 
put  an  end  to  the  miserable  existence  of 
the  poor,  ill-treated  brute.  The  case  is 
not  always  fairly  put,  as  for  instance  by 
Stewart  in  his  Stable  Economy,  where  he 
says,  "  A  long  coat  takes  up  a  deal  of 
moisture,  and  is  difficult  to  dry;  but 
whether  wet  or  dry  it  affords  some  de- 
fence for  the  skin,  which  is  laid  bare  to 
every  breath  of  air  when  deprived  of  its 
natural  covering.  Every  one  must  know 
from  himself  whether  wet  clothing  and  a 
wet  skin,  or  no  clothing  and  a  wet  skin, 
is  the  most  disagreeable  and  dangerous. 
It  is  true  that  clipping  saves  the  groom  a 
great  deal  of  labor.  He  can  dry  the 
horse  in  half  the  time,  and  with  less  than 
half  of  the  exertion  which  a  long  coat 
requires ;  but  it  makes  his  attention  and 
activity  more  necessary,  for  the  horse  is 
almost  sure  to  catch  cold,  if  not  dried  im- 
mediately. When  well  clothed  with  hair 
he  is  in  less  danger,  and  not  so  much  de- 
pendent on  the  care  of  his  groom." 
Now,  we  maintain  that  this  passage  is  full 
of  fallacies  and  misstatements.  The 
comparison  is  not  between  wet  clothing 
and  a  wet  -skin,  and  no  clothing  and  a  wet 
skin ;  but,  as  we  have  before  observed, 
between  a  wet  long  coat  and  a  dry  short 
one.  The  clipping  removes  the  tenden- 
cy to  sweat,  or  if  its  secretion  is  poured 
out  it  ceases  directly  the  exercise  which 
produced  it  is  stopped.  But  taking  Mr. 
Stewart  on  his  own  terms,  who  has  not 
•experienced  the  relief  which  is  afforded 
by  taking  off  wet  gloves  and  exposing 
the  naked  hands  to  the  same  amount  of 
■wind  and  cold  ?  This  is  exactly  the  case 
as  he  puts  it,  and  tells  directly  against  his 
argument ;  but  it  is  scarcely  worth  while 
to  discuss  the  subject  at  length,  for  we 
know  no  horseman  of  experience  in  the 
present  day  who  does  not  advocate  the 
use  of  the  scissors  or  the  lamp,  whenever 
the  winter  coat  is  much  longer  than  that 
of  the  summer.  That  horses  are  occa- 
sionally to  be  met  with  which  show  but 
little  or  no  change  in  the  autumn  we 
know  full  well ;  but  these  are  the  excep- 
tions to  the  rule,  being  few  and  far  be- 
tween. The  vast  majority  would  have 
their  hair  from  one  to  two  inches  long  if 
left  in  its  natural  state,  and  they  would 
then  be  wholly  unfit  for  the  uses  to  whieh 


they  are  put.  We  may  therefore  consid- 
er that  it  is  admitted  to  be  the  best  plan 
to  shorten  the  coat  in  the  autumn,  and  all 
we  have  to  do  is  to  discuss  the  best  modes 
of  effecting  the  purpose,  with  a  view  to 
decide  whether  clipping  or  singeing  is  to 
be  preferred. 

Horse  Clipping  is  seldom  performed  by 
any  but  the  professed  artist,  inasmuch  as 
it  requires  great  practice  to  make  the 
shortened  coat  look  even  and  smooth. 
When  a  horse  is  well  clipped  his  skin 
should  look  as  level  and  almost  as  glossy 
as  if  he  had  on  his  ordinary  summer 
coat ;  but  inferior  performers  are  apt  to 
leave  ridges  in  various  directions,  mark- 
ing each  cut  of  the  scissors.  It  should 
not  be  done  till  the  new  hair  has  attained 
nearly  its  full  length,  for  it  cannot  be  re- 
peated at  short  intervals  like  singeing.  If 
it  is  attempted  too  soon  the  new  coat 
grows  unequally,  and  the  skin  in  a  fort- 
night's time  looks  rough  and  ragged.  A 
comb  and  two  or  three  pairs  of  variously 
curved  scissors  are  all  that  are  required, 
with  the  exception  of  a  singeing  lamp, 
which  must  be  used  at  last  to  remove  any 
loose  hairs  which  may  have  escaped  the 
blades  of  the  scissors.  Two  men  gener- 
ally work  together,  so  as  to  get  the  ope- 
eration  over  in  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
hours,  which  time  it  will  take  to  clip  the 
average-sized  horse  properly.  These  men 
were  formerly  in  great  demand  at  the 
clipping  season,  and  it  was  extraordinary 
how  little  rest  sufficed  them,  but  now  the 
use  of  the  gas  singeing-lamp  has  nearly 
superseded  that  of  the  scissors,  and  clip- 
pers are  not  so  much  sought  after.  While 
the  process  is  going  on,  the  horse  ought 
to  be  clothed  as  far  as  possible,  careful 
men  removing  only  so  much  of  the  quar- 
ter piece  as  is  sufficient  to  expose  the  part 
they  are  working  at,  and  no  more.  As 
soon  as  the  whole  body  is  gone  over  as 
well  as  the  legs,  the  singeing  lamp  is 
lightly  passed  over  the  surface,  which  will 
leave  the  hair  burned  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  require  either  washing  or  a  sweat, 
which  latter  is  generally  adopted,  in  the 
belief  that  it  has  a  tendency  to  prevent 
cold.  Our  opinion  is,  that  this  is  a  falla- 
cy, and  that  soap  and  water  used  quickly 
and  rapidly,  followed  up  by  a  good  strap- 
ping and  the  use  of  plenty  of  warm 
clothing,  is  far  less  likely  to  chill  the  horse, 
than  the  exhaustion  consequent  upon  a 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


sweat.  We  have  tried  the  plan  repeat- 
edly, and  known  it  tried  by  others  still 
more  frequently,  but  we  have  never  heard 
of  any  ill  effects  resulting.  Very  often  a 
sweat  is  exceedingly  inconvenient,  either 
from  the  difficulty  in  getting  ground,  as 
happens  in  towns,  or  from  the  infirm 
state  of  the  legs.  But  soap  and  water 
can  always  be  obtained,  and  if  carefully 
used  there  is  not  the  slightest  danger  at- 
tending them.  Of  course,  after  the  re- 
moval of  a  long  coat  the  skin  requires  an 
extra  protection  in-doors  in  the  shape  of 
3.  double  allowance  of  clothing,  and  it 
Avill  be  necessary  to  avoid  standing  still 
out  of  doors,  though,  as  we  have  before 
remarked,  on  the  whole  the  risk  of  taking 
cold  by  horses  Worked  hard  enough  to 
sweat  them  is  less  if  they  are  clipped 
than  if  they  have  their  long  coats  on. 

Horse  Singeing  requires  less  practice 
than  clipping,  but  it  cannot  be  done  with- 
out some  little  experience  of  its  difficul- 
ties, and  a  novice  generally  burns  the  skin 
as  well  as  the  hair.  To  keep  a  horse's 
coat  in  good  order  it  must  be  singed  sev- 
eral times  during  the  autumn,  beginning 
as  soon  as  the  new  growth  has  attained  a 
length  of  half  an  inch  beyond  what  is 
usual.  The  singeing  lamp  is  then  passed 
lightly  over  the  whole  body,  and  soap 
and  water  being  used,  as  we  have  de- 
scribed under  the  head  of  clipping,  or  a 
sweat  given  if  that  plan  is  preferred,  the 
coat  is  left  for  a  fortnight  or  two  weeks 
till  it  has  grown  another  half  inch,  when 
the  process  is  repeated,  and  again  a  third, 
and  even  a  fourth  time  if  necessary.  On 
account  of  these  repeated  applications  of 
the  lamp,  the  professed  singer  is  not  so 
often  employed  as  the  clipper,  especially 
as  the  former's  work  is  not  so  difficult  to 
perform  as  that  of  the  latter. 

The  lamp  now  in  common  use  is  at- 
tached to  a  wide  copper  comb  made  like 
a  rake  in  principle,  and  is  so  arranged 
that  the  teeth  raise  the  hair  and  draw  the 
ends  into  the  flame.  Where  gas  is  pro- 
curable the  comb  is  attached  to  the  gas 
pipe  by  a  flexible  tube,  and  the  lamp  con- 
sists merely  in  a  number  of  holes  perfo- 
rated along  the  edge  of  the  comb,  so 
that  a  series  of  jets  of  gas  are  lighted, 
and  burn  so  strongly,  that  the  coat  is  com- 
pletely removed  as  near  the  skin  as  the 
teeth  of  the  comb  raise  it.  If  gas  can- 
not be  obtained,  a  wide  wick  of  cotton  is 


inserted  in  a  flat  holder,  and  the  ends 
protruding  to  the  level  of  the  teeth,  while 
a  reservoir  filled  with  naphtha  supplies 
them  with  that  inflammable  fluid,  a  con- 
stant flame  is  maintained,  but  not  nearly 
equal  in  strength  to  that  from  gas.  As 
the  coat  is  not  allowed  to  grow  so  long 
before  it  is  singed,  so  the  clothing  need 
not  be  much  increased  after  its  removal, 
and,  indeed,  in  well  regulated  stables, 
there  is  little  or  no  change  required. 
Singeing  is  performed  in  less  than  one 
quarter  the  time* of  clipping,  and  a  shil- 
ling's worth  of  naphtha  is  enough  for  one 
horse,  unless  his  coat  is  unusually  long. 

Horse  Shaving  was  introduced  some 
years  ago  to  a  limited  extent,  but  it  re- 
quires so  long  a  confinement  of  the  horse 
after  it  was  performed  that  it  was  soon 
abandoned.  The  hair  is  lathered  and  cut 
off  with  the  razor  as  closely  as  from  the 
human  chin,  and  unless  this  is  done  ex- 
actly at  the  right  time,  the  growth  subse- 
quently is  too  short  or  too  long.  Instances 
have  been  known  in  which  horses  have 
remained  naked  until  the  next  spring,  and 
were  thereby  rendered  perfectly  useless,  as 
they  were  chilled  directly  their  clothing 
was  removed.  The  only  advantage  in 
shaving  over  clipping  is  to  be  found  in 
the  reduced  labor  required ;  a  good  razor, 
or  rather  set  of  razors,  soon  going  over 
the  surface.  But  the  invention  of  singe- 
ing did  away  with  this  superiority,  and 
the  shaving  of  horses  is  therefore  one  of 
the  fashions  of  a  day  which  have  now  dis- 
appeared. 

Horse  Trimming. — The  jaws,  nostrils, 
ears,  legs,  mane  and  tail,  are  all  more  or 
less  subjected  to  the  care  of  the  groom, 
wrho  removes  superfluous  hairs  from  each 
or  all  by  various  means,  as  follows : 

The  jaws,  nostrils  and  ears  are  singed, 
the  last  named  not  being  touched  inside, 
as  the  internal  hairs  are  clearly  a  protec- 
tion of  the  delicate  lining  membrane  of 
the  ear  from  the  cold  and  wet.  The  long 
bristles  of  the  nostrils  may  either  be  cut 
off,  pulled  out,  or  singed  off,  but  the  first 
plan  is  the  easiest  and  the  most  humane. 
There  are,  also,  some  bristles  about  the 
eyes  which  are  generally  removed,  but  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  many  an  eye 
would  not  be  saved  from  a  blow  in  the 
dark  if  they  were  left  untouched.  Fash- 
ion, however,  dictates  their  removal,  and 
her  orders  must  generally  be  complied 


36 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


with.  The  hair  which  grows  an  inch  or 
more  in  length  beneath  the  jaw,  being  of 
he  same  nature  as  the  rest  of  the  coat,  can 
only  be  singed  off  with  advantage,  and  it 
should  be  done  as  fast  as  it  gjows,  espe- 
cially if  the  singeing  is  not  universal,  or 
there  will  be  a  different  color  presented  in 
these  parts.  Nothing  gives  a  horse  such 
a  low-bred  appearance  as  a  goatlike 
beard,  and  the  trimming  of  this  part 
alone  will  completely  alter  the  char- 
acter of  the  animal  where  the  hair 
has  been  at  all  long.  The  legs  are 
trimmed  partly  by  singeing,  and  part- 
ly either  by  clipping  or  pulling  out  the 
hairs.  Great  dexterity  is  required  to 
manage  this  performance  in  a  workrnan- 
like  manner,  so  as  to  avoid  the  stale  and 
post-like  appearance  which  is  presented 
by  a  leg  clipped  all  over  (without  a  cor- 
responding clipping  of  the  body),  and  at 
the  same  time  to  remove  all,  or  nearly  all, 
the  superfluous  hair.  In  the  summer  a 
clipped  leg  is  totally  inadmissible,  and 
even  from  the  legs  of  a  badly  bred  horse 
the  hair  may  be  pulled  by  gradually  work- 
ing at  it  for  a  little  time  every  day  with 
the  fingers,  armed  with  powdered  resin. 
This  prevents  the  hair  slipping  through 
them,  and  by  its  aid  such  a  firm  hold  may 
be  obtained  that,  as  we  said  before,  per- 
severance will  enable  the  groom  to  clear 
the  legs  entirely,  with  the  exception  gen- 
erally of  a  strong  lock  of  hair  behind  the 
pastern.  When  this  is  very  obstinate  it  is 
allowable  to  use  the  scissors  to  clear  away 
the  hair  below  the  horny  growth  which  is 
found  there,  but  there  should  always  be 
left  a  slight  fringe  round  this,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  sharp  and  stiff  outline  presented 
by  the  clipped  leg.  In  the  winter,  the 
arms  and  backs  of  the  knees,  as  well  as 
the  bosom  and  the  insides  of  the  quarters, 
will  generally  want  singeing,  whether  the 
body  is  submitted  to  the  lamp  or  not ;  but 
in  the  summer,  even  if  any  long  hairs  are 
left  there,  they  are  easily  removed  by  the 
hand  armed  with  resin.  Unless  general 
clipping  or  singeing  is  practiced,  the  front 
surfaces  of  the  legs  do  not  require  trim- 
ming at  any  season  of  the  year. 

The  mane  is  not  usually  cut,  but 
formerly  it  was  a  very  common  practice 
to  "  hog  "  it,  that  is,  to  cut  it  to  a  sharp- 
pointed  ridge,  sticking  straight  upwards 
from  the  crest,  and  giving  that  part  the 
appearance     of    extraordinary     height, 


Sometimes,  however,  the  mane  is  very 
thick,  and  then  for  the  sake  of  appear- 
ances, it  is  necessary  to  thin  it,  which  is 
done  by  twisting  a  small  lock  at  a  time, 
round  the  comb,  and  pulling  it  out ;  this, 
gives  some  little  pain,  but  apparently 
not  much,  and  evidently  not  more  than 
the  trimming  of  the  legs,  and  not  so- 
much  as  in  pulling  out  the  feelers  or 
bristles  growing  out  from  the  nostrils. 
A  small  lock  of  mane  is  generally  cut 
just  behind  the  ears  where  the  head  of 
the  bridle  rests,  as  it  would  otherwise  lie 
beneath  that  part  in  an  untidy  manner. 

In  trimming  the  tail  various  methods 
are  adopted,  when  it  is  cut  square ;  for 
if  the  hairs  are  allowed  to  grow  to  the 
full  length,  no  interference  is  necessary 
beyond  an  occasional  clipping  of  their 
points  to  prevent  them  from  breaking  or 
splitting.  A  square  tail,  however,  wheth- 
er long  or  short,  demands  the  careful 
use  of  the  scissors  or  knife,  without 
which  the  horse  to  which  it  belongs  is 
sadly  disfigured.  Two  modes  are  prac- 
ticed— in  the  first,  the  tail  is  carefully 
combed  out,  and  then  allowing  it  to  fall 
in  its  natural  position,  it  is  gathered  up 
in  the  hand  just  above  the  part  to  be  cut 
off,  and  here  a  sharp  knife  is  drawn 
across  it  backwards  and  forwards,  with- 
out notching  it,  till  it  passes  clean  through. 
The  tail  is  then  released,  and  any  loose 
hairs  projecting  are  removed  with  the 
scissors.  The  second  mode  is  not  so 
easy,  but  when  well  carried  out  is  more 
satisfactory  to  the  eye,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
capable  of  giving  a  sharper  and  more  de- 
fined edge  to  the  square  tail.  As  in  the 
first  method,  the  tail  is  carefully  combed 
out;  it  is  then  held  by  an  assistant's 
hand,  placed  beneath  the  root  of  the 
dock,  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the  position 
which  it  assumes  in  the  animal  out  of 
doors.  While  thus  poised  the  operator 
takes  a  pair  of  sharp  scissors,  and  holding 
the  blades  horizontally  open,  he  insinu- 
ates one  of  them  through  the  middle  of 
the  tail  at  the  place  to  be  cut,  passing  it 
straight  backwards,  and  cutting  the  hair 
quite  level  from  the  central  line  to  the 
outside  on  his  own  left.  Then  reversing 
the  blades,  and  keeping  to  the  same 
level,  he  cuts  towards  the  right,  and  if  he 
has  a  good  eye.  and  can  use  his  hands  in 
accordance  with  its  dictates,  he  will  have 
presented  a  very  prettily   squared  tail. 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


37 


•On  the  other  hand,  if  these  organs  are 
•defective,  or  if  he  wants  experience,  he 
-will  have  notched  the  end  of  the  tail  in 
•a  most  unsightly  manner.  If  the  groom 
wishes  to  try  his  hand  in  this  operation, 
he  should  get  hold  of  a  long  tail,  and 
begin  far  below  the  point  where  the 
squared  end  is  intended  finally  to  be. 
This  will  afford  him  five  or  six  experi- 
mental cuts,  and  if  he  cannot  satisfy  him- 
self, as  he  nears  the  proper  length,  that 
he  will  be  likely  to  succeed,  he  can  still 
■call  in  the  aid  of  a  more  skillful  operator 
before  it  is  too  late.  The  hair  of  the  tail 
grows  so  slowly,  that  two  or  three  months 
are  required  to  remove  the  disfigurement 
which  is  sometimes  caused  in  this  way, 
and  consequently  it  behooves  the  groom 
to  be  doubly  careful,  for  his  own  sake  as 
well  as  his  master's. 

To  make  the  mane  lie  smoothly  on  its 
proper  side,  which  it  sometimes  obsti- 
nately refuses  to  do,  it  must  be  plaited  in 
.small  locks,  and  the  ends  loaded  with 
lead,  if  it  cannot  be  made  to  lie  down 
without.  An  experienced  groom,  how- 
ever, will  generally  succeed  in  so  man- 
aging the  plaits  that  they  lie  close  to 
the  neck,  which  is  all  that  can  be  effected 
by  the  aid  of  lead,  but  sometimes  the 
hair  is  so  obstinate  that  nothing  else  will 
•effect  the  object  in  view. 

HORSE,  BANDAGES,  Use  and  Applica- 
tion of. — Bandages  are  applied  to  the 
4egs  of  the  horse  for  three  different  pur- 
poses. First,  to  give  support  to  the 
blood-vessels  and  synovial  capsules ;  sec- 
ondly, as  a  vehicle  for  applying  cold  lo- 
tions ;  and  thirdly,  for  drying  and  warm- 
ing them. 

For  the  mere  purpose  of  support  either 
linen  or  flannel  bandages  may  be  put  on, 
according  to  the  weather,  and  the  ten- 
dency to  inflammation.  The  legs  of 
reasoned  old  horses  are  seldom  so  prone 
to  become  hot  as  those  of  young  ones, 
and  excepting  in  very  warm  weather, 
flannel  bandages  seem  to  suit  them  bet- 
ter than  linen.  On  the  contrary,  if  flan- 
nel is  applied  to  the  legs  of  a  colt,  even 
if  they  are  not  inclined  to  inflame,  they 
will  become  hot  and  uncomfortable,  and 
he  will  learn  to  tear  them  off,  in  which 
■some  horses  become  perfect  adepts. 
Whichever  kind  of  bandage  is  put  on,  it 
^should  be  previously  tightly  rolled  with 
the  strings  inwards,  then  taking  it  in  the 


right  hand,  and  unwrapping  about  six 
inches,  they  are  laid  against  the  canna 
bone  on  the  side  nearest  to  the  groom,  so 
that  the  folds  shall  have  a  tendency  to 
unroll  from  him  and  not  to  him.  While 
the  left  hand  keeps  the  end  from  slip- 
ping, the  right  passes  the  roll  of  bandage 
closely  round  the  leg  till  it  meets  the  left, 
when  the  latter,  still  pressing  the  end 
against  the  leg,  lays  hold  of  the  roll,  and 
allows  the  right  to  be  brought  back  to 
meet  it  on  the  other  side.  After  which 
the  coils  are  repeated  till  the  whole  band- 
age is  run  out  and  the  leg  encased,  one 
row  being  slightly  above  or  below  the 
level  of  the  next,  as  may  be  required. 
The  great  art  consists  in  avoiding  un- 
equal pressure,  and  yet  giving  sufficient 
to  accomplish  the  purpose  for  which  ban- 
daging is  designed.  From  the  projec- 
tion backwards  of  the  pastern-joints,  it  is 
impossible  to  make  the  folds  lie  perfectly 
smooth,  and  there  must  be  loose  parts, 
which  however  are  covered  over  by  the 
next  turn.  No  written  description,  how- 
ever, will  suffice  to  teach  this  little  oper- 
ation, and  the  young  groom  should  watch 
a  good  bandager,  and  imitate  him  as  ex- 
actly as  he  can.  The  strings  at  the  end 
serve  to  tie  the  bandage  on,  and  these 
also  must  neither  be  so  tight  as  to  cut  the 
leg,  nor  so  loose  as  to  allow  the  bandage 
to  fall  down. 

When  cold  lotions  are  to  be  applied  by 
means  of  bandages,  linen  is  the  proper 
material,  as  flannel  is  too  bad  a  conduc- 
tor of  heat,  by  evaporation,  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  whole  bandage,  after  being 
rolled  up  moderately  tight,  should  be 
dipped  in  cold  water,  or  in  the  lotion 
which  may  be  recommended,  and  then 
while  quite  wet,  it  is  to  be  applied  in  the 
way  which  we  have  just  described.  The 
following  lotion  is  useful  for  the  purpose : 

Take  of  Tincture  of  Arnica  a  wine-glass- 
ful ;  Nitre,  one-half  ounce ;  Sal  Ammoniac, 
one  ounce;  Water,  half  a  bucketful. 
Mix  and  use  by  dipping  the  bandages  in 
before  applying  them,  and  wetting  them 
with  the  solution  afterwards  by  means  of 
a  sponge. 

If  the  groom  is  careful,  he  may  remove 
inflammations  of  the  leg  better  by  means 
of  dipping  them  in  cold  water,  or  the 
above  lotion  may  be  applied  with  a 
sponge  every  half-hour,  holding  each  leg 
over  the  bucket,  than  with  the  aid  of  band- 


38 


HORSE—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


ages.  A  cold  douche  by  means  of  a 
forcing  garden  engine  is  also  extremely 
beneficial  to  the  legs,  Lut  it  must  be  used 
out  of  doors,  as  it  will  wet  the  litter  and 
the  walls  of  the  stall  if  the  water  is 
splashed  over  them  within  doors. 

For  Drying  and  Warming  the  Legs 
when  the  horse  is  being  dressed,  flannel 
is  the  only  proper  material  for  bandages. 
Its  modes  of  application  is  not  of  much 
consequence,  provided  the  bandages  are 
put  on  moderately  loose,  for  tight  pres- 
sure has  a  tendency  to  prevent  the  return 
of  natural  heat,  which  is  so  much  desired. 
After  wetting  the  legs  the  bandages  should 
be  applied  somewhat  more  tightly,  so  as 
absorb  the  moisture  as  much  as  possible. 

HORSE,  FEET,  Management  of  the.— 
In  the  stabled  horses  the  feet  require  con- 
stant care,  for  they  are  not  only  artificially 
shod,  but  they  are  allowed  to  stand  on  a 
material  which  is  a  much  worse  conduc- 
tor of  heat  than  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
by  nature  designed  to  bear  them.  Hence, 
if  neglected,  they  either  become  hard  and 
brittle,  or  they  are  allowed  to  be  con- 
stantly wet,  and  then  the  soft  covering  of 
the  frog  is  decomposed,  and  emits  a  dis- 
agreeably smelling  discharge,  which  soon 
wastes  it  away,  leaving  no  other  protec- 
tion to  the  sensible  organ  beneath,  and 
constituting  what  is  called  an  ordinary 
thrush.  Again,  it  is  found  by  experience, 
that  not  only  must  the  shoes  be  renewed 
as  they  wear  out,  but  even  if  no  work  is 
done,  and  consequently  they  are  not  re- 
duced in  size,  they  no  longer  fit  at  the 
expiration  of  about  three  weeks,  and  they 
must  be  removed,  to  allow  a  portion  of 
the  sole  and  crust  being  cut  away  before 
they  are  again  put  on.  The  groom  must 
therefore  attend  to  the  following  points : 
First,  to  prevent  the  feet  from  becoming 
too  dry ;  secondly,  to  take  measures  against 
their  becoming  thrushy  from  wet;  thirdly, 
to  see  that  the  shoes  are  removed  at  the 
end  of  every  three  weeks,  or  more  fre- 
quently if  necessary;  and  fourthly,  to 
examine  carefully  every  day  that  they  are 
securely  nailed  on  without  any  of  the 
clenches  having  started  up  from  the  sur- 
face, so  as  to  endanger  the  other  leg. 

Dryness  of  the  Feet  is  prevented  by  the 
use  of  what  is  called  stopping,  which  is 
composed  either  of  cow-dung  alone,  or 
cow-dung  and  clay  mixed,  or  of  cow- 
dung  and  pitch.     The  first  is  by  far  the 


most  powerful  application,  but  it  moistens- 
the  sole  too  much  if  employed  every 
night,  and  then  produces  the  opposite 
evil  in  the  shape  of  thrush.  A  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  cow-dung  and  clay  may 
be  used  every  night  with  advantage,  and 
this  we  believe  to  be  the  best  of  all  stop- 
pings. It  should  be  kept  in  a  strong  box 
of  wood,  about  a  foot  long  and  eight 
inches  wide,  with  a  handle  across  the  top, 
and  it  should  be  applied  the  last  thing  at 
night  to  the  soles  of  the  fore  feet  only,  by 
means  of  a  thin  piece  of  wood,  a  foot 
long  and  a  couple  of  inches  wide,  with 
which  the  space  within  the  shoe  is  com- 
pletely stuffed.  If  the  feet  are  obstinately 
dry,  in  spite  of  repeated  stoppings  with 
cow-dung  alone,  which  will  rarely  be  the 
case,  a  tablespoonful  of  salt  maybe  added 
to  the  cow-dung,  and  this  will  never  fail. 
For  most  horses  stopping  with  cow-dung 
alone  once  a  week  is  sufficient,  but  the 
groom  can  judge  for  himself,  by  their 
appearance,  of  the  number  of  stoppings 
required.  If  three  parts  of  cow-dung 
and  one  of  clay  are  used,  the  feet  may  be 
stopped  twice  a  week,  or,  perhaps,  every 
other  night,  and  if  equal  parts  of  each 
are  adopted  as  the  composition,  almost 
any  feet  will  bear  being  stopped  every 
other  night,  with  exception  of  flat  or 
pumiced  soles,  which  should  never  be 
stopped  at  all.  On  the  night  before  shoe- 
ing, every  horse,  even  if  he  has  flat  soles, 
will  be  the  better  for  having  his  feet  stop- 
ped, the  application  softening  the  horn  so 
as  to  allow  the  smith  to  use  his  knife  to 
slice  it  without  breaking  it  into  crumbling 
fragments.  Several  patents  have  been 
taken  out  for  felt  pads,  to  be  soaked  in 
water,  and  then  soaked  in  the  hollow  of 
the  shoe,  but  they  do  not  answer  nearly 
so  well  as  cow-dung  stopping,  which  has 
far  more  emollient  qualities  than  mere 
water.  We  believe  nothing  has  yet  been 
discovered  which  has  qualities  at  all  equal 
to  this  old-fashioned  natural  remedy. 

Thrushes  are  prevented  by  keeping  the 
frogs  free  from  ragged  layers  of  elastic 
substances  of  which  they  are  partly  com- 
posed, and  at  the  same  time  by  maintain- 
ing a  dry  state  of  the  litter  on  which 
the  horse  stands.  We  are  now  consid- 
ering the  management  of  the  horse  at 
grass,  where  thrushes  are  generally  pro- 
duced when  the  weather  is  very  wet,  or 
when  the  pasture  is  of  too  marshy   a. 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


39 


character,  but  the  frogs  of  the  stabled 
horse,  which  ought  never  to  be  allowed  to 
be  so  moist  as  to  become  decomposed. 
Some  ulcerated  conditions  of  the  frog 
which  are  still  considered  to  come  under 
the  general  denomination  "thrush,"  are 
due  to  several  internal  diseases  of  the 
bones  of  the  foot,  and  are  not  caused  by 
moisture  at  all.  Still  these  are  rare  ex- 
ceptions, and  the  ordinary  thrush  of  the 
stable  may  be  considered  as  invariably 
caused  in  the  latter  way.  Cases  are  also 
occasionally  to  be  met  with  in  which, 
from  general  grossness  of  the  system,  the 
sensible  frog  throws  off  part  of  its  horny 
covering,  and  secretes  a  foul  matter  in- 
stead. The  management  of  these  dis- 
eased conditions  comes  within  the  prov- 
ince of  the  veterinarian,  and  we  shall 
therefore  not  enter  upon  its  considera- 
tion ;  but  the  prevention  of  the  mere  de- 
composition of  the  external  surface  by 
moisture  is  a  part  of  the  duties  of  the 
groom,  and  so  is  the  application  of  the 
proper  remedies  for  it,  as  soon  as  the 
nature  of  the  case  is  clearly  made  out. 
Here  antiseptic  astringents,  which  are 
quite  out  of  place  in  inflammatory  thrush, 
are  the  only  useful  applications,  and  by 
their  means  alone  can  decomposition  be 
stopped.  Of  these  Sir.  W.  Burnett's  so- 
lution of  chloride  of  zinc  is  the  best,  but 
in  mild  cases,  Condy's  fluid,  which  is  the 
permanganate  of  potass,  will  answer  well, 
and  is  not  so  poisonous  in  its  nature  if 
carelessly  left  about.  Friar's  Balsam, 
with  as  much  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc  dis- 
solved in  it  as  it  will  take  up,  is  the  old- 
fashioned  grooms'  remedy  for  the  thrush, 
and  a  very  good  one  it  is,  if  carefully  in- 
sinuated into  the  cleft  of  the  frog  on  a 
piece  of  tow  wetted  with  it.  The  grand 
principle,  however,  is  to  prevent  thrush 
rather  than  "to  cure  it,  but  when  horses 
are  bought,  or  come  home  from  the  grass 
with  it,  the  curative  method  must  be  car- 
ried out. 

The  removal  of  the  shoes  at  regular  in- 
tervals, whether  they  are  worn  out  or  not, 
is  a  mcst  important  part  of  the  duties  of 
the  groom.  On  examining  the  shape  of 
the  foot  it  will  be  seen  that  the  diameter 
of  the  circle  in  contact  with  the  shoe  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  coronet,  and 
hence  as  the  shoe  is  forced  away  from  its 
original  position,  by  the  growth  of  the 
horn,  it  confines  the  walls  to  the  extent  of 


the  difference  between  the  diameter  of  the 
foot  at  its  old  position  and  that  of  the 
part  which  it  now  occupies.  For  if  two- 
lines  from  the  surface  of  the  coronet  on 
each  side  were  continued  through  the  out- 
side surface  of  the  crust  to  the  new  seat 
of  the  shoe,  they  would  be  far  from  par- 
allel, and  yet  the  shoe  nails  must  have 
been  carried  on  in  perfect  parallel  lines  on 
account  of  the  unyielding  nature  of  iron. 
For  this  reason  a  shoe,  when  it  has  not 
been  removed  at  the  end  of  a  month,  will 
be  found  to  lie  within  the  heel  of  one  side 
or  the  other,  by  which  to  some  extent  con- 
traction is  prevented,  but  at  the  expense 
of  the  heel,  into  which  the  corresponding 
part  of  the  shoe  has  entered.  This  is  a 
frequent  case  of  corns,  and  horses  which 
have  once  been  subject  to  that  disease 
should  have  their  shoes  removed  once  a 
fortnight. 

One  of  the  most  annoying  accidents  to 
the  horseman  is  the  loss  of  a  shoe,  whether 
it  happens  in  the  hunting  field  or  on  the 
road.  Some  horses  can  scarcely  be  pre- 
vented by  any  care  of  their  grooms  from 
pulling  off  a  shoe  in  hunting  when  they 
get  into  deep  ground,  but  on  the  road 
there  is  no  such  excuse,  and  the  frequent 
loss  of  a  shoe  by  the  hack  or  harness- 
horse  is  sufficient  to  condemn  the  groom 
of  carelessness  in  this  particular.  Every 
morning  when  the  feet  are  picked  out  it  is 
easy  to  look  the  shoes  over  and  see  if  they 
are  tight.  The  clenches  also  ought  to  be 
examined,  and  if  they  are  not  raised  at  all 
it  may  safely  be  predicated  that  the  day's 
journey  will  be  completed  without  the 
shoe  being  lost.  A  raised  clench  may  se- 
verely cut  a  horse  on  the  inside  of  the 
other  leg,  and  in  those  who  are  predis- 
posed to  "speedy  cut"  it  may  cause  se- 
vere injury,  and  perhaps  occasion  a  fall  of 
the  most  dangerous  character. 

HORSE,  STABLE,  Proper  Treatment  of 
the. — There  is  scarcely  any  point  upon 
which  there  is  so  much  difference  of  opin- 
ion, as  in  relation  to  the  temperature  of 
stables.  Some  contend  for  an  amount  of 
heat  which  would  raise  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer to  650  or  700,  while  others- 
would  never  have  their  stables,  if  they 
could  help  it,  above  45 °.  So  much  de- 
pends upon  the  kind  of  horse  in  them, 
and  the  work  he  has  to  do,  that  is  to  sayr 
whether  he  is  much  exposed  to  the  cold 
or  not,  that  no  rule  can  be  laid  down 


40 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


which  is  applicable  to  all  stables,  but  we 
believe  it  may  be  asserted  that  none 
should  be  above  6op,  or  below  500,  if  it 
can  be  avoided.  There  are  days  in  the 
summer  season,  when  the  air  out  of  doors 
in  the  shade  stands  at  900  or  95 °,  and,  of 
course,  in  such  weather,  it  is  impossible, 
even  with  the  doors  and  windows  wide 
open,  to  keep  the  stable  at  a  lower  de- 
gree, or  even  within  several  points  of 
those  above  stated.  So  also,  with  a  ther- 
mometer scarcely  above  zero,  it  will  be 
difficult  to  keep  the  air  wholesome,  and 
yet  to  prevent  its  temperature  falling 
lower  than  450,  which,  at  such  seasons, 
feels  very  warm  to  those  who  come  in 
from  the  external  air.  But,  with  these  ex- 
ceptions, we  think  the  rule  which  we  have 
laid  down  is  a  good  one.  The  warmer 
.the  stable,  the  better  the  coat  looks,  till  it 
is  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  even  if  it 
ds  so,  it  will  take  no  injury  if  the  horse  is 
•kept  moving,  but  if  not,  it  soon  becomes 
•chilled,  and  not  only  does  the  general 
health  suffer,  but  the  appearance  also. 
There  is,  however,  another,  and  very  seri- 
ous objection  to  hot  stables,  consisting  in 
their  ill-effect  upon  the  legs  and  feet, 
which  inflame  much  more  readily  in  a 
warm  atmosphere  than  in  a  cool  one.  We 
.have  often  known  horses  stand  severe  rat- 
tling for  months  together,  while  standing 
.in  a  stable  which  was  so  cold  as  to  make 
their  coats  as  rough  as  badgers,  but  when 
•removed  to  warmer  quarters,  they  have  at 
once  gone  "all  to  pieces,"  their  legs  or 
feet  becoming  inflamed  from  missing  the 
refrigerating  effect  of  cool  air  after  their 
daily  work.  The  body  may  easily  be  kept 
warm  enough  by  extra  clothing,  and,  if 
necessary,  a  hood  and  breastplate  may  be 
worn  all  day  and  all  night,  but  not  even 
wet  bandages  will  cool  the  legs  if  they  are 
surrounded  by  hot  air.  On  the  whole, 
therefore,  for  the  private  gentleman's  sta- 
ble, including  those  for  hunters,  hacks, 
and  carriage  horses,  we  should  advise  a 
regular  temperature  to  be  preserved  as 
near  55°  of  Fahrenheit  as  possible.  In 
coming  in  from  the  external  air  this  will 
appear  very  warm  to  the  sensations,  but  it 
is  far  below  the  high  state  of  heat  at  which 
many  of  our  stables  were  kept,  until 
within  the  last  few  years.  We  have  often 
known  700  to  750  of  Fahrenheit  insisted 
<on  as  the  lowest  which  would  suffice  to 
get  a  hunter  into  condition,  but  practice 


proves  the  reverse,  and  that  with  plenty 
of  clothing  he  will  do  in  a  cool  stable  of 
the  temperature  we  have  recommended, 
far  better  than  in  one  possessing  a  higher 
range.  The  celebrated  "Nimrod"  (Mr. 
Apperley)  was  a  great  advocate  for  a  hot 
stable,  which  he  thought  ought  never  to 
be  reduced  much  below  700  or  750;  but 
his  opinions,  valuable  as  they  undoubtedy 
are  in  the  main,  cannot  be  looked  upoi? 
as  in  all  points  to  be  relied  on. 
.  HORSE. — Crib-biting  is  a  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  stomach,  for  which  there  has 
never  yet  been  a  cure  discovered,  except 
on  the  principle  of  restraint.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  considered  under  the  present 
head.  In  crib-biting  the  teeth  are  ap- 
plied to  some  fixed  object — generally  the 
manger,  so  as  to  afford  a  fulcrum  for 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  to  act  from, 
and  by  preventing  this,  or  by  contriving 
so  that  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
of  the  neck  shall  give  pain,  the  vicious 
habit  is  got  rid  of  for  the  time.  The 
most  common  method  is  to  buckle  a 
leather  strap  so  tightly  round  the  neck, 
just  behind  the  jaw,  that  when  the  horse 
attempts  to  crib,  he  tightens  the  muscles 
of  that  part,  and  these  being  pressed 
against  the  strap,  occasion  such  pain  that 
the  act  is  not  completely  carried  out,  and 
even  if  it  is  on  the  first  occasion,  the  at- 
tempt is  not  repeated.  The  strap  is  buck- 
led sufficiently  tight  to  do  this  without 
much  impeding  the  act  of  swallowing,  or 
the  flow  of  blood  from  the  head,  through 
the  jugular  veins  to  the  body;  but  in  con- 
firmed cribbers  no  ordinary  pressure  will 
suffice,  and  then  the  head  often  becomes 
affected  from  the  impediment  which  is 
caused  to  the  return  of  the  blood  from 
the  brain  to  the  heart.  To  remedy  this 
defect  Mr.  Cook  Saddler,  of  England, 
two  or  three  years  ago,  invented  a  neck 
strap,  containing  a  number  of  prongs, 
which  pass  through  holes  in  a  spring 
guard,  and  unless  this  is  strongly  pressed, 
they  do  not  touch  the  skin.  It  is  applied 
by  throat  straps  to  an  ordinary  head  col- 
lar, and  in  slight  cases  it  is  found  to  an- 
swer most  perfectly;  but  when  the  vice 
has  become  confirmed,  and  the  desire  to 
indulge  in  it  is  very  strong,  the  pain  occa- 
sioned by  the  prongs  is  endured,  and  no 
effect  at  all  is  produced.  It  is  not,  there- 
fore, of  much  use,  as  the  common  strap 
does  no  injury  in  those  cases  where  Mr. 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


41 


Cook's  is  effectual,  and  the  latter  will  not 
.avai!  when  the  plain  strap  is  forbidden, 
on  account  of  the  extreme  pressure  re- 
quired. We  cannot,  therefore,  recom- 
mend any  plan  but  such  as  will  totally 
prevent  the  prehension  of  the  manger, 
and  this  is  accomplished  by  one  of  two 
ways.  In  the  first  of  these,  the  manger 
itself  is  either  concealed,  or  the  corn  and 
hay  are  placed  on  the  ground,  in  a  space 
slightly  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  stall 
by  a  row  of  bricks,  or  other  similar  bodies, 
which  cannot  be  laid  hold  of.  To  the 
concealed  manger  and  rack  there  is  the 
objection,  that  while  the  horse  is  feeding, 
he  can  go  on  cribbing  without  interrup- 
tion, and  as  this  is  the  time  chiefly  chosen 
for  the  act,  success  is  only  partly  achieved. 
Placing  the  food  on  the  ground  is  entirely 
successful  in  stopping  the  habit,  but  it 
leads  to  some  waste  of  provender,  as  the 
horse  is  apt  to  tread  upon  it,  after  which 
he  will  refuse  to  eat  it.  By  far  the  best 
preventive,  in  our  opinion,  is  the  bar  muz- 
zle, consisting  in  an  iron  frame  work, 
covering  the  lips  and  nose,  and  suspended 
from  the  head  by  a  leather  head  collar,  so 
that  the  lips  can  reach  the  corn  or  hay, 
but  the  teeth  are  too  wide  to  pass  through 
the  bars  and  seize  the  manger.  This  me- 
chanical contrivance  is  entirely  harmless, 
and  perfectly  effectual,  the  sole  objection 
to  it  being  the  fact  that  it  proclaims  the 
wearer  to  every  one  who  looks  into  the 
stable  as  a  cribber.  This  may  be  a  valid 
reason  for  rejecting  its  use  for  dealers' 
horses,  but  in  a  gentleman's  stable,  utility 
and  humanity  ought  to  have  precedence 
•of  such  a  feeble  argument.  When  the 
bar  muzzle  is  adopted,  it  should  always 
be  kept  on,  excepting,  of  course,  when 
the  bridle  replaces  it  for  work  or  exer- 
cise, or  while  the  head  is  being  dressed. 

HORSE,  Kicking  the  Wall  or  Stall 
Post  is  sometimes  a  very  annoying  trick, 
and  though  not  always  done  in  a  vicious 
manner,  it  is  objectionable,  because  the 
kicker  is  liable  to  lame  himself,  or  one  of 
his  neighbors.  In  mares  it  is  often  of  a 
sexual  nature,  and  in  them  it  is  much 
more  common  than  in  geldings — the  ex- 
tent to  which  it  is  carried  by  them  being 
generally  greatest  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  their  being  "in  use."  At  such 
times  mares  go  almost  mad,  if  they  have 
an  irritating  neighbor,  who  keeps  smell- 
ing them,   and  we  once  had  one  who 


kicked  herself  to  pieces  in  a  paroxysm 
of  this  kind,  which  nothing  but  tying  up 
the  foreleg  could  restrain.  There  are 
several  remedies  in  common  use,  but 
none  can  be  relied  on  in  all  cases.  Fore- 
most among  these  is  the  use  of  gorse, 
nailed  to  the  stall-post,  which  will  almost 
invariably  quiet  a  low-bred  animal, 
especially  if  a  gelding,  but  high-bred 
mares  will  sometimes  kick  at  it  all  the 
more,  for  the  punishment  they  receive. 
A  padded  leather  strap,  buckled  round 
the  canna  bone,  with  a  common  sinker 
attached  to  it,  or,  instead  of  this,  a  few 
links  of  heavy  chain,  will  generally  keep 
the  horse  from  kicking,  because  in  mak- 
ing the  attempt  he  gives  his  coronet  and 
pastern  a  heavy  blow.  If,  however, 
this  plan  is  unsuccessful,  it  is  liable  to 
cause  lameness,  from  the  inflammation 
produced  by  the  blows,  and,  therefore, 
the  effect  must  be  carefully  watched. 
Few  horses  kick  out  with  both  legs,  and 
a  pair  of  hobbles  buckled  around  the 
hind  fetlocks  will,  in  a  vast  majority  of 
cases,  put  an  end  to  the  trick  as  long 
as  they  are  worn,  without  any  risk,  or 
producing  any  serious  annoyance,  save 
only  what  is  inseparably  connected  with 
the  prohibition  of  the  indulgence  in  the 
desire  to  kick.  A  narrow  strap  buckled 
round  the  part  just  above  the  hock,  so  as 
to  confine  the  hamstring,  will  have  the 
desired  effect,  by  giving  intense  pain 
when  any  attempt  to  strike  out  is  made, 
but  it  is  a  most  annoying  infliction  to  the 
horse,  and  generally  prevents  his  lying 
down,  from  the  necessity*  which  there  is 
for  bending  the  hock  in  reaching  the 
ground.  We  should,  therefore,  give  the 
preference  to  the  bunch  of  gorse,  or  if 
that  is  not  readily  procurable,  to  the 
sinker  of  wood  or  iron  suspended  to  a 
strap  round  the  leg. 

HORSE,  Scratching  the  Ear  with  the 
hind  foot,  the  horse  is  very  apt  to  get  his 
leg  over  the  collar  rein,  if  the  sinker  is 
not  heavy  enough  to  keep  the  rein  tight- 
ly strained  between  the  head  collar  and 
the  ring  in  the  manger.  Impatient  ani- 
mals, also,  which  are  continually  pawing 
at  their  litter,  will  sometimes  get  one  of 
their  fore  feet  over  it,  but  this  is  not  so 
serious  an  accident  To  prevent  the 
mischief  occasioned  in  either  case  by  the 
struggles  to  get  free,  especially  when  the 
hind  leg  is  thus  caught,  the  ring  for  the 


42 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


collar  reins  is  sometimes  made  to  draw 
down  with  a  spring-catch,  which  releases 
them  when  pulled  in  that  direction,  but 
in  no  other.  When,  however,  the  sinker 
is  properly  weighted,  it  is  almost  impossi- 
ble for  such  an  accident  to  occur;  and 
this  simple  invention  has  now  become  ob- 
solete. 

HORSE,  Tearing  the  Clothes  off,  is  by 
means  an  unusual  stable  habit,  and  it  is  not 
one  very  difficult  to  cure.  There  are 
two  effectual  preventives,  however:  one 
of  which  consists  in  the  regular  employ- 
ment of  a  rough  horsehair  cloth,  made 
like  that  for  hops,  outside  the  rug  and 
which  is  so  disagreeable  to  the  teeth, 
that  no  horse  will  attempt  to  tear  it ;  the 
other  is  carried  out  by  means  of  a  pole 
of  ash,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  with  an  iron  eye  attached  to 
each  end.  One  of  these  is  fastened,  by 
means  of  a  short  leathern  strap  or 
buckle,  to  the  side  of  the  roller-pad, 
while  the  other  has  a  strap  or  chain  about 
a  foot  long,  which  attaches  it  to  the  head 
collar.  The  pole  should  reach  about  fif- 
teen inches  beyond  the  point  of  the 
shoulder,  and  it  should  be  fixed  on  the 
side  which  is  generally  uppermost  when 
the  horse  lies  down,  so  as  not  to  be  un- 
der him  in  that  position,  It  is  a  very 
simple  and  cheap  apparatus,  and  any 
village  blacksmith  can  make  and  ap- 
ply it. 

HORSE,  Weaving  is  a  mark  of  an  ir- 
ritable nervous  system,  beyond  which  it 
is  harmless,  but  quite  incurable.  It  con- 
sists in  a  perpetual  moving  of  the  head 
from  one  side  of  the  manger  to  the 
other,  with  an  action  like  that,  of  a  wild 
beast  in  his  den.  The  constant  friction 
soon  wears  out  the  collar  reins  when 
there  are  two,  and  on  that  account  a  sin- 
gle rein  may  be  adopted  in  this  particu- 
lar instance  with  advantage. 

HORSE,  Eating  the  Litter  is  a  pecu- 
liar appetite,  which  chiefly  occurs  either 
in  those  horses  which  are  kept  short  of 
hay  on  account  of  their  tendency  to  fat- 
ten, or  when  the  animal  possessing  it  has 
been  stabled  for  a  very  long  time  togeth- 
er and  requires  a  change.  In  the  form- 
er case,  nothing  but  the  muzzle  will  be  of 
the  slightest  service,  but  in  the  latter  a 
run  at  grass,  or  soiling  indoors  for  a 
month  or  two,  will  remedy  the  disorder 
of  the  stomach.     Rock  salt  in  the  man- 


ger will  sometimes  have  the  desired 
effect,  producing  a  degree  of  thirst  which 
will  make  dry  litter  distasteful. 

HORSE,  Ricking  and  Biting  savagely 
are  marks  of  actual  vice,  and  scarcely 
come  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
section.  Still  the  groom  must  know  how 
to  guard  against  them  in  the  best  way, 
so  as  to  save  himself  from  danger  with- 
out unnecessarily  punishing  the  horse. 
There  are  some  animals  which  cannot  be 
effectually  restrained  without  severity, 
but  on  the  average,  kindness  and  firm- 
ness united  will  overcome  any  horse. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  put  on  the 
muzzle  while  the  dressing  is  going  onr 
but  this  is  chiefly  because  the  skin  is  so 
irritable  that  the  brush  or  whisp  excite 
sensations  which  lead  to  the  use  of  the 
teeth  or  hind  legs  to  prevent  their  recur- 
rence. 

HORSE,  Bad  Habits  and  Outdoor 
Vices.-  -Out-door  vices  depend  upon  the 
temper  of  the  individual,  and  include 
shying,  rearing,  kicking,  lying  down, 
plunging  or  bucking,  shouldering,  and 
running  away.  Bad  habits  arise  from  a 
defective  formation  of  the  body,  and  are 
confined  to  stumbling  and  cutting. 

HORSE,  Shying  generally  arises  from 
timidity,  but  sometimes  it  is  united  with 
cunning,  which  induces  the  animal  to- 
assume  a  fear  of  some  object  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  finding  an  excuse  for  turning 
round.  The  usual  cause  for  shying  is 
doubtless  the  presence  of  some  object  to 
which  the  colt  has  not  been  accustomed, 
and  if  he  has  buck  eyes,  which  render 
him  short-sighted,  it  will  be  difficult  to 
convince  him  of  the  innocent  nature  of 
the  novel  object.  There  are  endless  pe- 
culiarities in  shying  horses,  some  being 
dreadfully  alarmed  by  one  kind  of  object, 
which  to  others  is  not  at  all  formidable. 
When  a  horse  finds  that  he  gains  his  ob- 
ject by  turning  round,  he  will  often  repeat 
the  turning  without  cause,  pretending  to 
be  alarmed,  and  looking  out  for  excuses 
for  it.  This  is  not  at  all  uncommon,  and 
with  timid  riders  leads  to  a  discontinuance 
of  the  ride,  by  which  the  horse  gains  his 
end  for  the  time,  and  repeats  the  trick  on 
the  first  occasion.  In  genuine  shying 
from  fear,  the  eyes  are  generally  more  or 
less  defective ;  but  sometimes  this  is  not 
the  cause,  which  is  founded  upon  a  gen- 
eral irritability  of   the  nervous  system. 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


43 


Thus,  there  are  many  horses  which  never 
shy  at  meeting  tilted  wagons,  or  other 
similarly  alarming  objects,  but  which  al- 
most drop  with  fear  on  a  small  bird  flying 
out  of  a  hedge,  or  any  other  startling 
sound.  These  last  are  also  worse,  be- 
cause they  give  no  notice  to  the  rider, 
whereas  the  ordinary  shyer  almost  always 
shows  by  his-  ears  that  he  is  prepared  to 
turn  round. 

The  best  plan  of  treatment  which  can 
be  adopted  is  to  take  as  little  notice  as 
possible  of  the  shying,  and  to  be  espe- 
cially careful  not  to  show  any  fear  of  its 
recurrence  when  a  wagon  appears  in  the 
distance.  When  the  horse  begins  to  show 
alarm,  and  not  till  then,  the  rider  should 
speak  encouragingly  to  him,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, with  a  severe  tone,  which  may  even 
be  supported  by  the  use  of  the  whip 
or  spurs,  if  his  own  onward  progress 
cannot  be  otherwise  maintained.  The 
principle  which  should  be  carried  out  is 
to  adopt  such  measures  as  will  get  the 
horse  to  pass  the  object  at  which  he  shies 
somehow  or  other,  and  this  should  be  ef- 
effected  with  as  little  violence  as  possible, 
always  commending  in  an  encouraging 
tone  as  soon  as  the  purpose  is  gained. 
Nothing  has  so  great  a  tendency  to  keep 
up  the  habit  as  the  plan  so  common 
among  ignorant  grooms,  of  chastising  the 
shyer  after  he  has  passed  the  object  of  his 
alarm.  If  he  can  be  persuaded  to  go  quiet- 
ly up  to  it  and  examine  it  with  his  muz- 
zle as  well  as  with  his  eyes,  great  good 
will  be  effected ;  but  this  can  seldom  be 
done  with  moving  wagons,  and  heaps  or 
stones  are  generally  only  alarming  from 
defect  of  vision,  so  that  each  time  they 
assume  a  new  phase  to  the  active  im- 
agination of  the  timid  animal. 

HORSE,  REARING,  How  to  Manage. 
— In  the  British  Sportsman  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing hint  respecting  the  management  of 
a  rearing  horse,  which  strikes  us  as  being 
worthy,  as  it  is  easy,  of  a  trial.  Whenev- 
er you  perceive  a  horse's  inclination  to 
rear,  separate  your  reins  and  prepare  him. 
The  instant  he  is  about  to  rise,  slacken 
one  hand  and  bend  or  twist  his  head  with' 
the  other,  keeping  your  hands  low.  This 
bending  compels  him  to  move  a  hind  leg, 
and  of  necessity  brings  his  fore  feet  down. 
Instantly  twist  him  completely  round  two 
or  three  times,  which  will  confuse  him 
very  much,  and  completely  throw  him  oft 


his  guard.  The  moment  you  have  finished 
twisting  him  around,  place  his  head  in  the 
direction  you  wish  to  proceed ;  apply  the 
spurs,  and  he  will  not  fail  to  go  forward. 
If  the  situation  be  convenient,  press  him 
into  a  gallop,  and  apply  the  spurs  and 
whip  two  or  three  times  severely.  The 
horse  will  not  perhaps  be  quite  satisfied 
with  the  first  defeat,  but  may  feel  disposed 
to  try  again  for  the  mastery.  Should  this 
be  the  case,  you  have  only  to  twist  him, 
etc.,  as  before,  and  you  will  find  that  in 
the  second  struggle  he  will  be  more  easily 
subdued  than  on  the  former  occasion ;  in 
fact,  you  will  see  him  quail  under  the  op- 
eration. It  rarely  happens  that  a  rearing 
horse,  after  having  been  treated  in  the 
way  described,  will  resort  to  the  trick  a 
third  time. 

HORSE,  Rolling.— This  is  a  very 
pleasant  and  perfectly  safe  amusement  for 
a  horse  at  grass,  but  cannot  be  indulged 
in  the  stable  without  the  chance  of  his 
being  dangerously  entangled  with  the  hal- 
ter rein  and  being  cast.  Yet,  although 
the  horse  is  cast,  and  bruised,  and  half 
strangled,  he  will  roll  again  on  the  follow- 
ing night,  and  continue  to  do  so  as  long 
as  he  lives.  The  only  remedy  is  not  a 
very  pleasant  one  to  the  horse,  nor  al- 
ways quite  safe ;  yet  it  must  be  had  re- 
course to,  if  the  habit  of  rolling  is  inveter- 
ate. "The  horse,"  says  Mr.  Castley, 
"should  be  tied  with  length  enough  of 
halter  to  lie  down,  but  not  to  allow  of 
his  head  resting  on  the  ground;  because, 
in  order  to  roll  over,  a  horse  is  obliged  to 
place  his  head  quite  down  upon  the 
ground." 

HORSE,  for  Kickers,  except  when  the 
habit  is  merely  a  mode  of  letting  off  su- 
perflous  spirits,  severity  is  the  only  rem- 
edy, and  a  strong  application  of  the  whip 
down  the  shoulder  the  best  means  of  using 
it.  At  the  same  time  the  snaffle-reins  ought 
to  be  firmly  held,  and  by  their  means  the 
head  kept  up,  for  there  is  always  a  ten- 
dency to  lower  this  part  in  the  act  of 
kicking;  the  gag-snaffle  is  very  effectual 
for  this  purpose. 

HORSE,  Plunging  may  be  described  as 
a  series  of  bounds  into  the  air,  which 
when  they  are  made  up  and  down  in  the 
same  place,  or  nearly  so,  are  called  "buck- 
ing," from  their  resemblance  to  the  play- 
ful antics  of  the  deer.  A  bucking  horse 
is  very  difficult  to  sit,  but  by  sawing  the 


44 


HORSE—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


mouth  with  a  twisted  snaffle  it  may  gener- 
ally be  stopped  at  once. 

HORSE,  Shouldering  is  an  attempt  to 
crush  the  leg  of  the  rider  against  a  wall, 
which  some  ill-tempered  horses  are  fond  of 
doing.  It  is  easily  avoided  by  pulling  the 
horse's  head  round  to  the  wall  instead  of 
from  it. 

HORSE,  Running  Away  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  In  some 
horses  it  is  a  species  of  temporary  mad- 
ness, and  scarcely  any  bit,  however  severe, 
will  stop  them.  When  there  is  room  and 
scope  enough,  the  remedy  is  simple,  but, 
unfortunately,  runaway  horses  generally 
'choose  a  crowded  thoroughfare  to  indulge 
their  fancies  in.  A  gallop  to  a  stand-still, 
with  the  free  use  of  the  spur  or  whip  at 
the  latter  part  of  it,  will  sometimes  pre- 
vent a  recurrence  of  this  vicious  act ;  but 
where  the  tendency  is  very  strong  it 
will  have  little  effect.  Punishing  bits  only 
-make  some  high-couraged  horses  worse, 
but  the  majority  of  runaways  would  be 
dangerous  with  a  plain  snaffle  only,  and 
yet  there  are  some  which  will  go  quietly 
enough  in  it,  while  the  adoption  of  a  curb 
will  rouse  their  tempers  at  once.  Of  course 
they  can  only  be  ridden  with  great  care 
and  judgment,  and  must  never  be  roused 
unnecessarily.  Fortunately  the  mouths  of 
horses  now  are  made  so  much  more  care- 
fully than  in  former  times,and  their  man- 
agement is  so  much  better  understood,  that 
we  seldom  hear  of  or  see  an  accident  from 
this  cause,  either  in  the  saddle  or  in  har- 
ness. The  most  essential  part  of  the 
treatment  of  a  runaway  is  the  proper 
selection  of  a  bit,  which  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  control  him  without  exciting  op- 
position from  the  pain  it  gives. 

HORSE,  Stumbling  arises  from  a  variety 
of  causes,  and  the  nature  of  any  particu- 
lar case  should  be  thoroughly  investigated 
before  any  remedy  is  attempted.  Some- 
times it  is  merely  dependent  upon  low  or 
"daisy  cutting"  action,  and  then  it  is 
possible  that  it  may  not  be  attended  with 
danger.  We  have  known  many  horses 
which  would  stumble  at  least  every  half- 
mile,  but  yet  they  would  travel  for  years 
with  sound  knees,  the  other  leg  being  al- 
ways ready  to  catch  the  weight.  In  other 
cases  a  stumble  would  only  occur  at  rare 
intervals,  but  if  the  trip  was  made  it  was 
rarely  recovered,  and  a  fall  was  almost 
sure  to  follow.    Again,  it  happens  with 


some  horses  that  when  they  are  fresh  out 
of  the  stable  their  action  is  high  and 
safe,  but  after  a  few  miles  the  extensors 
of  the  leg  tire  and  they  are  constantly 
making  a  mistake.  Inexperienced  judges 
are  very  apt  to  examine  the  action  of  the 
fore  legs  alone,  while  that  of  the  hind 
quarter  is  of  quite  as  much  importance 
to  safety,  and  is  more  so  as  regards  the 
ease  of  the  rider.  Lameness  is  a  frequent 
source  of  a  fall,  from  the  tendency  to  put 
the  foot  too  soon  to  the  ground  in  order 
to  take  the  weight  off  the  other.  And 
lastly,  upright  pasterns  will  produce 
stumbling,  when  the  shoulders  are  so 
formed  that  the  foot  is  put  down  too  near 
the  centre  of  gravity. 

The  best  plans  for  remedying  these 
several  conditions  are  as  follows  :  If  the 
cause  is  weakness  of  the  extensors,  no  care 
can  be  of  much  service ;  all  that  can  be 
done  being  to  be  on  the  look  out  for  a 
trip  and  then  to  take  the  weight  off  the 
fore  quarter  as  much  as  possible  by  sitting 
well  back,  at  the  same  time  using  such  an 
amount  of  sudden  pressure  on  the  bit  as 
to  cause  the  horse  to  exert  himself,  with- 
out any  attempt  to  keep  up  the  head  by 
mechanical  force,  which  is  an  impossibil- 
ity. When  laziness  is  the  cause,  the  stim- 
ulus of  the  spur  or  the  whip  will  suffice, 
and  it  often  happens  that  a  horse  is  safe 
enough  at  his  top  pace,  while  a  slower 
one  is  full  of  danger.  In  lameness,  of 
course,  the  only  remedy  is  to  wait  till  the 
foot  or  feet  are  sound  again. 

HORSE,  Cutting  depends  either  upon 
the  legs  being  set  on  too  near  together,  or 
on  their  joints  not  acting  in  a  proper 
hinge-like  manner.  Many  horses  cut  when 
in  low  condition,  but  are  quite  free  from 
the  defect  when  in  flesh,  and  in  such  cases 
it  is  only  necessary  to  let  them  wear  a  boot 
until  they  have  had  time  enough  to  be- 
come fresh.  Wherever  horses  "  go  close" 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  shoes  do  not 
project  beyond  the  hoof,  and  the  clenches 
of  nails  should  be  carefully  watched,  the 
groom  seeing  that  they  are  filed  down 
by  the  smith  if  they  stand  up  at  all  above 
the  level  of  the  horn.  Cutting  may  take 
place  either  on  the  prominent  part  of  the 
fetlock-joint,  or  midway  between  it  and 
the  knee,  or  just  below  the  latter,  which 
is  called  "  speedy  cutting,"  and  is  very  apt 
to  cause  a  fall.  A  boot  should  be  fitted  to 
the  leg  in  either  case,  and  worn  till  the  part 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


45 


is  thoroughly  healed  and  all  swelling  has 
disappeared,  when  if  any  likely  method 
of  treatment  has  been  adopted  the  horse 
may  be  tried  without  it,  but  no  journey 
should  be  undertaken  without  one  in  the 
pocket  in  case  it  may  be  needed.  A  pe- 
culiar method  of  shoeing,  called  a  feather- 
edged  shoe,  will  often  prevent  this  bad 
habit  as  long  as  it  is  adopted. 

HORSE,  Slipping  the  Halter.— This  is 
a  trick  at  which  many  horses  are  so  clever 
that  scarcely  a  night  passes  without  their 
getting  loose.  It  is  a  very  serious  habit, 
for  it  enables  the  horse  sometimes  to 
gorge  himself  with  food,  to  the  imminent 
danger  of  staggers;  or  it  exposes  him,  as 
he  wanders  about,  to  be  kicked  and  in- 
jured by  other  horses,  while  his  restless- 
ness will  often  keep  the  whole  team  awake. 
If  the  web  of  the  halter,  being  first 
accurately  fitted  to  his  neck,  is  suffered  to 
slip  only  one  way,  or  a  strap  is  attached 
to  the  halter  and  buckled  around  the  neck, 
but  not  sufficiently  tight  to  be  of  serious 
inconvenience,  the  power  of  slipping  it 
will  be  taken  away. 

HORSE,  Stubborn.— The  brain  of  the 
horse  seems  to  entertain  but  one  thought ; 
for  this  reason  continued  whipping  is  out 
of  the  question,  and  only  confirms  his 
stubborn  resolve.  But  if  you  can  in  any 
manner  change  the  direction  of  his  mind, 
give  him  a  new  subject  to  think  of,  nine 
times  out  of  ten,  he  will  start  without 
further  trouble.  As  simple  a  trick  as  a 
little  pepper,  aloes,  or  the  like,  thrown 
back  on  his  tongue,  will  often  succeed  in 
turning  his  attention  to  the  taste  in  his 
mouth. 

HORSE,  Vicious,  to  Tie.— A  horse  that 
has  contracted  the  habit  of  breaking  loose 
when  tied  or  in  the  stable,  may  be  secured 
by  the  foot  instead  of  the  head,  without 
fear  or  danger  of  escape. 

HORSE,  Tricks  of  Dealers.— Unless 
a  person  is  accustomed  to  horses,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  foolish  things  imaginable 
for  him  to  go  to  a  regular  horse  dealer  to 
purchase  a  horse — taking  his  word  for  ev- 
erything. Of  course  some  will  act  honor- 
ably, and  you  will  find  the  horse  all  that 
he  recommends,  while  others  will  deceive 
you,  and  do  it  in  such  a  manner  that  un- 
til you  get  your  horse  home  you  will  not 
discover  the  cheat.  We  give  a  number 
of  tricks  which  are  used  by  them  in  buy- 
ing as  well  as  selling : 


To    MAKE    A     GOOD     PULLING     HORSE 

baulk. — Take  tincture  of  cantharides, 
two  ounces;  and  corrosive  sublimate,  two- 
drachms.  Mix  well  and  bathe  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  horse  at  night. 

TO  MAKE  THE  HORSE  APPEAR  AS  LAME. 

— Take  a  hair  from  the  tail  and  place  it 
through  the  eye  of  a  small  needle ;  press 
the  skin  between  the  outer  and  middle 
tendon  or  cord  of  the  front  leg;  shove  the 
needle  containing  the  hair  through,  then 
cut  oft  the  hair  on  each  side,  and  let  the 
foot  down.  In  twenty  minutes'  time  the 
horse  will  go  lame. 

TO  MAKE  A  HORSE  STAND  BY  HIS  FOOD 

and  not  touch  it. — Take  common  tallow 
and  grease  the  horses  front  teeth  and  roof 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  horse  will  eat  noth- 
ing until  you  have  washed  the  tallow  out. 

To  cure  a  horse  of  the  cribs  or 
sucking  wind. — Saw  between  the  upper 
teeth  to  the  gums. 

To  nerve  a  horse  that  is  lame. — 
About  half  way  from  the  knee  to  the 
joint,  on  the  outsides  of  the  leg,  make  a 
small  incision,  and  at  the  back  part  of  the 
shin  bone  you  will  find  a  small  white  ten- 
don or  cord ;  cut  this  tendon  or  cord  off, 
and  sew  up  the  incision  with  a  stitch,  and 
the  horse  will  walk  off  on  the  hardest 
pavement  without  a  limp. 

TO  MAKE  A  HORSE  APPEAR  AS  BADLY 

foundered.— Around  the  fetlock,  between 
the  foot  and  the  heel,  fasten  it  around 
tight,  and  then  smoothe  the  hair  over  the 
wires.  In  thirty  minutes  the  horse  will  be 
lame.  Do  not  leave  the  wire  on  over 
twenty  minutes. 

To  cover  up  the  heaves. — Give  the 
horse  one-third  of  a  pound  of  small  bird 
shot,  and  he  will  not  heave  until  they  pass 
through  him. 

To  make  a  horse  look  as  if  he  had 
the  glanders. — Melt  five  ounces  of  but- 
ter, and  pour  it  into  the  animal's  ear. 

To  disguise  lameness. — When  a  horse 
is  lame  in  one  shoulder,  it  can  be  easily 
disguised  by  making  a  similar  lameness  in 
the  corresponding  leg,  by  taking  off  the 
shoe  and  replacing,  first  putting  a  bean 
between  it  and  the  foot. 

To  make  a  star  on  a  horse. — Take  a 
piece  of  coarse  tow-line,  the  same  to  be 
just  the  size  of  the  proposed  star;  spread 
on  it  some  warm  pith,  and  apply  it — the 
place  to  be  first  shaved ;  leave  it  on  four 
days,  when  wash  the  spot  with  smart- 


46 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


water  or  elixir  of  vitriol  four  times  a  day 
until  well.  When  the  hair  grows,  it  will  be 
white. 

To  MAKE  AN  OLD  HORSE  APPEAR  YOUNG. 

— This  you  can  do  by  filing  down  the 
teeth,  the  dark  markings  of  which  are 
done  by  hot  irons,  filling  up  the  cavities 
over  the  eyes  by  puncturing  the  skin  over 
the  depressions,  and  filling  with  air 
/through  a  tube,  after  which  close  the  ap- 
erture, when  the  brow  will  become  smooth 
— but  only  for  a  time,  but  long  enough  to 
dupe  some  poor  victim.  The  white  hairs 
are  painted  out,  and  the  animal  will 
present  a  very  youthful  appearance,  but 
again  only  for  a  time. 

To  PUT  BLACK  SPOTS  ON  A  WHITE  HORSE. 

—Lime  (quick),  powdered,  half  a  pound ; 
litharge,  four  ounces.  Well  beaten,  and 
mix  the  litharge  with  the  lime.  The 
above  to  be  put  into  a  vessel  and  a  sharp 
ley  is  to  be  poured  over  it.  Boil  and 
skim  off  the  substance  which  rises  to  the 
surface.  This  is  the  coloring  matter, 
which  must  be  applied  to  such  parts  of 
the  animal  as  you  wish  to  have  dyed 
black.  Red  hair  may  be  dyed  black  with 
a  very  similar  composition.  Thus,  boil 
four  ounces  of  lime  with  four  ounces  of 
fresh  water ;  the  scum  that  rises  will  have 
the  same  effect.  If  the  hair  be  entirely 
free  from  grease,  one  night  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  stain  it  black. 

HORSE,  ORGANS,  Classificatisn  of  the 
Various. — The  body  of  the  horse,  like  all 
the  vertebrate  animals,  may  be  considered 
as  made  up  of  several  distinct  appara- 
tuses or  systems.  Of  these,  the  first  is 
a  machine  composed  of  the  bony  skele- 
ton, or  framework,  the  various  parts  of 
which  are  united  by  joints  and  moved  by 
muscles.  Secondly,  there  are  contained 
within  the  thorax  the  organs  which  supply 
the  whole  body  with  the  means  of  nutri- 
tion in  the  form  of  blood,  and  purify  this 
fluid.  Thirdly,  in  the  abdomen  are  pre- 
sented to  view  the  important  organs  which 
assimilate  the  food  to  the  condition  of  the 
blood ;  while  in  the  adjoining  cavity,  the 
pelvis,  are  the  urinary  and  generative  ap- 
paratuses. Fourthly,  the  nervous  system 
may  be  considered  as  comprising  the 
grand  centre  of  the  mental  faculties,  and, 
also,  as  presiding  over  and  controlling  the 
whole  of  the  functions  performed  by  the 
several  organs ;  and  fifthly,  certain  special 
organs,  as,  for  example,  those  of  sense, 


and,  likewise,  the  foot  will  complete  the 
whole  circle  of  systems  to  be  reviewed. 
Each  of  these  groups  will,  therefore,  be 
described  in  a  separate  chapter. 

HORSE,  BONE,  Structure  of  the.— 
The  bones  are  composed  of  a  tissue  pe- 
culiar to  them,  enveloped  by  a  membrane, 
the  periosteum.  They  contain  a  semi-fluid 
of  a  fatty  nature,  the  marrow,  and  are 
pierced  in  various  directions  by  blood- 
vessels and  nerves. 

The  proper  tissue  of  the  bones  is  made 
up  of  two  distinct  substances,  either  of 
which  may  be  removed  by  artificial 
means,  leaving  the  other  entire.  If,  for 
instance,  a  bone  is  submitted  to  the  heat 
of  a  furnace,  it  retains  its  shape  and  rigid- 
ity, but  becomes  much  whiter  in  color, 
and  is  rendered  extremely  brittle.  In 
fact,  the  mineral  salts  entering  into  its 
composition  are  left,  but  the  animal  mat- 
ter binding  them  together  is  completely 
decomposed  and  carried  off  in  a  gaseous 
form.  On  the  other  hand,  by  immers- 
ing a  bone  for  two  or  three  weeks  in  di- 
luted hydrochloric  acid,  the  earthy  salts 
are  dissolved,  while  the  animal  matter  is 
untouched.  Here  the  bone  retains  its 
original  shape,  but  it  is  soft  and  flexible ; 
and  instead  of  presenting  its  usual  opaque, 
yellowish-white  color,  it  is  semi-transpa- 
rent, and  resembles  the  ordinary  gelatine 
of  the  shops.  According  to  Berzilius, 
bone  is  chemically  composed  of  the  fol- 
lowing constituents — namely,  cartilage, 
reducible  to  gelatine  by  boiling;  blood- 
vessels ;  phosphate  of  lime ;  carbonate  of 
lime;  fluate  of  lime;  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia; soda,  and  chloride  of  sodium. 

Considered  mechanically,  the  bones 
form  the  framework  of  the  animal  ma- 
chine. In  the  limbs  they  are  hollow  cyl- 
inders, admirably  fitted  by  their  shape 
and  texture  to  resist  violence  and  support 
weight.  In  the  trunk  and  head  they  are 
flattened  and  arched,  to  protect  the  con- 
tents of  the  cavities  they  form,  and  to 
provide  an  extensive  surface  for  the  at- 
tachment of.  muscles.  In  certain  situa-' 
tions  their  exterior  is  raised  into  projec- 
tions called  processes,  which  serve  as  levers 
for  the  muscles  to  act  upon ;  in  others 
they  are  grooved  into  smooth  surfaces  for 
the  easy  gliding  of  tendons,  when  these 
are  stretched  between  the  fleshy  part  of  a 
•muscle  and  one  of  its  attachments.  Last- 
ly, they  sometimes  present  a  large  hollow 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


47 


for  the  lodgment  of  the  belly  of  a  mus- 
cle, as  in  the  case  of  the  scapula.  These 
■differently  shaped  bones  may,  therefore, 
be  classed  under  the  following  three 
heads : 

i  st.  The  long  bones  consist  of  the  hu- 
merus, radius,  ulna,  femur,  tibia,  and  fib- 
ula ;  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones 
(called,  in  horsemen's  language,  the  can- 
non bones),  the  phalanges  (pastern  bones), 
and  the  ribs.  These  bones  are  all  divisi- 
ble into  a  central  cylindrical  shaft,  and 
two  heads  or  extremities.  The  shaft  is 
usually  of  a  prismoid  form,  dense  in  tex- 
ture, and  presenting  a  longitudinal  tube  in 
the  interior,  called  the  medullary  canal, 
which  contains  marrow.  The  heads  are 
broad,  to  articulate  with  the  next  ad- 
joining bones,  and  are  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  cartilage,  which  will  be  described 
in  the  chapter  treating  of  the  joints. 
Their  outer  surface  is  a  hard,  osseous 
layer,  within  which  is  a  mass  ot  cells  con- 
taining red  medullary  matter,  to  be  pres- 
ently described. 

2d.  The  flat  bones  are  composed  of 
two  layers  of  dense  tissue,  one  on  each 
surface,  having  between  them  another  of 
a  cellular  nature,  called  the  diploe.  As  a 
matter  of  course,  from  their  shape,  they 
have  surfaces,  borders  and  angles ;  in  ad- 
dition to  which  they  have  projections, 
called  processes,  of  various  shapes.  They 
consist  of  the  chief  bones  of  the  head, 
the  scapula  and  pelvis. 

3d.  The  irregular  bones  comprise  the 
lesser  bones  of  the  head  and  face,  the  ver- 
tebras, sacrum,  sternum,  carpal  and  tarsal 
bones,  the  sesamoid  bones,  the  bones  of 
the  foot,  and  the  patellae.  They  resem- 
ble the  flat  bones  of  'their  structure. 

When  microscopically  examined,  bone 
is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  a  dense  and 
homogeneous  substance  (basis  substance), 
in  which  are  numberless  minute  cells  (cor- 
puscles of  Purkinje).  The  basis  substance 
is  partially  fibrous  and  slightly  lamellated, 
the  layers  being  concentric  in  long  bones 
and  parallel  in  flat ;  it  is  traversed  in  all 
directions  (more  especially  in  the  long 
axis,  where  there  is  one)  by  canals  (Haver- 
sian canals),  which  frequently  branch  and 
inosculate,  giving  passage  to  vessels  and 
nerves.  In  certain  situations  the  lamellae 
separate,  and  leave  between  them  spaces 
of  various  sizes,  called  cancelli.  Besides 
entering  into  the  composition  of  the  ba- 


sis substance,  the  lamellae  are  collected 
concentrically  round  the  Haversian  canals 
the  boundaries  of  which  they  form,  gener- 
ally to  the  extent  of  ten  to  fifteen  layers. 
Both  the  compact  and  spongy  tissues  are, 
therefore,  composed  of  the  same  element- 
ary structure,  the  former  being  especially 
intended  to  afford  resistance  to  violence 
with  as  little  weight  as  is  consistent  with 
its  office,  for  which  reason  it  is  hollowed 
into  a  tube ;  while  the  latter  is  enlarged 
as  much  as  possible  without  unnecessarily 
adding  to  its  weight,  the  problem  being 
solved  by  its  development  in  a  circular 
form. 

The  Periosteum  is  a  dense,  fibrous  mem- 
brane which  covers  every  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  bones,  excepting  their  ex- 
tremities when  they  enter  into  the  compo- 
sition of  a  joint,  its  place  being  then 
occupied  by  cartilage.  (See  Joints.) 
When  this  membrane  covers  the  bones  of 
the  skull  it  is  called  pericranium,  and 
when  it  invests  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs 
it  receives  the  name  perichondrium.  It 
is  full  of  blood-vessels,  especially  in  the 
young,  and  they  freely  communicate  with 
those  of  the  surrounding  soft  parts. 
Hence  it  is  extremely  liable  to  inflamma- 
tion, either  caused  by  injury  to  itself  or 
to  the  parts  which  cover  it. 

The  marrow,  or  medullary  substance,  is 
contained  in  the  cavities  formed  within 
the  bones,  being  of  a  yellow  color  and 
oily  nature  in  the  shafts  of  the  long 
bones;  and  more  or  less  red,  from  the 
admixture  with  blood,  in  the  flat  and  ir- 
regular bones,  and  in  the  heads  of  the 
long  bones.  It  is  contained  within  the 
areolar  meshes  of  a  membrane,  which 
lines  these  cavities,  answering  to  the  peri- 
osteum, which  has  been  already  described. 
This  medullary  membrane  is  of  excessive 
tenuity,  and  is  composed  of  blood-vessels 
ramifying  in  fine  cellular  tissues.  The 
use  of  marrow  in  the  animal  economy  is 
not  very  clearly  demonstrated. 

In  the  embryo,  all  the  bones  originally 
exist  in  the  state  of  cartilage,  being  soft 
and  flexible.  By  degrees  vascular  canals 
are  developed  within  its  substance,  by  the 
union  of  its  cells  in  rows.  These  concen- 
trate towards  some  one  or  more  points, 
which  in  a  long  bone  are  one  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  shaft  and  one  at  each  extremity. 
Starting  from  this  point  {punetum  ossifica- 
tionis),  fibres  run  out,  embracing  clusters 


48 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


of  cells,  and  sending  branches  between 
the  individuals  composing  each  group. 
In  this  manner  the  network,  character- 
istic of  bone,  is  formed,  the  cells  uniting 
to  form  the  permanent  areolae  and  Haver- 
sian canals.  At  first  the  contents  of  the 
cells  are  transparent,  then  granular,  and 
finally  opaque,  from  the  pressure  of  amor- 
phous mineral  matter.  The  several  ossi- 
fied portions  are  quite  distinct  for  a  long 
time  in  the  young  animal,  and  may  read- 
ily be  separated  by  boiling  or  maceration. 
HORSE,  Skeleton,  The  Number  of 
Bones  Composing  the. — The  skeleton  is 
composed  of  two  hundred  and  forty -seven 
separate  bones,  which  are  united  by  joints 
to  form  the  spine,  thorax,  pelvis,  tail,  and 
fore  and  hind  extremities.  The  spine  is 
finished  anteriorly  by  the  head,  which  is 
divided  into  the  cranium  and  face,  and 
contains  the  teeth.  Suspended  from  the 
head  is  the  os  hyoides,  which  completes 
the  number  of  bones.  Thus : 
The  spine  consists  of  7  cervical,  18 
dorsal,  and  6  lumbar  vertebras — 

Total.... 31 

The  thorax  is  made  up  of  the  dorsal 
vertebrae,  with  18  ribs  on  each  side, 
and  the  sternum  in  the  middle — 

Total 37 

The  pelvis  comprises  2  ossa  innomi- 
nata  (or  ilium,  ischium,  and  pubes), 

and  1  sacrum — Total 3 

The  tail  contains  on  the  average  17 

bones 17 

The  fore  extremity  is  made  up  on 
each  side  of  the  scapula,  humerus, 
os  brachii,  and  8  carpal  bones,  3 
metacarpal,  os  suffraginis,  os  coro- 
nae,  os  pedis,  os  naviculare,  2  ossa 
sesamoidea — Total  on  both  sides .  40 
The  hind  extremity  has  the  femur, 
patella,  tibia,  fibula,  6  tarsal  bones, 
3  metatarsals,  os  suffraginis,  os  cor- 
onae,  os  pedis,  os  naviculare,  2  ossa 

sesamoidea — Total 38 

Bones  of  the  cranium 10 

Bones  of  the  face  and  lower  jaw 18 

Teeth 40 

Bones  of  the  internal  ear,  4  in  each 

organ 8 

Os  hyoides,  or  bone  of  the  tongue, 
made  up  of  five  sections 5 

Grand  total 247 

HORSE,  Diseases,  General,  Remarks. — 

The  diseases  of  bone  are  not  commonly 


attended  by  any  constitutional  disturb- 
ance, and  neither  require  an  examination 
of  general  symptoms,  nor  the  adoption  of 
any  but  local  treatment,  beyond  that  at- 
tention to  the  health  which  is  always 
necessary.  They  may  all  be  included  un- 
der the  heads  of — 1st.  Exostosis,  or  in- 
creased growth  of  bone.  2d.  Caries,  or 
ulceration.  3d.  Anchylosis,  or  unnatural 
union  of  two  bones,  in  consequence  of 
exostosis,  or  caries,  or  both.  4th.  Frac- 
tures, or  disunion  by  external  force.  Ma 
lignant  diseases  of  the  bone  also  occur 
very  rarely  in  the  horse,  so  that  it  will  be 
scarcely  necessary  to  occupy  any  space 
with  their  description,  especially  as  they 
are  perfectly  incurable. 

Exostosis  is  the  result  of  increased  ac- 
tion in  the  nutrition  of  the  part,  and  is 
much  more  prevalent  in  young  horses 
than  in  old.  Indeed,  after  six  or  seven 
years  of  age  it  is  very  rarely  met  with,  and 
never  attacks  the  bones  at  that  age  for  the 
first  time.  It  may  be  recognized  by  a. 
hard  swelling  of  the  part,  which  in  recent 
cases  is  painfu!  on  pressure;  but  some- 
times its  site  cannot  be  reached  with  the 
finger,  and  the  disease  can  then  only  be 
detected  by  its  effects.  A  blow  upon  any 
of  the  bones  when  unprotected  by  any- 
thing but  skin  will  produce  inflammation 
followed  by  exostosis ;  but  the  most  ordi- 
nary cause  is  the  over-stimulus  of  hard 
work.  Heavy  horses  are  more  prone  to 
exostosis  than  light  ones,  partly  from  the 
weight  of  their  bodies  and  their  high  lum- 
bering action  jarring  their  limbs  in  a 
greater  degree,  but  also  from  the  more 
spongy  and  open  texture  of  their  bones, 
which  admit  of"  the  pressure  of  large  blood 
vessels  within  them,  and  are  thus  more 
liable  to  congestion,  and  consequent  mor- 
bid secretion.  Exostosis  is  shown  in  the 
form  of  splints,  ring  and  sidebone,  and 
ossified  lateral  cartilages,  as  well  as  in  the 
growths  which  occur  occasionally  in  other 
parts  of  the  body  which  have  received  no 
distinguishing  name.  The  vitality  of  the 
new  growth  in  exostosis  is  less  than  that 
of  healthy  bone,  and  as  a  consequence, 
when  excessive  inflammation  is  set  up  in 
the  part,  it  will  often  die  and  be  separated 
by  absorption. 

Caries  (ulceration)  occurs  as  a  conse- 
quence of  inflammation,  and  in  the  horse 
either  results  from  external  injury,  as  in 
poll  evil  and  fistulous   withers,  or  from 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


49 


mismanagement,  as  in  navicular  disease, 
which  latter  affection  will  be  considered 
under  the  diseases  of  the  foot.  It  is 
always  attended  with  pain,  and  in  severe 
cases  with  the  formation  of  sufficient  mat- 
ter to  require  an  outlet,  but  in  very 
restricted  ulcerations,  such  as  occur  in 
navicular  disease,  the  pus  passes  into  the 
joint,  and  is  reabsorbed  with  the  synovia. 

Anchylosis,  when  it  is  the  result  of  caries 
in  the  two  adjacent  surfaces  of  a  joint, 
produces  union  between  them,  but  in  the 
horse  it  is  generally  of  a  secondary  kind, 
the  result  of  bony  growths  (exostosis), 
thrown  out  from  the  surfaces  of  the  two 
bones  near  the  joint,  which  coalescing, 
unite  into  one  mass,  and  thus  destroy  all 
motion. 

HORSE,  Ossification  of  the  Lateral  Car- 
tilages.— This  is  commonly  known  as  ossi- 
fication of  the  cartilages,  or  false  ring- 
bone, no  other  cartilages  being  subject  to 
ossification,  and  these  being  therefore 
known  par  excellence  as  the  cartilages.  In 
heavy  cart  horses  it  often  co-exists  with 
ringbone  and  sidebone,  especially  the  lat- 
ter; but  it  also  attacks  well-bred  carriage 
horses,  and  high-actioned  hacks,  which 
are  comparatively  free  from  those  diseases. 

The  symptoms  are  more  or  less  enlarge- 
ment of  the  back  of  the  coronet,  and 
heel,  the  part  feeling  unnaturally  hard  and 
irregular  or  lumpy.  If  recent,  there  is 
generally  increased  heat  on  careful  exam- 
ination with  the  hand ;  but  if  old  standing 
cases,  there  is  nothing  of  the  kind  to  be 
detected.  Lameness  is  not  always  pres- 
ent, but  if  the  horse  is  rattled  over  hard 
ground,  he  will  be  more  likely  to  show  the 
effects  on  the  next  day,  by  going  short 
and  sore,  than  if  he  were  free  from  this 
disease. 

The  treatment  should  be  confined  to 
recent  cases  for  in  old  standing  ones,  un- 
less lameness  shows  itself,  it  is  better  to 
avoid  any  interference.  A  seton,  with 
rest,  has  sometimes  proved  very  efficatious, 
even  in  confirmed  ossification,  and  re- 
peated dressings  with  the  biniodide  of 
mercury  ointment,  will,  in  those  cases 
where  the  inflammation  does  not  run  very 
high,  afford  the  best  chance  of  causing 
the  absoption  of  some  of  the  bone,  for  a 
complete  cure  is  never  effected.  When 
there  is  much  heat  in  the  part,  bleeding 
from  the  foot  may  be  adopted,  and  after- 
wards the  application  of  cloths  dipped  in 


cold  water,  with  the  addition  of  a  glass  of 
tincture  of  arnica  to  a  quart  of  water.  In 
confirmed  cases,  where  the  parts  have  be- 
come callous,  a  leather  sole  to  the  shoe  will 
take  off  the  vibration,  and  should  be  used 
during  the  summer  season.  Scarification 
of  the  skin  covering  the  enlargement  with 
a  lancet,  encouraging  the  bleeding  by 
warm  water,  and  followed  by  the  use  of 
cold  water  as  soon  as  the  bleeding  has 
ceased,  will  sometimes  do  wonders  in  recent 
cases.  The  scarification  should  be  re- 
peated at  intervals  of  five  or  six  days, 
taking  care  to  avoid  injury  to  the  coron- 
ary substance  near  the  hoofs,  which  is. 
sometimes  followed  by  troublesome  sores.. 


Fig.  22.— Case  of  Ringbone  and  Sidebone." 
Occurring  in  a  Heavy  Dray  Horse. 

1.  Os  suffraginis. 

2.  Os  coronse. 

3.  Os  pedis. 

4.  Complete  union  by  ossinc  matter  between  the 

os  pedis  and  os  coronae,  but  still  incomplete  in 
the  joint  above. 

5.  Complete  union  of  the  three  bones. 

HORSE,  FOOT,  Diseases  of  the.— The* 
most  practical  division  of  this  subject  is, 
based  upon  the  structures  affected,  so  that 
we  may  have  diseases  of  the  bones,  of  the 
joints,  of  the  soft  tissues,  and  of  the 
hoof.  A  large  portion  of  these  are  in- 
flammations, or  the  results  of  inflamma- 
tion. 


5° 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


Original  inflammation  of  the  bony  tis- 
tue  is  comparatively  rare,  while  that  of 
periostial  investment  of  the  bone  is  quite 
frequent.  A  variety  of  causes  may  ac- 
count for  this.  Perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon is  the  evil  of  overwork.  Hard  driv- 
ing on  a  hard  road,  as  on  a  plank  road, 
on  the  frozen  ground,  or  on  the  ice,  or  the 
strain  of  draught  at  too  heavy  a  load, 
may  excite  periostial  inflammation,  and 
from  this  as  a  commencement  we  may 
have  splint,  spavin,  ring-bone,  nodes,  etc. 


Fig.  23.  -  -Splint  Attaching  Internal  Small 
Metacarpal  Bone. 

1.  Internal  small  metacarpal  bone. 

2.  External  small  metacarpal  bone. 

3.  Large  metacarpal  bone. 

4.  4.  Bony  growth  constituting  a  large  splint,  and 

attaching  the  small  to  the  large  metacarpal 
bone. 

jt  HORSE,  Splint  (Fig.  20)  is  a  bony 
tumor  at  some  point  about  the  cannon 
and  splint  bones.  The  knee-joint  is  formed 
at  its  inferior  part,  between  the  lower  row 
of  carpal  bones  and  the  cannon  and  splint 
bones,  the  two  latter  forming  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  joint.    As  the  leg  is 


flexed  these  bones  slide  upon  the  cannon- 
bone,  contributing  to  the  elasticity  of  the 
step.  When  the  motion  is  violent  and  long 
continued,  especially  with  striking  upon  a 
hard  surface,  irritation  first  and  inflamma- 
tion afterward  may  be  produced  in  the 
periostial  membrane  covering  these  bones. 
Bony  matter  is  thrown  out  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  their  adjacent  surfaces, 
and  the  result  is  a  sealing  together  of  the 
bones  and  the  formation  of  a  bony  tumor. 
Unfortunately  the  condition  is  frequently 
overlooked  until  the  change  is  complete 
and  the  disease  beyond  a  remedy,  for 
when  the  bony  union  is  thoroughly  con- 
solidated it  cannot  be  remedied.  For  a 
time,  while  the  deposit  is  fresh  callus,  and 
the  circulation  active,  measures  to  abate 
the  inflammation  and  to  excite  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  deposit  may  restore  the 
integrity  of  the  part. 

HORSE,  Ring-bone.— In  the  pathology 
of  the  disease  splint  and  ring-bone  are 
the  same.  They  have  the  same  causes, 
and  are  preceded  by  the  same  stages  of 


Fig.  24— Antero-internal  View  of  Exos- 
tosis constituting  Spavin. 

1.  Os  scaphoides. 

2.  Os  cuneiforme  parvum. 

3.  Morbid  growth  of  bone,  constituting  the  dis- 

ease known  as  bone  spavin. 

4.  Large  metatarsal  or  cannon  bone. 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


5* 


morbid  action ;  but,  from  the  relation  of 
parts,  ring-bone,  at  its  forming  stage,  gives 
.rise  to  earlier  and  greater  lameness.  At- 
tention is  earlier  called  to  the  disease,  and 
treatment  is  usually  sooner  applied.  Splint 
may  go  on  to  its  final  stage  of  bony  con- 
solidation without  giving  rise  to  much 
lameness,  and  without  attracting  attention 
to  the  diseased  part,  which  may  escape 
observation  unless  the  hand  is  passed 
over  the  small  tumor,  but  in  ring-bone 
usually  the  lameness  appears  with  inflam- 
mation, and  the  earliest  effusion  over  the 
region  calls  attention  to  the  seat  of  the 
•disease. 

HORSE,  Side-bone.— (See  Horse,Ring- 

BONE.) 

HORSE,  Spavin  (Fig.  22).— When  it 
■consists  in  the  deposit  of  bony  matter 
about  the  hock  joint,  and  the  consequent 
cementing  together  of  the  tarsal  bones,  or 
the  destruction  of  the  tarso-metatarsal 
joint,  is  a  similar  disease,  having  essen- 
tially the  same  causes.  This  form  of 
disease  may  exist  in  every  degree,  from  a 
slight  exostosis  near  the  joint  to  such  an 
amount  as  will  entirely  destroy  the  joint, 
and  so  invade  the  soft  tissues  that  the 
slightest  movement  is  productive  of  great 
suffering. 

lreatment. — Cure  or  alleviation  is  pos- 
sible only  in  the  first  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease, so  that  on  the  occurrence  of  lame- 
ness for  which  the  cause  is  not  obvious, 
careful  search  should  be  made  in  the  lo- 
calities in  which  splint,  ring-bone,  or 
spavin  may  occur.  Tenderness,  and  per- 
haps swelling,  may  be  detected  by  care- 
ful examination.  The  first  requisite  is 
rest.  Bathing  with  warm  water  should 
be  promptly  and  perseveringly  resorted 
to.  The  foot  should  be  put  into  a  buck- 
et of  warm  water,  which  should  be  ap- 
plied with  a  sponge  to  the  locality  of  in- 
flammation. Should  there  be  pain,  as 
shown  by  general  uneasiness  and  con- 
stant movement  of  the  limb,  a  poultice 
should  be  applied,  moistened  freely  with 
a  mixture  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
the  tinctures  of  aconite  root,  opium,  and 
belladonna.  The  application  of  a  mix- 
ture of  one  part  chloroform  and  two 
parts  sweet  oil,  may  act  as  a  revulsive. 
Later,  when  the  pain  has  subsided,  the 
tenderness  somewhat  abated,  and  only 
swelling  remains,  an  ointment  of  one 
part  of  the  iodide   of  lead  with   eight 


parts  of  lard  will  be  found  useful  in  re- 
moving the  swelling  and  remaining  en- 
gorgements of  the  parts.  When  put 
again  to  use,  the  animal  should  be  at 
first  gently  exercised  and  brought  gradu- 
ally to  his  work. 

The  abuse  in  driving,  which  gives  rise 
to  periostitis  and  the  deposition  of  bone 
about  the  joints,  may  result  also  in  ulcer- 
ation of  the  cartilages  and  bones  entering 
into  the  composition  of  the  joints  The 
parts  most  usually  affected  are  the  knee, 
the  hock,  and  the  joints  of  the  navicular 
bone,  with  the  "coronet  or  coffin  bone. 
The  commencement  of  the  disease  is  an 
inflammation  of  the  synovial  membrane, 
which  lines  the1  bony  surfaces  between 
which  the  motion  of  the  joints  occurs. 
Prolonged  lameness  follows.  Perfect 
rest  at  this  time  with  proper  treatment 
may  remove  the  condition,  but  by  neg- 
lect, and  continued  use,  the  disease  is 
readily  carried  to  its  advanced  stages. 
The  inflammation  extends  to  the  cartilages 
covering  the  joint  surfaces  of  the  bones. 
The  vitality  of  this  tissue  is  so  low  that 
it  readily  breaks  down  under  the  inflam- 
matory action,  and  is  removed  by  the  ul- 
cerative process.  From  this  condition 
perfect  recovery  is  impossible.  The  best 
result  possible  is  the  formation  of  a 
blind  spavin,  by  the  cementing  of  two 
opposite  surfaces  of  bone  by  an  interme- 
diate bony  deposit.  Instead  of  this,  the 
ulcerative  process  may  extend  to  the 
bony  tissue  itself. 

HORSE,  Laminitis.— Of  the  affections 
of  the  soft  tissues,  perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon is  laminitis.  This  term  applies  to 
inflammation  not  only  of  the  laminae  but 
of  the  entire  fleshy  portion  of  the  foot. 
It  is  not  always  the  most  readily  detect- 
ed, and  in  some  of  its  more  common  and 
milder  forms  it  entirely  escapes  notice. 
The  lameness  is  assigned  to  the  shoulder 
or  some  other  locality ;  but  when  we  re- 
fer to  the  position  of  this  tissue,  between 
a  dense  bone  and  a  dense  unyielding 
horny  envelope,  and  to  its  use  to  suspend 
the  bone  and  consequent  entire  weight 
of  the  animal  from  the  wall,  and  con- 
sider that  it  suffers  some  degree  of  pres- 
sure at  every  step,  we  can  understand 
how  the  slightest  morbid  condition  of  the 
part,  the  congestion  of  its  vessels,  or  irri- 
tation of  its  nerves  may — nay,  must — 
give  rise  to  pain  and  consequent  lame- 


52 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


ness.  Fortunately,  in  practice  this  is 
much  less  frequent  than,  theoretically, 
we  might  expect  it  to  be.  Any  horse 
that  has  been  driven  for  several  hours 
upon  a  hard,  or  stony,  or  hot  and  sandy 
road,  would  seem  to  be  fairly  fitted  for 
some  degree  of  congestion  of  the  soft  tis- 
sues of  the  feet.  At  the  close  of  such 
exertion  he  is  stabled,  perhaps  upon  a 
damp  floor,  or  where  a  draft  of  air  may 
blow  upon  him.  No  thought  is  given  to 
the  condition  of  his  feet.  He  is  fed,  and 
perhaps  he  may  have  been  moderately 
groomed;  but  of  the  entire  animal  no 
part  has  undergone  so  much  exposure  or 
hardship  as  the  feet,  and  no  part  really 
needs  so  much  attention. 

La?ninitis,  or,  as  it  has  been  called  by 
writers,  fever  of  the  feet,  or  "founder" 
may  exist  in  all  degrees,  from  the  simple 
congestion  of  the  part  to  the  most  severe 
and  disorganizing  inflammation.  It  is 
mainly  exhibited  in  the  fore  feet,  being 
an  uncommon  disease  in  the  hind  feet. 
This  is  mainly  due  to  the  different  kinds 
and  degrees  of  force  used  in  the  action 
of  the  fore  and  hind  legs  and  feet.  In 
movement  a  much  greater  amount  of 
weight  comes  upon  the  fore  legs  and 
feet,  the  direction  of  the  blow  upon  the 
ground  is  different,  and  the  consequent 
strain  and  pressure  upon  the  soft  tissues 
much  greater. 

If  acute  laminitis  is  present  in  one  or 
both  fore  feet,  it  is  manifested  by  the 
very  obvious  efforts  of  the  animal  to  re- 
lieve itself  from  pressure.  If  one  foot 
only  is  suffering,  this  is  put  forward  and 
is  so  rested  upon  the  heel  that  not  only 
is  pressure  taken  off,  but  the  parts  are  re- 
laxed to  a  still  greater  extent  by  the 
weight  of  the  limb.  At  the  same  time, 
the  foot  is  kept  in  continual  motion, 
indicating  extreme  pain.  There  is  heat 
in  the  hoof,  and  especially  in  the  coronary 
band  around  its  summit.  There  may  also 
be  tenderness  in  this  tissue  on  pressure. 
If  both  fore-feet  are  affected,  the  animal 
endeavors  as  far  as  possible,  by  settling 
back  over  the  hind  feet,  to  take  cff  the 
pressure  from  them.  This  attempt  may 
also  be  shown  by  the  continuous  change 
from  one  foot  to  the  other.  In  severe 
forms  of  the  acute  disease  the  entire  sys- 
tem will  sympathize  with  the  local  disease. 
The  arteries  supplying  the  part  or  parts 
will  be  found  throbbing;  the  general  ar- 


terial circulation  will  be  quickened;  the 
pulse  will  become  considerably  acceler- 
ated, and  the  constitutional  condition  will 
be  one  of  symptomatic  fever. 

The  disease  if  unchecked  may  go  on 
to  the  destruction  of  the  soft  tissues  of 
the  foot.  Cases  are  on  record  in  which 
the  entire  hoof  has  been  shed  by  the  sep- 
aration of  the  soft  from  the  horny  foot. 
This  is  a  rare  termination,  but  the  forma- 
tion of  an  abscess  and  partial  separation 
is  not  so  uncommon.  Before  this  result 
occurs,  however,  the  disease  has  usually 
passed  into  the  chronic  form.  Prompt 
resort  to  appropriate  treatment  may  result 
in  restoration  to  health. 

By  no  means  advocating  indiscriminate 
blood-letting,  we  would  in  this  case  re- 
commend the  free  local  abstraction  of 
blood,  either  from  the  toe  of  the  afflicted 
foot,  or  from  the  plantar  vein.  If  the 
case  is  a  very  severe  one,  a  branch  of  the 
plantar  artery  of  one  side  may  be  divided. 
The  foot  should  be  placed  in  a  large 
bucket  of  warm  water,  and  allowed  to 
bleed  in  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
up  the  temperature  by  frequent  additions 
of*  hot  water.  When  the  foot  is  removed, 
it  may  be  placed  in  a  large  poultice,  hav- 
ing previously  been  drenched  about  the 
coronary  border  with  a  liniment  composed 
of  two  ounces  each  of  the  tincture  of 
aconite  root,  belladonna,  and  opium,  with 
six  ounces  of  soap  liniment. 

For  the  constitutional  disturbance,  the 
tincture  of  aconite  root,  fifteen  to  twenty 
drops  in  water,  may  be  administered 
every  hour  or  half  hour  until  a  decided 
impression  is  made  upon  the  frequency 
and  hardness  of  the  pulse.  Half  a 
drachm  of  belladonna  with  fifteen  grains 
of  digitalis  may  be  given  every  half  hour, 
or  in  emergency  the  following  draught 
may/ be  given  every  hour  until  the  proper 
impression  is  made  on  the  system :  Tinct. 
aconite  root  and  tinct.  belladonna  fifteen 
drops  each,  and  sulph.  ether  and  lauda- 
num half  an  ounce  each.  Later,  saline 
medicines,  such  as  the  nitrate  of  potash, 
will  aid  in  preventing  secondary  affec- 
tions. 

Laminitis  may  have  a  variety  of  termi- 
nations. First,  it  may  terminate  in  a  com- 
plete disappearance  of  all  the  symptoms, 
that  is,  by  resolution,  and  there  be  a  com- 
plete recovery.  Second,  it  may  pass  into 
a  chronic  condition  in  which  all  the  symp- 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


53 


toms  are  of  a  mitigated  character.  When 
quiet,  the  pain  is  slight,  and  the  heat  is 
little,  if  any,  in  excess  of  the  natural 
state.  If  the  animal  is  allowed  rest  on  a 
soft  floor,  or  is  turned  to  run  in  a  pad- 
dock, the  lameness  may  be  scarcely  obvi- 
ous ;  but  attempt  to  drive  him,  and,  either 
■while  on  the  road  or  afterward,  he  be- 
comes very  lame  again.  This  condition 
may  continue  almost  indefinitely.  Third, 
the  inflammation  may  terminate  in  suppu- 
ration, which  may  be  confined  to  a  small 
region  of  the  foot,  and  eventuate  in  a 
partial  recovery,  or  it  may  be  general  and 
:so  extensive  as  to  destroy  the  connection 
of  the  hoof  with  the  soft  tissues.  Under 
the  latter  circumstances  the  hoof  may  be 
lost.  When  the  destructive  suppuration 
falls  short  of  producing  complete  separa- 
tion, it  may  be  sufficient  to  permit  of  a 
change  of  relation  of  the  coffin-bone  to 
the  hoof.  A  portion  of  the  anterior  at- 
tachments may  be  destroyed  so  that  the 
bone  may  fall  away  from  the  horn.  In  a 
flat  and  weak  foot  this  may  cause  a  bulg- 
ing of  the  sole,  producing  what  is  called 
the  pumice  foot.  If  the  hoof  is  preserv- 
ed, the  space  produced  by  the  falling  of 
the  coffin-bone  is  filled  by  fleshy  granula- 
tions. The  foot,  however,  suffers  perma- 
nently, and  lameness  is  constantly  pres- 
ent. 

Such  is  the  structure  of  the  foot  that, 
even  when  the  damage  is  less  than  that 
just  described,  the  suppuration  continues 
and  burrows  in  various  direc  ions,  seek- 
ing an  outlet.  Except  when  the  inflam- 
mation and  suppuration  are  confined  to  a 
limited  space  in  the  sole  of  the  foot,  the 
•discharge  must  escape  from  the  crown. 
At  some  part  of  the  coronal  border  of  the 
.hoof,  swelling  is  perceived,  which  either 
•opens  of  itself  or  is  opened  by  the  knife, 
which  is  preferable.  When  suppuration 
has  commenced,  the  animal  should  re- 
ceive better  and  more  nutritious  food, 
while  stimulating  injections  to  the  open- 
ing may  be  useful.  Should  the  sinuses 
become  chronic,  it  has  been  recommended 
to  trace  their  number  and  direction  with 
.a  delicate  probe,  and  then  freely  lay  them 
open.  To  do  this,  the  hoof  must  be  soft- 
•ened  by  soaking  in  warm  alkaline  water, 
when  it  may  be  cut  easily. 

Limited  suppuration  of  the  soft  tissues 
*of  the  foot  may  occur  from  a  variety  of 
other  causes,  such  as  a  wound  made  by 


the  shoe  of  one  foot  in  the  coronet  of  the 
other,  or  by  the  prick  of  a  nail  driven  into 
the  quick  or  so  near  it  as  to  cause  inflam- 
mation by  pressure,  or  by  a  bruise  made 
by  the  heel  of  the  coffin-bone,  to  which 
the  term  corn  is  applied.  In  all  these 
cases  suppuration  may  follow  inflamma- 
tion, and  the  severity  and  extent  of  the 
trouble  will  depend  upon  the  locality  of 
the  injury,  and  the  distance  the  product 
of  suppuration  has  to  travel  to  reach  a 
point  of  exit. 

A  fourth  termination  may  be  designated 
— that  by  metastasis.  The  inflammation 
being  situated  in  the  fibrous  tissues  of  the 
foot  is  liable  to  leave  that  locality  and  to 
seize  upon  similar  tissues  elsewhere,  and 
under  unfavorable  circumstances  we  may 
have  resulting  inflammation  of  the  brain 
or  pleura,  or  indeed  of  any  of  the  fibrous 
tissues.  A  fifth  termination  may  be  in 
mortification,  the  result  of  which  would 
be  almost  certainly  fatal  at  an  early  pe- 
riod. 

Laminitis  may  be  sub-acute  from  its 
commencement.  It  is  apt  to  take  this 
form  in  old  horses  that  have  been  sub- 
jected for  a  long  time  to  hard  work.  Its 
approach  is  gradual,  pain  at  first  small, 
and  lameness  slight  and  not  constant. 
The  foot  should  be  given  the  same  treat- 
ment as  in  the  more  acute  form.  The 
warm  bath  should  be  used  freely.  Bleed- 
ing would  probably  be  injurious,  and  any 
debilitating  medicines  must  be  withheld. 
The  bowels  may  be  loosened  by  fresh  veg- 
etable food,  such  as  potatoes  or  carrots, 
and  if  pain  is  present  one  or  two  draughts 
in  the  day  containing  an  ounce  of  sul- 
phuric ether  and  a  drachm  of  laudanum 
may  be  given.  Plenty  of  good,  nutritious 
food  should  be  given.  The  horse  should 
not  be  used  on  the  road  until  all  the 
symptoms  have  been  absent  for  several 
days.  He  may  be  gently  exercised  on  a 
soft  sward  as  soon  as  the  inflammation  is 
subdued. 

A  permanent,  incurable  lameness  often 
results  from  the  continued  use  of  a  horse 
suffering  from  some  degree  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  soft  tissues  of  the  foot.  When- 
ever this  condition  is  detected,  the  animal 
should  be  given  rest,  and  subjected  to 
treatment  with  a  view  to  the  cure  of  the 
disease. 
HORSE,  Fever  of  the  Feet,  (See  Horse, 

Laminitis.) 


54 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


HORSE,  ftUITTOR.— We  have  spoken 
of  a  limited  suppuration  with  sinuses  be- 
tween the  hoof  and  the  coffin-bone  as  the 
result  of  injury  to  the  coronet,  the  prick 
of  a  nail,  or  a  bruise,  which  form  an  ab- 
scess at  the  crown  of  the  foot.  To  cer- 
tain abscesses  in  this  region,  resulting 
from  an  ulceration  of  the  deeper-seated 
cartilages,  the  term  quittor  has  been  ap- 
plied. The  local  condition  on  which  this 
disease  depends  differs  widely  from  that 
causing  a  similar  discharge  in  a  healthy 
foot  by  direct  injury.  Quittor  is  a  deep- 
seated  lesion  of  the  foot,  seated  in  the 
cartilages,  or  perhaps  even  in  the  coffin- 
bone  itself.  It  may  follow  the  inflamma- 
tion of  injury,  or  it  may  originate  in  con- 
stitutional conditions.  Neglected  corns, 
increasing  by  continued  bruising,  may 
cause  by  pressure  the  ulceration  and  mor- 
tification of  the  cartilage,  or  even  of  the 
bone.  Fracture  of  some  part  of  the 
coffin-bone  may  eventuate  in  this  disease. 
It  rarely  gets  well  without  assistance. 
When  it  is  diagnosticated,  a  well-informed 
veterinary  surgeon  should  be  called.  The 
treatment  is  mainly  by  local  injections, 
aiding  nature  to  discharge  the  product  of 
ulceration  and  stimulating  to  healthy  gran- 
ulations. Of  course  the  animal  is  utterly 
unfit  for  use. 

HORSE,  CORNS.— We  have  spoken 
Of  corns.  These  make  their  appearance 
in  two  forms,  the  true  and  the  false.  The 
locality  of  the  true  corn  is  the  angle 
caused  by  the  inflection  of  the  bars,  and 
is  between  the  bars  and  wall.  In  this 
space  the  posterior  extremities  of  the  cof- 
fin-bone move  freely  in  the  move- 
ments of  the  foot.  By  the  irritation  of 
frequent,  prolonged  and  severe  use  a 
thickening  of  the  laminae  is  produced. 
This  hardness  ultimately  becomes  a  semi- 
corneous  tumor.  It  may  remain  in  this 
condition,  or  it  may  become  a  smooth, 
dense  horn,  more  dense  than  any  part  of 
the  hoof.  It  is  a  constant  source  of  pain 
and  consequent  lameness. 

The  more  common  false  corn  is  a  bruise 
of  the  sensitive  sole  which  lies  directly 
under  the  heel  of  the  coffin-bone.  This 
occurs  more  frequently  in  feet  having  a 
fiat,  level  sole,  deficient  in  the  arch.  It 
may  occur  in  any  variety  of  foot  which  is 
kept  badly  shod.  A  shoe  with  a  broad 
web  level  upon  its  foot-surface,  and  seated 
for  its  whole  width  upon  the  wall  and 


sole,   will  aid  in  the  production  of  this- 
form  of  disease.     Several  varieties  of  the 
false  corn  are   described,  but  they   are 
simply  different  stages  of  the  same  dis- 
ease.    The   true  corn  is   essentially    in- 
curable.   For  the  false,  in  its  early  stages, 
the   general  principles   of  treatment    to 
abate  local  inflammation  may  arrest  the 
disease.     If  suppuration  can  be  prevent- 
ed, the  duration  of  lameness  will  be  much 
limited.     Care  should  be  taken  that  the. 
shoe  should  have  its  bearing  only  on  the. 
solar  border  of  the  wall,  and  a  very  slight. 
portion  of  the  outer  border  of  the  sole. 
To  this  end,  a  shoe  should  be  used  with  a. 
narrow  web,  but  little  over  half  an  inch 
in  width ;  or  the  shoe  with  a  wider  web 
should  be  seated  so  that  its  bearing-sur- 
face would   be  narrow.     Supposing   the; 
case  has  been  neglected  and  suppuration 
has  occurred,  the  pain  and  lameness  will, 
be  great  until  the  matter  is  evacuated. 
The  sole  must  be  carefully  pared  away 
until  the  horn  is  very  thin,  when  an  open- 
ing must  be  made  through  it,  and  the  pus 
evacuated.     If  great  pain  is  inflicted  by 
the  attempt,  the  foot  should  be  soaked  in 
a  warm  alkaline  bath,  by  which  the  horn 
will  be  softened  and  the  extreme  tender- 
ness abated.     If  possible,  the  foot  should 
be  kept  in  a  poultice  for  a  day  or  two,  or 
three,  according  to  the  previous  severity 
of  the  disease.     After  that  the  shoe  may 
be  reapplied,  care  being  taken  that  the 
opening  through  the  horn  be  so  protected, 
that  no  dirt  or  gravel  can  enter. 

A  condition  similar  to  false  corn  may 
exhibit  itself  in  any  portion  of  the  ground 
surface  of  the  foot  as  a  result  of  a  severe 
stone-bruise.  If  detected  early,  the  warm 
foot-bath,  with  rest,  will  be  sufficient  treat- 
ment for  it. 

HORSE,  THRUSH.— One  of  the  most 
common  of  the  diseases  of  the  foot  bears 
the  popular  name  of  thrush.  Of  its  ex- 
act nature  and  locality  perhaps  no  two 
hippopathologists  agree.  Mayhew,  Youatt, 
Spooner,  and  others  characterize  the  dis- 
ease by  one  of  its  symptoms,  and  speak 
of  it  as  "  an  offensive  discharge  from  the 
cleft  of  the  frog,"  to  which  is  sometimes 
added  "with  disorganization  of  the 
horn."  Both  these  are  symptoms  of  the 
real  disease,  which  is  a  low  form  of  in- 
flammation in  the  soft  tissues  of  a  tender 
frog.  It  exists  in  feet  that  have  been  al- 
lowed to  stand  in  damp,  ill-cleaned  stalls,. 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


55 


where  they  are  continually  covered  with 
wet  manure.  Running  in  a  wet  yard 
predisposes  to  it.  Gamgee  describes 
thrush  as  "  a  diseased  condition  of  the  vil- 
lous membrane  covering  the  frog,"  and 
says  that  it  is,  in  its  usual  form,  produced 
by  filth  and  neglect. 

The  true  seat  of  the  disease  is,  we  be- 
lieve, in  the  superficial  and  less  fibrous  tis- 
sues of  the  sensitive  frog.  It  is  doubtful 
if  true  inflammation  is  present.  Pain  is 
usually  present  in  inflamed  tissues, 
and  thrush  is,  to  a  remarkable  de- 
gree, a  painful  disease.  One  of  the 
properties  of  the  sensitive  frog  is  to  se- 
crete the  tissue  that  becomes  the  horny 
frog.  Now  if,  by  reason  of  local  or  con- 
stitutional debility,  the  secretive  action  of 
the  part  is  imperfect ;  if  the  secreted  mat- 
ter, lacking  vitality  instead  of  producing 
horrf,  breaks  down  into  pus,  or  pus  min- 
gled with  half-formed  and  decomposing 
horn,  we  should  get  just  the  condition 
we  have  in  thrush. 

In  a  healthy  frog  the  cleft  is  so  perfect- 
ly covered  over  by  an  arch  of  horn  that 
fluid  could  escape  only  through  an  artifi- 
cial opening;  but  in  this  diseased  condi- 
tion the  horn  is  both  in  so  imperfect  a 
state  from  defect  in  its  original  secretion, 
and  so  disintegrated  by  the  direct  influ- 
ence upon  it  of  the  diseased  secretion, 
that  the  offensive  pus  escapes  freely  from 
it. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  contracted  feet 
and  too  great  and  long  continued  paring 
of  the  frog,  are  the  main  causes  of  this 
disease.  They  undoubtedly  predispose 
to  it,  as  they  contribute,  by  change  of  the 
form  of  the  foot,  to  effect  a  change  in  the 
nutrition  of  the  organ.  But  thrush  is 
seen,  perhaps,  in  a  well-spread,  open  foot 
as  frequently  as  in  a  contracted  one. 
Constitutional  condition  has  much  to  do 
with  the  local  manifestation.  An  ani- 
mal poorly  nourished  and  cared  for, 
other  things  being  equal,  will  be  more 
likely  to  exhibit  the  disease. 

Any  treatment  that  loses  sight  of  the 
constitutional  condition  will  tail  to  do  its 
best  work.  First  of  all,  the  horse  should 
be  placed  in  a  stall  having  a  dry  floor,  or 
on  a  short  and  dry  sward,  covering  a  warm, 
sandy  soil.  Then  he  should  have  thor- 
oughly nutricious  diet,  and,  if  the  disease 
has  been  of  long  standing,  alterative  and 
tonic    medicines    may    be    given.     Red 


bark,  sulphuret  of  antimony,  and  nitre,  in 
the  proportion  of  two  parts  of  the  first  to 
one  part  each  of  the  last  two ;  or  a  ball,, 
consisting  of  a  quarter  of  a  grain  of 
strychnine,  half  a  drachm  of  iodide  of 
iron,  half  a  scruple  of  extract  of  bella- 
donna, and  extract  of  gentian  and  pow- 
dered quassia  sufficient  to  make  it,  may 
be  given  night  and  morning.  The  foot 
should  be  put  into  a  bath  of  warm  water 
and  thoroughly  cleansed;  all  dust  and 
pus  should  be  carefully  removed  from  the 
commissures,  and  the  part  dried  by  the 
use  of  dry  tow.  Then  into  the  crevices 
should  be  poured,  once  a  day,  a  litttle  of 
a  solution  of  the  chloride  of  zinc  (three 
grains  to  the  ounce  of  water).  The  foot 
is  to  be  kept  shod  with  calkins,  so  that  a 
free  space  may  be  left  under  the  foot  for 
the  circulation  of  the  air.  Cases  will 
yield  more  readily  to  simply  constitutional 
than  to  simply  local  treatment.  A  judi- 
cious combination  of  the  two  will  have 
the  happiest  results. 

HORSE,  Canker  of  the  Foot.— The- 
condition  of  thrush  neglected  may  pass 
into  that  of  canker.  Canker  of  the 
foot  may  be  an  original  disease  in  low- 
bred, ill-conditioned  horses,  exposed  in 
wet  or  filthy  stables  or  yards,  and  poorly 
cared  for.  It  more  frequently,  however,., 
follows  thrush  which  has  been  neglected. 
It  commences  in  the  same  tissues,  rapidly 
extending  from  the  frog  to  the  sole  and 
and  the  laminated  structures.  The  dis- 
ease consists  in  destructive  inflammation^ 
with  ulceration,  which  destroys  the  con- 
nection between  the  sensitive  and  hor- 
ny sole  and  frog.  After  a  time  a  foul 
fungus  sprouts  from  the  ulcerations,  ac- 
companied with  exceedingly  disagreeable 
discharge.  The  horn  of  the  sole  and  frog 
becomes  disorganized,  and  breaks  down. 
The  fungoid  granulations,  with  the  con- 
stitutional depravity  which  predisposes  to 
them,  constitute  the  disease. 

The  treatment  consists  in  the  removal 
by  the  knife,  of  all  the  detached  horn,, 
togetuer  with  as  much  of  the  fungoid  tis- 
sue as  can  be  removed  without  the  loss 
of  too  much  blood,  and  the  application 
of  astringents  and  mild  caustics,  so  ap- 
plied as  to  remove  the  remaining  fungus 
and  to  change  the  action  of  the  part. 
Constitutional  treatment,  tonics*  and  alter- 
atives, with  good  care  and  nutritious  food,, 
will  do  much  in  causing  a  succesful  issue. 


^ 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


HOBSE,  Rheumatic.  —  It  is  believed 
that  much  of  the  obscure  lameness 
to  which  horses  somewhat  advanced  in 
years,  and  especially  those  that  have  had 
much  severe  driving  and  work,  are  sub- 
jected, is  rheumatic.  From  the  nature  of 
the  tissue  composing  the  sensitive  foot, 
so  largely  fibrous  as  it  is,  we  might  antici- 
pate that  from  long-continued  hard  usage 
there  would  arise  a  degree  of  irritability 
in  that  tissue  that  would  cause  lameness. 
This  condition  must  not  be  confounded 
with  acute  rheumatic  fever,  to  which 
horses  are  sometimes  subject,  and  which  is 
a  different  disease.  The  disease  of  which 
we  speak  in  this  connection  is  an  irrita- 
bility and  painful  condition  of  the  fibrous 
tissue,  without  any  of  the  products  or  re- 
. suits  of  the  inflammatory  action. 

The  animal  should  be  housed  in  a  dry 
and  airy  stable,  but  sheltered  from  draughts 
of  air,  and  should  be  blanketed.  The  feet 
:  should  be  treated  to  a  warm  bath,  and 
then  rubbed  dry,  and  have  an  application 
of  Fahnestock's  liniment,  and  be  band- 
aged. At  the  same  time  there  may  be 
given  daily  in  meal  an  ounce  of  acetate 
of  potash,  with  a  scruple  of  powered  col- 
chicum ;  or  a  draught  of  the  following : 
Iodide  of  potassium,  two  ounces ;  liquor 
potassae,  one  quart ;  of  which  two  table- 
spoonsful  may  be  given,  night  and  morn- 
ing, in  a  pint  of  water  or  mixed  with 
feed. 

There  are  several  diseased  conditions 
which  manifest  themselves  in  the  horny 
foot.  Of  these  the  most  important  are 
•the  flat  or  convex  sole,  or  the  pumice- 
foot,  and  the  sand-crack.  The  false 
•quarter  is  in  no  very  great  degree  differ- 
ent from  the  sand-crack.  All  diseases  or 
malformations  of  the  horn  must  originate 
in  injury  or  in  disease  of  the  soft  tissues 
from  which  the  horn  is  a  secretion. 

HORSE,  Pumice  Foot.— The  pumice- 
foot,  which  consists  in  a  falling  of  the 
sole  to  a  level  with  the  solar  border  of 
the  wall,  or  even  so  as  to  constitute  a 
convex  surface,  is  usually  preceded  and 
caused  either  by  a  destruction  of  the 
elastic  laminae  attaching  the  coffin-bone 
to  the  horn,  or  to  an  elongation  of  the 
:same,  or  else  to  a  softening,  spreading, 
.and  flattening  of  the  entire  hoof.  Ani- 
mals with  natural  flat  feet — those  that 
have  been  bred  on  marshy  land,  where 
.their  feet  have  been  kept  soft,  are  most 


liable  to  exhibit  this  form.  Probably 
nothing  can  restore  this  kind  of  foot ;  but 
care  in  shoeing  may  enable  the  animal  to 
be  of  some  service. 

HORSE,  Sand-crack. — Sand-crack  is  a 
fissure  in  the  hoof,  which  begins  at  the 
coronet,  -  the  thin  edge  first  breaking 
away.  It  is  a  disease  of  nutrition,  the 
horn  of  the  foot  being  secreted  in  di- 
minished quantity  and  impaired  quality. 
The  break,  small  at  first,  is  extended  un- 
til it  may  divide  the  entire  hoof.  It 
usually  occurs  in  the  quarter,  and  per- 
haps most  frequently  at  the  inner  quar- 
ter. It  has  been  asserted  that  the  whole 
difficulty  is  produced  by  bad  shoeing. 
Low  condition,  impure  state  of  the 
blood,  and  lack  of  care  are  predisposing 
causes.  In  this  conjuncture  slight  injury 
to  the  coronet  may  be  followed  by  such 
deficient  secretion  of  horn  at  that  place, 
that  the  weakened  part  may  give  way 
and  sand-crack  take  place. 

If  possible  the  animal  should  be  given 
entire  freedom  from  work,  and  should  be 
turned  into  a  small  paddock,  or  have  a 
loose  box,  in  which  he  may  move  some- 
what. He  should  have  nutritious  food 
and  sufficient  green  food  or  bran  mash 
to  keep  his  bowels  free.  During  the 
early  stages  of  the  disease,  and  while 
efforts  are  being  made  to  restore  the 
soundness  of  the  foot,  the  horse  is  better 
without  shoes,  as  the  natural  movements 
of  the  parts  tend  to  restore  their  vitality. 
The  bar-shoes,  recommended  by  some 
writers,  are  useful  only  in  those  cases  of 
long  standing  which  are  essentially  in- 
curable, and  where  the  horses  are  to  be 
put  to  slow  work.  The  part  should  be 
interfered  with  as  little  as  possible ;  there 
should  be  no  cutting,  paring,  or  burning; 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  dirt, 
gravel,  etc.,  from  the  open  sore.  The 
healthy  condition  of  the  open  and  granu- 
lating surface  should  be  maintained  by 
frequent  washing  with  soap  and  water, 
and  the  application  of  the  solution  of 
chloride  of  zinc  (three  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water).  If  the  animal  is  in  use, 
before  being  taken  out  the  crack  should 
be  filled  with  lint  saturated  with  the  solu- 
tion, which  should  be  confined  in  place 
by  a  strip  or  cloth  completely  covered 
with  tar.  This  should  be  removed  as 
soon  as  the  horse  returns,  and  the  wound 
be  cleansed,   if  it  is  at  all  foul,  and  care- 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


57 


fully  dressed  again.  If  treatment  is  com- 
menced early,  a  fair  degree  of  expecta- 
tion of  recovery  may  be  entertained ;  but, 
in  many  cases,  through  neglect  or  lack  of 
proper  treatment,  a  permanent  deficiency, 
of  the  hoof  remains.  In  such  cases,  by 
the  use  of  a  bar-shoe,  properly  adjusted, 
ihe  animal  may  be  made  of  some  use. 

HORSE,  FOOT,  Contraction  of.— Con- 
traction of  the  horn  of  the  foot  is  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  lameness.  This  may  oc- 
cur at  some  part  of  the  coronary  border, 
or  may  be  in  the  quarters,  or  may  be 
confined  to  the  heels;  the  last  being, 
perhaps,  its  most  frequent  locality.  ,  Con- 
traction at  the  coronary  border  produces 
lameness  mainly  by  pressure  on  the  ex- 
tensor tendon.  Movement  produces 
irritation  and  consequent  pain,  which  is 
shown  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  by  his 
putting  the  foot  forward.  This  position 
relieves  the  pressure  upon  the  tendon, 
and  gives  partial  relief  from  pain.  Con- 
traction at  the  quarters  and  heels  may 
not  always  cause  lameness.  If  the  con- 
dition comes  on  very  gradually,  changes 
of  the  contained  parts  may  so  accom- 
pany it  that  little  if  any  lameness  will  be 
caused  simply  by  the  contraction.  Again, 
the  contraction  may  be  the  consequence 
of  other  disease,  and  the  result  of  a  par- 
tial cure  and  a  previous  lameness  les- 
sened. Contraction  may  result  from 
chronic  founder  or  fever  of  the  feet.  It 
may  be  produced  by  long-continued  sta- 
bling upon  a  dry  plank  floor.  Thrushes 
may  so  demoralize  the  floor  of  the  foot 
as  to  cause  contraction.  Too  great  and 
constant  paring  away  the  bars  of  the  foot, 
may  destroy  their  resistance  to  the  ap- 
proach of  the  heels,  so  the  paring  of  the 
frog  may  destroy  the  function  of  that  or- 
gan as  an  elastic  spring  to  keep  the  heels 
open.  The  degree  of  lameness  that  fol- 
lows the  change  of  form  produced  by 
these,  causes  is  not  so  great  as  when  it 
results  from  inflammation  of  the  elastic 
portions  of  the  foot.  The  changes  are 
more  rapid,  and  pressure  is  made  upon 
the  sensitive  portions  of  the  foot.  The 
horse  indicates  the  amount  of  pain  he 
suffers  by  the  peculiar  short  and  quick 
character  of  his  step,  and  the  gentle  and 
light  manner  in  which  he  places  his  feet 
upon  the  ground.  When  not  in  motion, 
he  rests  his  feet  forward,  and  is  continu- 
ally changing  them.     Contraction  is  apt 


to  be  seen  most  frequently  in  highly  bred 
horses  with  a  naturally  high  and  narrow 
foot.  This  is  one  of  the  causes  of  lame- 
ness in  which  the  advice  and  probably 
the  treatment  of  an  educated  veterinary 
surgeon  are  important.  No  definite  di- 
rections for  treatment  can  be  given. 

There  are  several  other  forms  of  the 
disease  in  the  foot,  but  they  are  either  so 
slight  or  so  rare,  or  so  little  amenable  to 
treatment,  that  we  will  not  cumber  this 
article  with  them.  In  closing,  we  advise 
that  in  all  serious  or  doubtful  cases  of 
lameness  an  educated  veterinary  surgeon 
be  called.  If  such  a  one  is  not  obtaina- 
ble, the  advice  of  an  educated  physician 
may  aid  in  determining  the  locality  and 
cause  of  disease.  This  known,  treat  the 
case  according  to  the  suggestions  of  this 
article. 

HORSE,  Shoulder  Lameness.  —  The 
heads  of  the  bones  adjacent  to  most  of 
the  joints  of  the  body  are  more  or  less 
subject  to  exostosis,  though  not  so  fre- 
quently as  those  of  the  pastern  bones 
and  tarsus.  Next  to  these  probably  comes 
the  shoulder  joint,  the  neighborhood  of 
which  is  often  the  seed  of  this  disease, 
but  the  treatment  should  be  on  the  same 
principle  as  for  spavin,  omitting  the  sub- 
cutaneous scarification,  which  is  not  here 
practicable  on  account  of  the  nature  of 
the  joint.  Blisters,  and  especially  with 
the  biniodide  of  mercury,  will  be  the 
most  likely  to  succeed,  but  in  most  cases 
the  cure  will  be  only  partial. 

HORSE,  Fistula  of  the  Withers.— When 
a  saddle  has  been  allowed  to  press  upon 
the  spinous  processes  of  the  dorsal  ver- 
tebrae, it  produces  inflammation,  which, 
if  neglected,  leads  to  the  formation  of  an 
abscess.  But  the  situation  of  the  part  is 
such  that  the  matter  cannot  escape,  even 
if  the  skin  over  the  points  of  the  bones  is 
perforated,  and  it  has  a  tendency,  by  the 
force  of  gravity,  to  burrow  down  among 
the  muscles  which  connect  the  shoulder- 
blade  with  the  trunk.  The  consequence 
is,  that  there  is  extensive  inflammation, 
and  often  lameness  of  the  shoulder, 
which  could  readily  have  been  prevented 
by  using  proper  care  before  the  mischief 
was  done,  or  removed  by  the  adoption  of 
suitable  treatment  afterwards  before  the 
disease  is  confirmed. 

The  symptoms  in  the  early  stage  (that 
is,   before    a   fistula   is  established)    are 


5« 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


merely  an  enlargement  of  the  ends  of  the 
spinous  processes,  accompanied  by  heat 
and  tenderness,  but  these  go  on  until  an 
abscess  forms,  which  may  be  known  to 
the  touch  by  the  fluctuating  nature  of 
the  sensation  which  it  gives  on  pressure 
by  the  fingers  of  each  hand.  As  soon  as 
this  is  made  out,  an  opening  should  be 
made  as  low  down  as  possible  on  the 
right  side,  taking  care  that  it  will  allow  all 
the  matter  to  run  out  as  fast  as  it  forms. 
The  reason  why  the  right  side  should  be 
chosen  is,  that  most  horses  lie  down  on 
that  side;  but  if  the  subject  of  fistulous 
withers  is  in  the  habit  of  lying  on  the  left 
side,  the  opening  should  be  made  there 
in  preference.  When  an  actual  fistula 
has  been  established,  and  the  matter 
points  before  or  behind  the  shoulder 
blade,  a  sufficiently  large  opening  should 
at  once  be  made,  taking  care  again  that 
there  is  no  pouch  below  it  which  will 
permit  any  accumulation.  It  is  better  to 
divide  even  important  muscles  than  to 
suffer  this  to  exist.  In  recent  cases  the 
establishment  of  this  dependent  opening 
will  alone  suffice  to  effect  a  cure ;  but  in 
those  of  long  standing,  the  lining  of  the 
fistulous  passage  or  passages  has  become 
converted  into  a  substance  almost  resem- 
bling cartilage,  and  refuses  to .  throw  out 
healthy  granulation,  so  as  to  lead  to  ad- 
hesion of  its  walls.  Here  a  stimulus 
must  be  applied  to  their  interior,  which 
may  be  either  mechanical,  in  the  shape 
of  a  seton  tape  passed  through  from  end 
to  end  and  left  there,  or  chemical,  by 
means  of  injections.  The  latter  are  best 
composed  of  chloride  of  zinc  (Sir  W, 
Burnett's  disinfecting  fluid),  diluted  with 
water.  One  drachm  of  this  should  be 
mixed  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  carefully 
injected  into  every  part  of  the  sinus  twice 
or  thrice  a  week. 

HORSE,  Poll  Evil.— Poll  evil  is  ex- 
actly similar  in  its  nature  to  fistulous 
withers,  being  produced  by  a  blow  on 
the  prominent  ridge,  which  is  situated  on 
the  top  of  the  poll.  The  blow  is  gen- 
erally produced  in  the  stable,  by  the 
horse  suddenly  lifting  his  head  and  strik- 
ing it  against  a  low  beam  or  the  lintel  of 
the  door.  Or  it  may  be  caused  by  fre- 
quently straining  against  the  halter  rein, 
and  thus  producing  irritation  and  in- 
flammation of  the  part.  As  the  ligamen- 
tu:n  colli  is  attached  above,  and  anterior 


to,  the  inflamed  part,  when  matter  forms 
it  is  confined  and  gives  intense  pain ;  be- 
sides which,  it  is  a  long  time  before  it 
opens  a  passage  by  natural  means.  The 
symptoms  are  a  painful  swelling  on  the 
poll,  of  a  soft  nature,  accompanied  by 
the  sense  of  fluctuation  on  examination,, 
just  like  that  described  as  accompanying 
fistulous  withers.  The  treatment  must 
be  precisely  similar  to  that  described  in 
the  last  section;  but  as  the  matter  when 
formed  lies  very  close  to  the  spinal  cordr. 
some  caution  must  be  exercised  in  adopt- 
ing stimulating  injections,  which  are  apt 
to  produce  severe  inflammation,  likely  to 
extend  to  these  important  structures. 
So  also  in  opening  it,  the  knife  should 
not  be  carried  deeply  into  the  situation 
of  the  spinal  marrow,  which  here  lies  ex- 
posed, and  is  easily  divided  (as  in  the 
operation  known  by  the  name  of  pithing), 
but  it  should  be  used  in  a  slanting  man- 
ner, again  selecting  the  right  side  in  pre- 
ference to  the  left.  A  seton  is  here  the 
safest  plan  for  promoting  granulation  and 
adhesion,  and  as  the  fistulous  track  is. 
seldom  very  long,  the  tape  will  work  its- 
way  gradually  out,  by  which  time  the 
cure  is  effected. 

HORSE,  Caries  of  the  Jaw.— The  up- 
per jaw,  from  its  exposed  situation,  and 
the  lower  from  the  same  cause,  and  also 
from  the  abuse  of  the  bit,  are  liable  to 
mechanical  injury,  which  ends  in  caries, 
(ulceration),  or  sometimes  in  necrosis, 
(mortification),  of  the  part.  Caries  of 
the  lower  jaw,  between  the  tushes  and 
grinders,  is  extremely  common,  owing  to 
the  barbarous  punishment  which  is  in- 
flicted by  the  use  of  long  levers  to  curb- 
bits,  together  with  tight  curb  chains. 
The  bony  plate  forming  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  is  also  often  injured  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  part  when  a  tight  noseband  is 
employed  to  keep  the  mouth  shut.  Ei- 
ther may  be  known  by  the  existence  of  a. 
sore  of  a  peculiar  character;  there  is  a 
depression  indicating  a  loss  of  substance,, 
and  in  this  lies  a  mass  of  unhealthy  gran- 
ulation (proud  flesh),  which  is  not  at- 
tached to  the  surrounding  surface,  being 
only  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  or 
perhaps  partially  on  one  side.  A  watery 
and  offensive  discharge  goes  on  con- 
stantly, but  this  is  lost  in  the  saliva,  and 
very  often  the  only  circumstance  that 
draws  attention  to  the  disease  is  the  con- 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


59 


stant  bleeding  from  the  mouth,  on  the 
slightest  contact  of  the  bit.  When  this 
occurs,  the  mouth  being  full  of  pink 
froth,  it  should  be  carefully  examined, 
and  the  state  of  things  here  described 
will  generally  be  found  to  exist.  The 
treatment  should  consist  in  the  adop- 
tion of  a  bit  pressing  upon  another 
part  of  the  mouth,  changing  the  curb  for 
a  snaffle.  The  wound  should  be  kept 
open  by  the  use  of  caustic  (lunar)  daily, 
which  should  be  pushed  deeply  into  it 
for  a  couple  of  seconds,  and  will  destroy 
the  unhealthy  granulations.  By  continu- 
ing these  measures,  taking  care  not  to 
do  more  with  the  caustic  than  necessary 
to  keep  down  the  fungus  growth,  a  cure 
can  always  be  effected  in  the  course  of 
time,  without  the  aid  of  the  trephine  or 
chisel  to  cut  away  the  diseased  bone. 

HORSE,  Osteo  Sarcoma. — The  jaws  are 
occasionally  attacked  by  a  malignant 
growth  from  their  cellular  struct- 
ure of  a  substance  partaking  of  the 
nature  both  of  cartilage  and  bone. 
It  increases  sometimes  to  an  enor- 
mous size,  and  forms  a  large,  irregular 
tumor,  which  interferes  terribly  with  their 
functions,  often  growing  so  as  to  prevent 
the  closure  of  the  teeth.  The  symptoms 
are  entirely  local,  and  when  a  large,  un- 
wieldy, and  irregularly  hard  swelling  on 
either  of  the  jaws  is  met  with,  it  may 
safely  be  set  down  as  belonging  to  this 
class  of  disease.  No  treatment  is  of  any 
avail  except  excision,  which  can  rarely  be 
carried  through  without  rendering  the 
horse  unserviceable  for  his  ordinary  du- 
ties. 

HORSE,  Fractures. — Bones  are  not 
unfrequently  broken  in  the  horse ;  but  as 
the  accident  generally  occurs  either  dur- 
ing the  violent  exertion  of  the  muscles  of 
the  limb,  or  from  great  external  force,  it 
follows  that  in  most  cases  the  injury  to  the 
soft  parts  is  so  great  as  to  forbid  the  hope 
of  a  perfect  reparation.  When,  for  in- 
stance, a  canna  or  pastern  bone  gives  way 
during  the  shock  sustained  in  coming 
down  on  hard  ground  from  a  leap,  either 
at  the  moment  of  the  fracture  or  before 
the  horse  can  be  stopped,  the  upper  end 
pierces  the  skin,  and  also  tears  or  bruises 
the  tendons  which  alone  connect  it  to  the 
part  below.  In  surgical  language,  the 
fracture  is  a  compound  one ;  and  from 
the  great  tendency  to  contraction  of  the 


muscles,  the  difficulty  of  bringing  the  dis- 
united ends  into  apposition  (or  setting 
them)  is  immense.  Moreover,  the  horse 
is  very  unmanageable'  when  an  attempt  is 
made  to  confine  him,  and  the  means 
which  are  adopted  to  keep  the  fracture  set 
must  therefore  be  very  complete  as  com- 
pared with  those  which  will  serve  for  the 
restoration  of  the  human  being  who  has 
sustained  a  similar  accident.  Hence,  un- 
less the  animal  is  wanted  for  stud  pur- 
poses alone,  or  unless  the  fracture  is  a 
simple  one,  with  little  displacement,  it  will 
seldom  be  worth  the  attempt  to  procure 
the  union  of  a  broken  bone  in  the  horse. 
Many  cases  are  on  record  in  which  after 
a  fracture  of  a  canna  or  pastern  bone  a. 
complete  cure  has  been  effected,  but  they 
must  be  considered  as  exceptional,  and 
not  as  affording  us  much  encouragements 
The  symptoms  of  simple  fracture  are  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  deformity  of  the 
limb,  swelling,  pain  on  motion,  and  a  pe- 
culiar grating  or  jarring  which  is  felt 
rather  than  heard,  and  which  has  received 
the  name  of  "  crepitus."  The  last  symp- 
tom can  only  be  made  out  when  the 
broken  ends  of  the  bone  can  be  brought 
together ;  but  when  this  is  impossible,  the 
alteration  of  form  is  in  itself  sufficient  to 
lead  to  a  detection  of  the  nature  of  the 
accident.  In  fractures  of  the  head  and 
spine  there  is  no  crepitus  felt,  and  the 
effect  upon  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  of 
pressure  will  be  often  the  sole  means  of 
coming  to  a  correct  diagnosis.  Frac- 
tures of  the  pelvis  are  very  difficult  to 
make  out,  unless  the  ala  of  the  ilium  is- 
broken  off,  which  is  a  common  accident,, 
for  here  the  unnatural  flatness  of  the  hip, 
showing  itself  without  any  great  difficulty 
of  moving  the  hind  leg  of  that  sider 
plainly  marks  that  there  is  no  dislocation, 
and  that  the  case  can  only  be  one  of  frac- 
ture. It  is  always  the  result  of  a  blow, 
either  when  the  horse  is  cast  in  a  stall  or 
in  passing  through  a  narrow  door-way.  or 
from  a  similar  cause;  and  there  will  there- 
fore be  some  swelling  of  the  soft  parts 
which  will  interfere  with  the  examination 
at  the  time,  but  as  nothing  can  be  done 
to  restore  the  broken  portion  to  its  place, 
and  as  there  is  no  doubt  about  the  diag- 
nosis from  dislocation,  this  is  of  little  con- 
sequence. Fractures  of  the  ribs  cannot 
be  readily  detected;  but  as  they  almost 
always  follow  a  kick  on  the  part,  and  as- 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


they  do  not  require  any  treatment  un- 
less their  broken  ends  press  upon  the  im- 
portant viscera  of  the  thorax  or  abdomen, 
it  will  be  well  to  wait  for  the  symptoms 
which  are  caused  by  this  mechanical  irri- 
tation before  resorting  to  bandages,  &c. 
When  a  fracture  occurs  in  any  of  the 
bones  of  the  extremities,  which  are  con- 
cealed by  a  large  mass  of  muscle,  the 
total  inability  to  use  the  limb,  and  the 
loose  way  in  which  it  is  connected  to  the 
body,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  be  moved  in 
any  direction,  indicate  the  general  nature 
of  the  case  without  difficulty,  though  a 
careful  examination  must  be  made  by  a 
skilful  surgeon  before  the  exact  particu- 
lars relating  to  it. can  be  ascertained. 

The  treatment  will  depend  upon  the 
bone  which  is  broken,  and  whether  the 
fracture  is  simple  or  compound.  In  most 
cases  of  the  latter  description  none  will 
avail,  and  the  horse  had  better  be  de- 
stroyed ;  but  if  the  owner  is  averse  to 
this,  it  will  be  on  the  whole  the  best  sur- 
gery, though  apparently  not  very  scien- 
tific, to  encase  the  parts  with  adhesive 
plasters  and  tow,  and  then  treat  it  as  a 
simple  fracture. 

If  the  bones  of  the  skull  are  fractured, 
unless  there  are  symptoms  of  pressure  on 
the  brain,  it  is  advisable  to  leave  all  to 
nature,  simply  keeping  the  patient  quiet 
and  low,  and  if  in  a  high  state  of  pleth- 
ora, bleeding  and  physicking. 

A  broken  lower  jaw  is  by  no  means 
uncommon  as  the  result  of  a  kick.  The 
best  treatment  is  to  set  the  fracture,  and 
then  mould  some  gutta  percha  to  it, 
which  may  be  confined  behind  by  strips 
round  the  forehead  and  poll,  and  before 
by  a  padded  strap  passed  through  the 
mouth  between  the  nippers  and  tushes, 
and  beneath  the  tongue.  The  horse  must 
be  fed  upon  mashes  and  steamed  food. 

In  fractures  of .  the  spine  and  pelvis 
nothing  can  be  done  beyond  rest  and 
lowering,  if  necessary,  by  bleeding  and 
physic. 

Broken  ribs,  when  they  cause  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs  or  liver  by  their  sharp 
ends  pressing  upon  these  organs,  may  be 
treated  by  buckling  two  or  three  ordinary 
rollers  abreast  of  one  another  tightly 
round  the  chest,  so  as  to  prevent  the  na- 
tural dilatation  of  the  thorax,  which  takes 
place  in  inspiration,  and  which  keeps  up 
the  irritation  by  constantly  moving  the 


ends  of  the  ribs.  The  general  means 
necessary  to  adopt  to  relieve  the  internal 
mischief  will  depend  upon  its  extent. 

When  either  the  scapula,  humerus,  or 
femur  is  broken,  all  that  can  be  done  is 
to  sling  the  horse,  and  by  bandages  en- 
deavor to  bring  the  limb  into  as  natural 
a  position  as  possible,  and  keep  it  there. 
There  must  of  necessity  be  great  dis- 
placement of  the  ends  of  the  bones,  and 
these  cannot  by  any  means  be  brought 
into  apposition ;  but  the  sides  in  contact 
with  one  another,  as  they  over-ride,  will 
unite  in  course  of  time,  and  this  is  all  that 
can  be  achieved  by  the  utmost  efforts  of 
the  veterinary  surgeon. 

Fractures  of  the  lower  part  of  the  tibia, 
of  the  radius,  of  the  canna  bones  and  the 
pasterns,  if  simple,  must  be  treated  by 
adjusting  the  ends  (which  is  the  chief 
difficulty,  and  will  often  require  strong 
extension  to  be  employed),  and  then 
adapting  to  the  sides  of  the  bones  splints 
of  wood  or  gutta  percha.  If,  by  the  aid 
of  assistants,  the  parts  can  be  brought 
into  a  good  position,  these  may  be  care- 
fully adjusted  to  maintain  it,  and  may  be 
kept  in  place  by  tapes  or  straps  fastened 
moderately  tight  around  them.  It  is 
useless,  however,  to  attempt  a  minute  de- 
scription of  the  means  to  be  employed, 
which  can  hardly  be  understood  without 
a  demonstration;  Many  horses  have  re- 
covered a  fair  use  of  the  limb  by  appli- 
cation of  splints,  without  slinging,  as  they 
will  take  care  to  avoid  resting  on  that 
foot  in  consequence  of  the  pain  it  gives ; 
but  under  the  care  of  an  accomplished 
veterinary  surgeon,  slings  will  afford  the 
best  chance  of  recovery. 

HORSE,  Muscle,  Tendon  and  Ligament, 
Diseases  of. — Muscle  is  subject  to  simple 
atrophy,  with  or  without  fatty  degenera- 
tion. The  disease  shows  itself  by  a  wast- 
ing away  of  the  part,  accompanied  by  a 
flabby  feel  to  the  touch.  It  should  be 
treated  by  friction,  gentle  but  regular 
work,  and  steel  given  internally,  one 
drachm  of  the  sulphate  of  iron  powdered 
being  mixed  with  the  corn  twice  a  day. 

HORSE  — Rheumatic  Inflammation  'of  a 
muscle  or  muscles  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon of  all  the  diseases  to  which  the  horse 
is  subject.  Most  frequently  it  attacks  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder,  or  of  the  loins, 
sometimes  both  those  parts  being  involved 
at  the  same  time.     When  acute  it  receives 


HORSE— CARE  AND    MANAGEMENT. 


61 


the  name  of  a  chill,  and  is  generally 
brought  on  by  exposing  the  horse  to  a 
draught  of  air  after  work,  or  by  immers- 
ing him  in  cold  water  up  to  his  belly, 
with  a  view  either  to  refresh  him,  or  when 
the  groom  is  lazy,  to  save  him  the  trouble 
of  cleaning.  The  symptons  are  lameness 
or  inability  to  use  the  part,  the  horse, 
when  forced  to  do  so,  giving  expressions 
of  severe  pain.  If  the  shoulder  is  affected, 
the  foot  is  not  put  to  the  ground,  and 
when  the  leg  is  moved  backwards  and 
forwards  by  the  hand,  great  pain  is  evi- 
dently experienced.  In  severe  cases  there 
is  fever  with  accelerated  pulse  (70  to  80), 
accompanied  often  by  profuse  sweating, 
and  heaving  at  the  flanks,  the  legs  remain- 
ing warm.  After  a  short  time  the  part 
swells,  and  is  excessively  tender.  The 
treatment  should  be  by  a  copious  bleed- 
ing, if  the  horse  is  of  a  moderately  strong 
constitution;  indeed,  in  severe  cases  it 
should  be  carried  on  until  the  pulse  is 
greatly  reduced,  and  repeated  the  next 
day,  if  it  returns  to  its  original  hardness 
and  fulness.  The  bowels  should  be  acted 
on  as  soon  as  it  is  safe  to  do  so,  and  if 
the  dung  is  very  hard,  backracking  and 
clysters  should  be  used,  to  accelerate  the 
action  of  the  medicine.  The  best  aperient 
is  castor  oil,  of  which  a  pint  may  be  given 
with  an  ounce  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre. 
When  this  has  acted,  if  the  kidneys  are 
not  doing  their  duty,  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce  of  nitre  and  a  drachm  of  camphor 
may  be  made  into  a  ball  and  given  twice 
a  day. 

HORSE. — Chronic  Rheumatism  of  the 
muscles  is  similar  in  its  nature  to  the 
acute  form,  but,  as  its  name  implies,  it  is 
more  lasting,  and  of  less  severity.  It 
often  flies  from  one  part  to  another,  at- 
tacking the  ligaments  and  tendons,  as  well 
as  the  muscular  fibres.  It  is  seldom  much 
under  control,  and  attention  should  be  paid 
rather  to  improve  the  general  health  than 
to  subdue  the  local  affection. 

Small  Tumors,  of  about  the  size  of  a 
pea,  often  form  upon  the  tendons,  espe- 
cially the  "  back  sinews  "  of  the  fore  legs. 
They  may  or  may  not  occasion  lameness, 
but  they  are  always  to  be  regarded  with 
suspicion.  As  long  as  they  remain  indo- 
lent, they  are  better  left  alone;  but  when 
they  produce  inflammation  and  pain,  the 
best  remedy  is  the  biniodide  of  mercury 
ointment  (see  Horse,  Splints). 


HORSE,  Cartilage  and  Synovial  Mem- 
brane, Diseases  of. — Cartilage  is  subject 
chiefly  to  ulceration.  When  this  occurs,, 
its  cells  become  enlarged  and  crowded 
with  corpuscles,  which  burst  and  dis- 
charge their  contents;  the  intercellular 
structure  at  the  same  time  splits  into  bands, 
which,  together  with  corpuscles,  form  a 
fibro-nucleated  membrane  on  the  face  of 
the  cartilage.  In  old  horses,  the  ulcer- 
ated cartilage  covering  the  tibial  surface 
of  the  astragalus  is  sometimes  converted 
into  a  soft,  fibrous  substance,  which  ulti- 
mately assumes  the  appearance  of  hard 
and  dense  bone,  commonly  known  as 
"  porcellaneous  or  ivory  deposit."  It  is 
accompanied  by  no  symptoms  of  inflam- 
mation ;  the  sole  evidence  of  disease, 
during  life  being  a  stiffness  of  the  joint, 
and  a  peculiar  grating  or  crackling  noise 
during  all  attempts  at  movement.  When 
caries  of  the  head  of  a  bone  has  caused 
a  loss  of  substance,  the  cartilage  dies,  and 
is  gradually  broken  down  by  decomposi- 
tion ;  but  this  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  dis- 
ease of  the  cartilage  itself.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  navicular  disease  (which 
will  be  included  under  the  diseases  of  the 
foot),  ulceration  of  the  cartilage  is  not 
very  common  in  the  horse. 

Acute  Inflammation  of  the  Synovial 
Membrane  is  seldom  met  with;  but  a 
chronic  state,  including  an  excessive  se- 
cretion of  synovia,  is  extremely  common. 
The  most  usual  situation  is  at  the  hock, 
where  the  swelling  has  received  the  name 
of  bog-spavin  and  thoroughpin ;  but  they 
also  occur  at  the  fetlock  and  knee-joints; 
in  the  former  case  being  sometimes  con- 
founded with  windgalls,  which  are  inflam- 
ed bursae  mucosae.     (See  Windgalls.) 

Bog-Spavin  is  very  apt  to  attack  young 
horses,  when  they  are  over- worked,  before 
being  fully  seasoned ;  but  it  may  occur  at 
all  ages.  It  shows  itself  at  the  inner  side 
of  the  joint,  because  here  the  ligaments 
are  wider  apart,  and  there  is  more  room 
for  distension.  Its  seat  is  the  capsule  be- 
tween the  tibia  and  astragalus,  which  is 
here  unprotected  by  any  strong  fibrous 
covering,  and  readily  yields  to  the  grad- 
ual pressure  of  the  secretion  from  its  in- 
ternal surface. 

Thoroughpin  may  be  either  an  increased 
secretion  of  the  synovial  capsule,  between 
the  astragalus  and  os  calcis,  or  between 
the  scaphoid  and  cuneiform  bones,  or  of 


•62 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


the  bursa  mucosa  lying  between  the  tendo 
Achillis  and  the  tendo  perforatus.  In 
the  first  of  these  cases,  it  often  co-exists 
with  bog-spavin,  and  synovia  may  be 
made  to  fluctuate  from  one  bag  to  the 
other,  the  only  line  of  demarcation  being 
the  astragalo-calcanean  ligament. 

Both  bog-spavin  and  thoroughpin  may 
exist,  or  either  separately,  without  occa- 
sioning lameness;  but  where  they  are 
just  established,  there  is  generally  some 
small  degree  of  active  inflammation,  which 
causes  a  slight  lameness  on  first  going  out 
of  the  stable,  but  soon  disappearing. 

The  treatment  should  be  by  pressure, 
kept  up  for  a  long  time,  by  means  of  a 
carefully-adjusted  truss,  alternated  with 
cold  affusion,  and  the  use  afterwards  of 
tincture  of  arnica,  diluted  with  water,  as 
a  wash.  Subcutaneous  scarification  has 
succeeded  in  some  few  cases  in  causing 
the  secretion  to  cease ;  but  it  has  so  often 
produced  extensive  inflammation  of  the 
joint  that  the  operation  is  by  no  means 
to  be  recommended.  Blistering  with  bin- 
iodide  of  mercury  has  also  occasionally 
answered ;  but  no  plan  is  so  successful, 
on  the  whole,  as  pressure,  alternating 
with  cold  affusion. 

Delicate  young  foals  are  subject  to 
rheumatic  inflammation  of  their  synovial 
membranes,  specially  displayed  in  the 
knees  and  hocks,  and  apparently  caused 
by  exposure  to  cold.  It  seldom  goes  on 
to  produce  disorganization  of  the  cartil- 
ages, but  the  capsular  ligaments  are  dis- 
tended with  thin  yellow  synovia,  causing 
considerable  stiffness.  The  cellular  tissue 
around  the  joints  also  becomes  cedema- 
tous,  and  the  legs  fill  all  the  way  down  to 
the  feet.  It  is  comonly  known  among 
breeders  as  the  "joint  evil,"  and  though 
in  itself  it  is  not  dangerous,  yet  it  marks 
the  existence  of  constitutional  weakness 
which  is  likely  to  occasion  some  more  fa- 
tal malady.  The  treatment  should  con- 
sist in  attending  to  the  general  health  by 
strengthening  the  mare,  which  is  best 
done  by  giving  her  a  drachm  of  the  sul- 
phate of  iron  in  her  corn  twice  a  day. 
The  joints  of  the  foal  should  be  rubbed 
with  equal  parts  of  soap  liniment  and 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  it  should  be 
assisted  to  stand  for  the  purpose  of  suck- 
ing at  regular  short  intervals  if  it  is  una- 
ble to  help  itselt.  In  aggravated  cases, 
however,  the  foal  is  not  likely  to  recover 


its  general  strength,  and  it  may  be  'xitter 
to  destroy  it,  but  so  long  as  it  can  stand 
and  feeds  well  hopes  may  be  entertained 
of  the  ioints  recovering. 

HORSE,  SHEATHS,  Inflamed  Tendi- 
nous.—  Every  practical  horseman  is 
aware  that  the  sheaths  in  which  the  back 
sinews  and  other  tendons  are  lodged  are 
liable  to  inflammation  and  thickening, 
without  the  tendon  itself  being  involved. 
By  passing  the  hand  down  the  leg,  an  ir- 
regular network  may  be  felt  surrounding 
the  tendons,  which  move  up  and  down 
without  disturbing  it ;  and  the  surround- 
ing cellular  membrane  is  also  thickened, 
and  becomes  hard  and  unyielding.  There 
may  be  considerable  heat  about  the  part, 
but  often  it  is  quite  cool ;  and  the  disease 
may  continue  for  months  without  any 
great  lameness,  and  with  nothing  to  draw 
attention  to  it  (excepting  a  slight  stiffness 
on  leaving  the  stable)  but  the  sensation 
communicated  to  the  hand.  At  length, 
an  unusually  severe  day's  work  sets  up 
active  inflammation,  the  leg  rapidly  fills, 
and  there  is  so  much  lameness  as  to 
cause  the  horse  to  be  thrown  by.  The 
treatment,  in  the  early  stage,  should  be 
the  use  of  bandages,  constantly  kept  wet 
with  arnica  and  water,  and  nothing  but 
walking  exercise.  After  the  thickening  is 
fully  established  no  remedy  short  of  blis- 
tering, or  a  charge,  will  be  of  the  slight- 
est avail,  with  a  rest  of  two  or  three 
months. 

HORSE,  MUCOSiE,  Inflamed  Bursa. 
— These  synovial  bags  are  liable  to  in- 
flammation, either  from  hard  work,  as  in 
windgalls  and  thoroughpin,  or  from  blows, 
as  in  capped  hock  and  elbow.  The  lat- 
ter are  said  by  some  veterinaries  to  be  sa- 
rous  abscesses ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that 
in  all  horses  a  subcutaneous  bursa  exists 
on  the  cap  of  the  elbow  and  hock ;  and 
these  become  inflamed  and  filled  with  a 
very  thin  synovia,  when  they  are  bruised. 
They  never  extend  beyond  a  certain  size, 
and  have  no  tendency  to  burst ;  nor  are 
they  inclined  to  a  healthy  termination  of 
their  own  accord,  but  go  in  the  same  con- 
dition from  year  to  year. 

Windgalls,  or  puffs,  are  the  most  usual 
forms  of  these  enlargements,  and  may  be 
observed  in  the  legs  (hind  as  well  as  fore) 
of  nearly  every  hard-worked  horse,  after 
a  time.  Great  care  in  the  management 
of  the  legs  by  bandaging  will  sometimes 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


63 


keep  them  off,  and  some  horses  have  nat- 
urally no  tendency  to  form  them ;  but  in 
most  cases,  on  examining  the  legs,  just 
above  the  fetlock  joints,  of  horses  at 
•work,  a  little  oval  bag  may  be  felt  on 
each  side,  between  the  back  sinew  and 
the  bone.  If  recent,  it  is  soft  and  puffy; 
but  if  the  work  is  hard,  and  the  windgall 
is  of  long  standing,  it  will  be  as  tense  as 
a  drum.  The  synovial  gag  has  no  com- 
munication with  the  fetlock  joint;  but 
there  is  another  sac  in  front  of  the  joint, 
and  beneath  the  tendons  of  the  exten- 
sors, which  is  often  enlarged,  though  not 
so  much  so  as  the  seat  of  the  true  wind- 
gall,  and  which  is  generally,  though  not 
always,  continuous  with  the  synovial  cap- 
sule of  the  joint.  The  treatment  consists 
in  pressure  by  means  of  bandages,  and 
the  application  of  cold  lotions,  if  the  legs 
are  hot  and  inflamed.  Blistering  and  rest 
will  remove  them  entirely ;  but  no  sooner 
is  the  horse  put  to  work  again  than  they 
return  as  badly  as  ever.  There  is  no  rad- 
ical cure  but  subcutaneous  puncture  and 
scarification,  and  this  will  produce  too 
much  adhesion  to  be  advantageously  ap- 
plied. 

The  form  of  thoroughpin  in  which  the 
bursa  mucosa  between  the  tendo  Achillis 
and  the  tendo  perforatus  is  inflamed  and 
filled  with  synovia,  has  been  alluded  to 
under  the  head  of  Horse  Cartilage,  and 
its  treatment  is  there  described.  (See 
Horse,  Thoroughpin.) 

Capped  hock  is  also  the  result  of  a 
bruise  of  the  superficial  bursa,  which  is 
situated  on  the  point  of  the  hock,  imme- 
-diately  beneath  the  skin.  It  indicates 
either  that  the  possessor  has  kicked  in  the 
stable  or  harness;  but  it  is  more  frequent- 
ly caused  in  the  former  way  than  in  the 
latter.  The  swelling  is  sometimes  slight, 
being  then  just  sufficient  to  show  the 
point  slightly  enlarged,  and  to  give  a  soft, 
puffy  sensation  to  the  fingers,  where  there 
ought  to  be  nothing  but  bone  felt  beneath 
the  skin.  The  bursa  always  rolls  freely 
on  the  bone,  and  when  large  it  can  be 
laid  hold  of  and  shaken  like  a  bladder  of 
water.  The  treatment  should  be  directed 
to  abate  any  slight  inflammation  that 
may  exist,  if  the  case  is  established ;  but 
in  recent  ones  it  is  doubly  necessary  to 
apply  cold  lotions,  which,  however,  there 
is  some  difficulty  in  doing,  owing  to  the 
prominent  nature  of  the  part.    A  piece 


of  stout  calico  or  fine  canvas  may,  how- 
ever, be  shaped  into  a  cap,  carefully  fit- 
ting the  point  of  the  hock ;  and  this  be- 
ing tied  by  several  pieces  of  tape  in  front 
of  the  leg  will  allow  not  only  of  the  ap- 
plication of  cold  lotions,  but  of  pressure 
also.  By  this  plan,  continued  for  some 
weeks,  considerable  enlargements  have 
been  removed,  but  they  are  very  apt  to 
return  on  the  slightest  bruise.  Setons 
through  the  bursa,  and  injections  into  its 
cavity  of  stimulating  applications,  have 
often  been  tried ;  but  they  generally  do 
more  harm  than  good,  and  nothing  can 
be  relied  on  but  the  conjoint  use  of  pres- 
sure and  cold  applications.  The  best 
lotion  is  the  following : 

Take  of  Tincture  of  Arnica    -    -    3  ozs. 
Muriate  of  Ammonia  -     -    2    " 
Methylated  Spirit  of  Wine  -  4   " 
Water     -     -----    3  pints.  Mix 

Gapped  elbow  is  precisely  similar  in  its 
nature  to  capped  hock,  and  must  be 
treated  in  the  same  way.  It  is  also 
known  by  the  name  of  capulet. 

HORSE,  Strains.— The  fibres  of  mus- 
cles, ligaments,  and  tendons,  and  the 
fascia  covering  them,  are  liable  to  be 
overstretched,  and  more  or  less  mechani- 
cally injured.  This  is  called  a  strain, 
the  symptoms  of  which  are  similar  to  the 
inflammation  of  the  part  occurring  ideo- 
pathically.  They  are  heat,  swelling,  and 
pain  on  pressure  or  movement,  shown  by 
flinching  in  the  one  case,  and  lameness 
in  the  other.  In  some  cases  there  is 
considerable  effusion  of  blood  or  serum, 
the  former  occurring  chiefly  in  the  mus- 
cles, and  the  latter  among  the  torn  fibres 
of  the  tendons  or  ligaments.  The  symp- 
toms and  treatment  will  depend  upon  the 
part  injured,  which  will  be  found  de- 
scribed under  the  following  heads;  but 
in  most  cases  an  embrocation  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  laudanum,  olive  oil, 
spirit  of  turpentine,  and  hartshorn  will  be 
beneficial  if  applied  after  the  first  active 
inflammation  has  subsided. 

HORSE,  Strain  of  the  Back  and  Loins. — 
When  a  young  horse  has  been  hunted 
or  ridden  with  hounds  over  any  kind  of 
fence,  he  is  very  apt  to  over-exert  him- 
self in  his  awkward  attempt  to  clear  the 
obstacle,  and  next  day  he  will  often 
show  a  stiffness  of  the  loins  and  back, 
which  is  seated  in  the  large  muscles  con- 
necting the  pelvis  with  the  thorax.     He 


64 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


is  said  to  have  "  ricked  his  back,"  in  the 
language  of  the  stable,  and  if  the  mis- 
chief is  confined  to  the  muscles  alone,  he 
may  generally  be  permanently  cured, 
though  he  will  be  more  liable  to  a  return 
than  an  animal  which  has  never  suffered 
from  any  accident  of  the  kind.  If,  how- 
ever, the  spinal  cord  is  injured,  either 
from  fracture  of  the  vertebrae,  or  from 
effusion  of  blood  or  serum  pressing  upon 
it,  the  case  is  different,  and  a  perfect 
cure  is  seldom  obtained.  It  is,  however, 
very  difficult  to  form  a  correct  diagnosis 
between  the  one  case  and  the  other,  and 
the  treatment  may  generally  be  conduct- 
ed with  the  hope  that  the  more  important 
organ  is  uninjured.  When  there  is  com- 
plete palsy  of  the  hind  extremities,  so 
that  the  horse  can  neither  feel  nor  use 
them  in  the  slightest  degree,  the  case  is 
hopeless.  (See  Diseases  of  the  Ner- 
vous System.)  For  the  management  of 
the  strain  of  the  loins,  a  full  bleeding  should 
be  adopted,  as  it  generally  happens  that 
the  horse  is  plethoric  and  full  of  corn. 
Then  apply  a  double  fold  of  thick  flannel 
or  serge,  dipped  in  warm  water,  to  the 
whole  surface  of  the  loins,  cover  this 
over  with  a  layer  of  India  rubber  sheet- 
ing, and  let  it  remain  on,  taking  care  to 
renew  the  water  if  it  has  become  dry.  It 
generally  produces  a  copious  sweating 
from  the  part,  followed  by  a  slight  irrita- 
tion of  the  skin,  both  of  which  afford  re- 
lief. In  three  or  four  days  the  flannel 
may  be  removed,  and  the  embrocation 
alluded  to  above  rubbed  in  two  or  three 
times  a  day,  which  will  generally  relieve 
the  muscles  so  much  that  at  the  end  of 
a  week  or  ten  days  the  horse  is  able  to 
move  quietly  about  in  a  loose  box,  and 
the  cure  may  be  left  to  time,  aided  by  a 
charge  on  the  back. 

HORSE,  Shoulder,  Strain  of  the. — 
Shoulder  strain  was  formerly  very  often 
chosen  as  the  seat  of  lameness  in  the 
fore  extremity,  solely  because  the  case  is 
so  obscure  that  it  is  beyond  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  unskillful  examiner.  Nev- 
ertheless, it  is  by  no  means  so  uncommon 
as  is  supposed  by  some  writers,  and  per- 
haps it  may  be  asserted  that  it  is  now 
more  frequently  passed  over  when  it 
really  exists,  than  the  reverse.  It  gen- 
erally is  seated  in  the  serratus  magnus,  or 
pectoralis  transversus  muscles,  but  it 
may  also  occur  in  the  triceps,  or,  indeed, 


in  almost  any  of  the  muscles  around  the 
shoulder  joint.  The  symptoms  are  very 
peculiar,  and  cannot  well  be  mistaken  by 
a  careful  observer  who  has  once  seen  a 
case  of  shoulder  lameness.  In  all  other 
kinds  (except  the  knee),  the  limb  is  free- 
ly moved  while  in  the  air,  and  no  pain  is 
expressed  until  the  foot  is  about  to  touch 
the  ground;  but  here  the  lameness  is 
greatest  while  the  knee  is  being  protrud- 
ed, and  the  limb  is  swung  forward  side- 
ways, in  a  circular  manner,  which  gives 
an  expression  of  great  imbecility.  It 
also  occasions  great  pain  when  the  foot  is 
lifted  and  drawn  forward  by  the  hand, 
just  as  in  rhematism  of  the  part  (see 
Horse,  Rheumatism).  When  the  ser- 
ratus magnus  has  been  strained  by  a  fall 
from  a  drop  leap,  or  the  pectoralis  trans- 
versus by  a  slip,  causing  the  legs  to  be 
widely  separated,  there  is  often  great  ob- 
scurity in  the  case;  bin;  the  history  of 
the  accident  will  generally  assist  in  form- 
ing a  correct  diagnosis.  The  treatment 
in  the  early  stage  will  consist  in  bleeding 
from  the  plate  vein,  to  the  extent  of  five 
or  six  quarts  of  blood,  followed  by  fo- 
mentations with  hot  water,  if  there  is 
much  heat  and  swelling,  and  giving 
a  dose  of  physic  as  soon  as  the  bowels 
will  bear  it.  When  the  heat  has  disap- 
peared, or  at  once,  if  there  is  none,  ap- 
ply the  embrocation  described  for  Horse, 
Strain,  and  if  this  does  not  produce  re- 
lief, add  to  it  one  quarter  of  its  bulk  of 
tincture  of  cantharides. 

HORSE,  Knee,  Strains  of  the.— The 
knee,  unlike  its  analogue  in  the  human 
subject  (the  wrist),  is  seldom  strained  in 
the  horse,  in  consequence  of  the  strong 
ligaments  which  bind  the  bones  of  the 
carpus  together.  Still  it  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  the  internal  lateral  ligaments. 
are  overstretched,  or,  if  in  calf-kneed 
horses,  the  posterior  common  ligaments, 
or  that  connecting  the  scaphoid  with  the 
pisiform  bone,  or  probably  all  these  will 
suffer  from  over-extension.  The  accident 
may  be  recognized  by  the  heat  and 
swelling  of  the  part  affected,  as  well  as 
by  the  pain  given  on  using  the  joint. 
The  anterior  ligaments  are  seldom 
strained,  but  are  liable  to  injury  from 
blows  received  in  various  ways.  The 
treatment  should  be  conducted  on  the 
same  principles  as  those  of  strains  in  the 
shoulder.     Cold  applications  will  seldom 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


65 


do  anything  but  harm  in  the  early  stage; 
but  after  hot  fomentations  have  relieved 
the  active  mischief,  by  encouraging  the 
effusion  of  serum  into  the  surrounding 
cellular  membrane,  the  former  may  be 
used  with  advantage.  When  the  heat 
and  other  signs  of  active  inflammation 
have  disappeared,  the  biniodide  of  mer- 
cury ointment  may  be  rubbed  in,  avoid- 
ing the  back  of  the  joint.  (See  Horse, 
Splints.) 

HORSE,  Fetlock,  Strain  of  the.— This 
accident  shows  itself  at  once,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  superficial  nature  of  the 
joint,  by  swelling,  heat,  soreness  to  the 
touch,  and  lameness.  It  may  be  very 
slight  or  very  severe,  but  in  the  latter 
case  it  is  generally  complicated  by  strain 
of  the  back  sinews,  or  suspensory  liga- 
ment. The  treatment  will  be  precisely 
on  the  same  plan  as  for  strain  of  the 
knee.  When  the  anterior  ligaments  of 
the  fetlock  joint  are  strained  and  in- 
flamed, as  so  often  happens  with  race 
horses,  the  condition  is  known  as  "  shin 
sere." 

HORSE,  Coffin  Joint,  Strain  of  the.— 
Dissection  proves  that  this  joint  is  some- 
times the  seat  of  strain ;  but  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  ascertain  its  existence  with 
certainty  during  life.  The  diagnosis  is, 
however,  not  of  much  consequence,  as 
the  treatment  will  be  the  same,  whether 
the  coffin  joint,  or  the  navicular  joint  is 
the  seat  of  the  mischief.  In  any  case,  if 
severe,  bleeding  from  the  toe  should  be 
had  recourse  to,  followed  by  cold  appli- 
cations around  the  coronet,  by  means  of  a 
strip  of  flannel  or  felt,  tied  loosely  round 
the  pastern,  and  kept  constantly  wet. 
When  the  heat  has  subsided,  the  coronet 
should  be  blistered. 

HORSE,  Suspensory  Ligaments,  Strain 
of  the. — The  suspensory  ligament  not  be- 
ing elastic  like  the  back  sinews  (Avhich, 
though  not  in  themselves  extensible,  are 
the  prolongations  of  muscles  which  have 
that  property),  is  very  liable  to  strains, 
especially  in  the  hunter,  and  to  a  less  de- 
gree in  the  race  horse.  The  accident  is 
readily  made  out,  for  there  is  local  swel- 
ling and  tenderness,  and  in  the  well-bred 
horse,  which  is  alone  likely  to  meet  a 
strain  of  this  kind,  the  leg  is  rarely  suffi- 
ciently gummy  to  prevent  the  finger  from 
making  out  the  condition  of  the  ligaments 
and  tendons.     There  is  no  giving  way  of 


the  joints  as  in  "break  down,"  but  on 
the  contrary  the  leg  is  flexed,  and  if  the 
case  is  a  bad  one,  the  toe  only  is  allowed 
to  touch  the  ground.  In  ordinary  cases, 
however,  there  is  merely  slight  swelling 
of  the  suspensory  ligament  in  a  limited 
spot  usually  near  its  bifurcation,  or  some- 
times in  one  division  only  close  above  the 
sesamoid  bone  to  which  it  is  attached. 
The  horse  can  stand  readily  on  that  leg, 
but  on  being  trotted  he  limps  a  good 
deal.  Sometimes,  however,  there  is  a 
swelling  of  the  feet  without  lameness,  but 
in  this  case  the  enlargement  is  generally 
due  to  an  effusion  of  serum  into  the  cel- 
lular covering  of  the  ligament,  and  not  to 
an  actual  strain  of  its  fibres.  The  treat- 
ment will  depend  greatly  upon  the  extent 
of  the  mischief;  if  there  is  no  great  in- 
jury done,  and  the  enlargement  is  chiefly 
from  effusion  of  serum,  rest  and  cold  ap- 
plications by  means  of  bandages  or  other- 
wise will  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
months  effect  a  cure.  Generally,  however, 
the  case  will  last  six  or  eight  months  be- 
fore the  ligament  recovers  its  tone,  and  in 
a  valuable  horse  no  attempt  should  be- 
made  to  work  him  before  that  time.. 
Where  the  swelling  is  small,  as  it  gener- 
ally is,  bandages  have  no  power  over  it, 
as  the  projection  of  the  flexor  tendons 
keeps  the  pressure  off  the  injured  part. 
Here,  dropping  the  leg  in  a  bucket  of 
water  every  hour  will  be  of  far  more  ser- 
vice than  a  bandage,  and  the  sudden 
shock  of  the  cold  water  will  be  doubly 
efficacious.  After  all  heat  has  disappeared 
the  biniodide  of  mercury  may  be  used  as 
a  blister  two  or  three  times,  and  then  the 
horse  may  either  be  turned  out,  or  put 
into  a  loose  box  for  three  or  four  months, . 
after  which  walking  exercise  will  complete " 
the  cure. 

HORSE,  Back  Sinews,  Strain  of  the.— 
In  this  accident  the  position  of  the  leg  is 
the  same  as  in  strain  of  the  suspensory 
ligament,  and  there  is  no  giving  way  of 
the  joints.  The  flexor  tendons  are  en- 
larged, hot,  and  tender,  and  there  is  great 
lameness,  the  horse  having  the  power^ 
to  flex  the  joints  below  the  knee,  but  re- 
solutely objecting  to  extend  them,  by 
bearing  what  little  weight  is  unavoidable 
upon  his  toe.  The  case  is  often  con- 
founded with  a  "break  down,"  but  it 
may  readily  be  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  latter  the  joints  give  way  on 


66 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


putting  the  weight  upon  them,  whilst  in 
mere  strains  'they  do  not,  and  the  ten- 
dency is  to  the  opposite  extreme.  Fre- 
quently after  a  bad  strain  of  the  flexor 
tendons,  the  fetlock  is  "  over  shot,"  or 
beyond  the  upright,  in  consequence  of 
Hhe  continued  flexion  of  the  joint,  to  pre- 
vent pressure  upon  the  injured  fibres,  and 
m  the  management  this  result  should  be 
carefully  guarded  against.  The  injury 
is  generally  confined  to  the  sheath  of  the 
tendons,  which  in  most  cases  gradually 
puts  on  inflammatory  condition  for  some 
time  before  actual  lameness  is  observed. 
In  bad  cases,  however,  the  ligamentous 
tfibres  which  are  given  off  by  the  poster- 
ior carpal  ligament  to  the  flexor  tendons 
.are  ruptured,  greatly  increasing  the 
.amount  of  inflammation  and  subsequent 
loss  of  strength.  In  any  case  the  ten- 
dons feels  spongy,  and  slightly  enlarged, 
and  there  is  more  or  less  soreness  on 
pressure  and  on  being  trotted,  but  in  the 
"latter  case  exercise  removes  the  tender- 
ness, and  very  often  temporarily  causes 
an  absorption  of  the  effused  fluid,  which 
is  again  deposited  during  rest.   This  state 

•  of  things  goes  on  for  a  time,  the  groom 
doing  all  in  his  power  to  alleviate  it  by 
wet  bandages,  etc.,  but  at  last  a  severe 
race  or  gallop  brings  on  an  extra  amount 

•  of  inflammation,  with  or  without  actual 
.  strain  of  the  fibres  of  the  tendon,  and 

then  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the 
propriety  of  rest  and  severe  treatment. 
It  often  happens  that  both  legs  are  slight- 
ly affected,  but  one  being  more  tender 
vthan  the  other,  the  horse  attempts  to  save 
at  by  changing  legs,  the  consequence  of 
•which  is  that  the  comparatively  sound 
itendons  are  strained,  and  he  returns  to 
3iis  stable  with  both  legs  in  a  bad  state, 
but  with  one  of  them  requiring  immediate 
attention.  The  treatment  should  be  by 
local  bleeding  (from  the  arm,  thigh,  or 
toe),  followed  at  first  by  warm  fomenta- 
tions, and  in  a  few  days  by  cold  lotions. 
A  high-heeled  shoe  (called  a  patten) 
should  be  put  on  the  foot,  so  as  to  allow 
fthe  horse  to  rest  part  of  the  weight  upon 
5the  heel  without  distressing  the  tendon, 
;and  this  will  prevent  him  from  over  slioot- 
dng  at  the  fetlock  joint,  which  he  will 
■otherwise  be  very  apt  to  do,  from  con- 
•stantly  balancing  his  leg  on  his  toe.  After 
:three  or  four  days  the  hot  fomentations 
will  have  done  what  is  wanted,  and  a  cold 


lotion  may  be  applied  by  means  of  a  loose 
linen  bandage.  The  best  is  composed  as 
follows : 

Take  of  Muriate  of  Ammonia      -     -    2  oz. 

Vinegar y£  pint. 

Methylated  Spirit  of  Wine  -     y2  pint. 

Water 2  quarts. 

Mix. 

With  this  the  bandage  should  be  kept 
constantly  wet,  the  application  being 
continued  for  a  fortnight  at  least,  dur- 
ing which  time  the  patient  must  be 
cool,  by  lowering  his  food,  and  giving 
him  a  dose  of  physic.  At  the  end  of 
three  weeks  or  a  month  from  the  ac- 
cident, the  leg  must  be  either  blistered 
or  fired,  the  choice  depending  upon  the 
extent  of  injury,  and  the  desire  to  avoid 
a  blemish,  if  such  a  feeling  exists.  The 
former  is  the  more  efficacious  plan  no 
doubt,  but  blistering  will  frequently  suffice 
in  mild  cases.  If,  however,  the  tendons 
at  the  end  of  a  month  continue  greatly 
enlarged,  a  cure  can  hardly  be  expected 
without  the  use  of  the  "irons." 

HORSE,  Breaking  Down. — Great  con- 
fusion exists  among  trainers  as  to  the  ex- 
act nature  of  this  accident,  which  is  con- 
sidered by  the  veterinary  surgeon  to 
consist  in  an  actual  rupture  of  the  sus- 
pensory ligament  either  above  or  below 
the  sesamoid  bones,  which,  in  fact,  merely 
separate  this  apparatus  of  suspension  into 
two  portions,  just  as  the  patella  inter- 
venes between  the  rectus  femoris  and  the 
tibia.  Whichever  part  of  the  suspensory 
apparatus  is  gone  (whether  the  superior 
or  inferior  sesamoidal  ligament  is  imma- 
terial), the  fetlock  and  pastern  joints  lose 
their  whole  inelastic  support;  and  the 
flexor  tendons,  together  with  their  liga- 
mentous fibres  which  they  receive  from 
the  carpus,  giving  way,  as  they  must  do, 
to  allow  of  the  accident  taking  place,  the 
toe  is  turned  up,  and  the  fetlock  joint 
bears  upon  the  ground.  This  is  a  com- 
plete "break  down;"  but  there  are  many 
cases  in  which  the  destruction  of  the  lig- 
amentous fibres  is  not  complete,  and  the 
joint,  though  much  lowered,  does  not  ac- 
tually touch  the  ground.  These  are  still 
called  breaks  down,  and  must  be  regard- 
ed as  such,  and  as  quite  distinct  from 
strains  of  the  flexor  tendons.  The  acci- 
dent generally  occurs  in  a  tired  horse, 
when  the  flexor  muscles  do  not  continue 
to  support  the  ligaments,  from  which  cir- 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


67 


cumstance  it  so  often  happens  in  the  last 
few  strides  of  a  race.  The  symptoms  are 
a  partial  or  entire  giving  way  of  the  fet- 
lock joint  downwards,  so  that  the  back 
of  it  either  touches  the  ground  or  nearly 
so,  when  the  weight  is  thrown  upon  it. 
Usually,  however,  after  the  horse  is  pulled 
up,  he  hops  on  three  legs,  and  refuses 
altogether  to  put  that  which  is  broken 
down  to  the  ground.  In  a  very  few  min- 
utes the  leg  "  fills  "  at  the  seat  of  the  ac- 
cident, and  becomes  hot  and  very  tender 
to  the  touch.  There  can,  therefore,  be 
no  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  mischief, 
and  the  confusion  to  which  allusion  has 
been  made  is  one  of  names  rather  than 
of  facts.  Treatment  can  only  be  directed 
to  a  partial  recovery  from  this  accident, 
for  a  horse  broken  down  in  the  sense 
in  which  the  term  is  here  used  can 
only  be  used  for  stud  purposes  or  at 
slow  farm  work.  A  patten  shoe  should 
at  once  be  put  on  after  bleeding  at  the 
toe  to  a  copious  extent,  and  then  fomen- 
tations followed  by  cold  lotions  should  be 
applied,  as  directed  in  the  last  section. 
As  there  must  necessarily  be  a  deformity 
of  the  leg,  there  can  be  no  objection  on 
that  score  to  firing,  and  when  the  severe 
inflammation  following  the  accident  has 
subsided  this  operation  should  be  thor- 
oughly performed,  so  as  to  afford  relief 
not  only  by  the  counter-irritation  which 
is  set  up,  and  which  lasts  only  for  a  time, 
but  by  the  rigid  and  unyielding  case 
which  it  leaves  behind  for  a  series  of 
years. 

HORSE,  Hip  Joint,  Stifle,  and  Hock, 
Strains  of  the. — The  hip  joint,  or  round 
bone,  is  liable  to  be  strained  by  the  hind 
feet  slipping  and  being  stretched  apart,  or 
by  blows  against  the  side  of  the  stall, 
when  cast,  which  are  not  sufficient  to  dis- 
locate the  femur,  but  strain  its  ligaments 
severely.  The  consequence  is  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  joint,  which  is  evidenced 
by  a  dropping  of  one  hip  in  going,  the 
weight  being  thrown  more  upon  the 
sound  side  than  upon  the  other.  This  is 
especially  remarkable  on  first  starting,  the 
lameness  soon  going  off  in  work,  but  re- 
turning after  rest.  The  case,  however,  is 
a  rare  one,  and  its  description  need  not, 
therefore,  occupy  much  of  our  space. 
When  it  does  happen,  it  is  very  apt  to 
lead  to  a  wasting  of  the  deep  muscles  of 
the  haunch,  which  nothing  but  compul- 


sory work  will  restore  to  a  healthy  condi- 
tion. The  only  treatment  necessary  in 
the  early  stage  of  strain  of  the  hip  joint 
is  rest  and  cooling  diet,  etc.;  but,  after 
six  weeks  or  two  months,  a  gradual  re- 
turn to  work  is  indispensable  to  effect  a 
cure. 

Strains  of  the  stifle,  independently  of 
blows,  are  rare ;  but  the  latter  often  are 
inflicted  upon  this  joint  in  hunting,  leav- 
ing little  evidence  externally,  so  that  it  is 
almost  always  doubtful  whether  the  injury 
is  the  result  of  a  blow  or  strain.  The 
symptoms  are  a  swelling  and  tenderness 
of  the  joint,  which  can  be  ascertained  by 
a  careful  examination;  and  on  trotting 
the  horse,  there  is  manifested  a  difficulty 
or  stiffness  in  drawing  forward  the  hind 
leg  under  the  belly.  The  treatment  must 
be  by  bleeding  and  physicking  in  the 
early  stage,  together  with  hot  fomenta- 
tions to  the  part,  continued  every  hour 
until  the  heat  subsides.  After  a  few  days, 
if  the  joint  is  still  painful,  a  large  blister 
should  be  applied,  or,  what  is  still  better, 
a  seton  should  be  inserted  in  the  skin  ad- 
jacent. 

The  hock  itself  is  liable  to  strain,  inde- 
pendently of  the  peculiar  accident  known 
as  "  curb."  When  it  occurs,  there  is  some 
heat  of  the  part,  with  more  or  less  lame- 
ness, and  neither  spavin,  thoroughpin, 
nor  curb  to  account  for  them.  The  injury 
is  seldom  severe,  and  may  be  relieved  by 
fomentations  for  a  day  or  two,  followed 
by  cold  lotions,  as  prescribed  for  Strain 

OF  THE  BACK  SINEWS. 

HOESE,  Curb.— The  lower  part  of  the 
posterior  surface  of  the  os  calcis  is  firmly 
united  to  the  cuboid  and  external  meta- 
tarsal bone  by  two  strong,  ligamentous 
bands,  called  the  calcaneo-metatarsal  lig- 
aments. The  centre  of  these  ligaments 
is  about  seven  or  eight  inches  below  the 
point  of  the  hock,  and  when  a  soft  but 
elastic  swelling  suddenly  makes  its  ap- 
pearance there,  it  may  with  certainty  be 
asserted  that  a  "curb"  has  been  thrown 
out.  The  accident  occurs  somewhat  sud- 
denly; but  the  swelling  and  inflammation 
do  not  always  show  themselves  until  after 
a  night's  rest,  when  the  part  is  generally 
enlarged,  hot,  and  tender.  The  precise 
extent  of  the  strain  is  of  little  conse- 
quence ;  for  whatever  its  nature,  the  treat- 
ment should  be  sufficiently  active  to  re- 
duce the  ligaments  to  their  healthy  con- 


68 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


dition.  Some  horses  have  naturally  the 
head  of  the  external  small  metatarsal 
bone  unusually  large,  and  the  hock  so 
formed  that  there  is  an  angle  between  the 
large  metatarsal  bone  and  the  tarsus, 
leaving  a  prominence,  which,  however,  is 
hard  and  bony,  and  not  soft  and  elastic, 
as  is  the  case  with  curb.  Such  hocks  are 
generally  inclined  to  throw  out  curbs; 
but  there  are  many  exceptions,  and  some 
of  the  most  suspicious-looking  joints  have 
been  known  to  stand  sound  for  years. 
Curbs  are  seldom  thrown  out  by  very  old 
horses,  and  usually  occur  between  the 
commencement  of  breaking-in  and  the 
seventh  or  eighth  year,  though  they  are 
not  unfrequently  met  with  in  the  younger 
colt,  being  occasioned  by  his  gambols 
over  hilly  ground.  The  treatment  should 
at  first  be  studiously  confined  to  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  inflammation ;  any  attempt  to 
procure  absorption  till  this  is  effected 
being  injurious  in  the  extreme.  If  there 
is  much  heat  in  the  part,  blood  may  be 
taken  from  the  thigh  vein,  the  corn 
should  be  removed,  and  a  dose  of  physic 
given  as  soon  as  practicable.  The  curb 
should  then  be  kept  wet  (by  means  of  a 
bandage  lightly  applied)  with  the  lotion 
recommended  for  Capped  Hocks,  and  this 
should  be  continued  until  the  inflamma- 
tion is  entirely  gone.  During  this  treat- 
ment, in  bad  cases,  a  patten  shoe  should  be 
kept  on,  so  as  to  keep  the  hock  as  straight 
as  possible,  and  thus  take  the  strain  off  the 
ligaments  which  are  affected.  After  the 
part  has  become  cool,  it  may  be  reduced 
in  size,  by  causing  absorption  to  be  set 
up ;  which  is  best  effected  by  the  appli- 
cation of  mercury  and  iodine  (both  of 
which  possess  that  power),  in  such  a 
large  shape  as  to  cause  a  blister  of  the 
skin.  The  biniodide  of  mercury  has  this 
double  advantage,  and  there  is  no  appli- 
cation known  to  surgery,  which  will  act 
equally  well  in  effecting  the  absorption  of 
a  curb.  It  should  be  applied  in  the  mode 
recommended  (see  Horse,  Splints),  and 
again  rubbed  on  at  an  interval  of  about 
a  week,  for  two  or  three  times  in  succes- 
sion, when  it  will  generally  be  found  that 
the  absorption  of  the  unnatural  swelling 
is  effected ;  but  the  ligaments  remain  as 
weak  as  before,  and  nothing  but  exercise 
(not  too  severe,  or  it  will  inflame  them 
again)  will  strengthen  them  sufficiently  to 
prevent  a  return.    Friction  with  the  hand, 


aided  by  a  slightly  stimulating  oil  (sucb 
as  neats-foot  and  turpentine  mixed,  or 
neats-foot  and  oil  of  origanum,  or,  in 
fact,  any  stimulating  essential  oil),  will 
tend  to  strengthen  the  ligaments,  by  ex- 
citing their  vessels  to  throw  out  addition- 
al fibres;  and  in  course  of  time  a  curb 
may  be  considered  to  be  sufficiently  re- 
stored to  render  it  tolerably  safe  to  use 
the  horse  again  in  the  same  way  which 
originally  produced  it. 

HORSE,  Dislocation. — By  dislocation 
is  meant  the  forcible  removal  of  the  end 
of  a  bone  from  the  articulating  surface 
which  it  naturally  occupies.  In  the- 
horse,  from  the  strength  of  his  ligaments,, 
the  accident  is  not  common ;  those  that 
do  occur  being  chiefly  in  the  hip  joint, 
and  in  that  between  the  patella  and  the. 
end  of  the  femur. 

Dislocation  of  the  hip  joint  is  known 
by  the  rigidity  of  the  hind  leg,  which 
cannot  be  moved  in  any  direction,  and  is 
carried  by  the  horse  when  he  is  compelled 
to  attempt  to  alter  his  position.  There  is; 
a  flatness  of  the  haunch  below  the  hip, 
but  the  crest  of  the  ilium  is  still  there,, 
and  by  this  the  accident  may  be  diag- 
nosed from  fracture  of  that  part.  No 
treatment  is  of  the  slightest  avail,  as  the 
part  cannot  be  reduced,  and  the  horse  is 
useless  except  for  stud  purposes.  The: 
accident  is  not  very  common. 

Dislocation  of  the  patella  sometimes; 
becomes  habitual,  occurring  repeatedly 
in  the  same  horse,  apparently  from  a 
spasmodic  contraction  of  the  external' 
vastus  muscle,  which  draws  the  patella 
outwards,  and  out  of  the  trochlea  formed 
for  it  in  the  lower  head  of  the  femur. 
When  the  cramp  goes  off,  the  patella 
drops  into  its  place  again  as  soon  as  the 
horse  moves,  and  no  treatment  is  re- 
quired. Occasionally,  however,  the  dis- 
location is  more  complete,  and  nothing 
but  manual  dexterity  will  replace  the- 
bone  in  its  proper  situation.  Great  pain; 
and  uneasiness  are  expressed,  and  the  op- 
erator must  encircle  the  haunch  with  his; 
arms  and  lay  hold  of  the  patella  with 
both  hands,  while  an  assistant  drags  for- 
ward the  toe,  and  thus  relaxes  the  mus- 
cles which  are  inserted  in  it.  By  forcibly 
driving  the  patella  into  its  place  it  may  be- 
lifted  over  the  ridge  which  it  has  passed,, 
and  a  snap  announces  the  reduction. 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


69 


HORSE,  Wounds  of  Joints.— The  knee 
is  the  joint  most  frequently  suffering  from 
-wound,  being  liable  to  be  cut  by  a  fall 
upon  it,  if  the  ground  is  rough;  and  if 
the  accident  takes  place  when  the  horse 
is  going  at  a  rapid  pace,  the  skin,  liga- 
ments and  tendons  may  be  worn  through 
by  friction  against  the  plain  surface  of  a 
smooth  turnpike  road.  Whether  the 
joint  itself  is  injured,  or  only  the  skin, 
the  accident  is  called  a  "  broken  knee," 
and  for  convenience  sake  it  will  be  well 
to  consider  both  under  the  present  head. 

When  a  broken  knee  consists  merely 
in  an  abrasion  of  the  skin,  the  attention 
of  the  groom  is  solely  directed  to  the  res- 
toration of  the  hair,  which  will  grow 
again  as  well  as  ever,  if  the  bulbs  or  roots 
are  not  injured.  These  are  situated  in 
the  internal  layer  of  the  true  skin,  and 
therefore,  when  there  is  a  smooth  red  sur- 
face displayed,  without  any  difference  in 
the  texture  of  its-  parts,  confident  hope 
may  be  expressed  that  there  will  be  no 
blemish.  If  the  skin  is  penetrated,  either 
the  glistening  surface  of  the  tendons 
or  ligaments  is  apparent,  or  there  is  a  soft 
layer  of  cellular  membrane,  generally 
containing  a  fatty  cell  or  two  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  wound  of  the  skin.  Even 
here,  by  proper  treatment,  the  injury 
may  be  repaired  so  fully  that  the  space 
uncovered  by  hair  cannot  be  recognized 
by  the  ordinary  observer,  and  not  by  any 
one  without  bending  the  knee  and  look- 
ing very  carefully  at  it.  The  best  treat- 
ment is  to  foment  the  knee  well  with 
warm  water,  so  as  to  remove  every  parti- 
cle of  grit  or  dirt ;  go  on  with  this  every 
hour  during  the  first  day,  and  at  night 
apply  a  bran  poultice  to  the  knee,  which 
should  be  left  on  till  the  next  morning. 
Then  cleanse  the  wound,  and  apply  a 
little  spermacetti  ointment,  or  lard  without 
salt,  and  with  this  keep  the  wound  pliant 
until  it  heals,  which  if  slight  it  will  in  a 
few  days.  If  the  skin  is  pierced  there 
will  generally  be  a  growth  above  it  of  red, 
flabby  granulations,  which  should  be 
carefully  kept  down  to  its  own  level  (not 
beneath  it,)  by  the  daily  use  of  blue  stone, 
or  if  necessary  of  nitrate  of  silver.  As 
•soon  as  the  wound  is  perfectly  healed,  if 
the  horse  can  be  spared,  the  whole  front 
of  the  knee  and  skin  should  be  dressed 
with  James'  blister,  which  will  bring  off 
the  hair  of  the  adjacent  parts,  and  also 


encourage  the  growth  of  that  injured  by 
the  fall.  In  about  three  weeks  or  a 
month  from  its  application,  the  leg  will 
pass  muster,  for  there  will  be  no  differ- 
ence in  the  color  of  the  old  and  new 
hair,  as  there  would  have  been  without 
the  blister,  and  the  new  will  also  have 
come  on  more  quickly  and  perfectly  than 
it  otherwise  would. 

When  the  joint  itself  is  opened  the 
case  is  much  more  serious,  and  there  is 
a  risk  not  only  of  a  serious  blemish, 
which  can  seldom  be  avoided,  but  of  a 
permanent  stiffness  of  the  leg,  the  mis- 
chief sometimes  being  sufficient  to  lead 
to  constitutional  fever,  and  the  local  in- 
flammation going  on  to  the  destruction 
of  the  joint  by  anchylosis.  The  treat- 
ment should  be  directed  to  cleanse  and 
then  close  the  joint,  the  former  object  be- 
ing carried  out  by  a  careful  ablution  with 
warm  water,  continued  until  there  is  no 
doubt  of  all  the  dirt  and  grit  having 
been  removed.  Then,  if  there  is  only  a 
very  small  opening  in  the  capsular  liga- 
ment, it  may  be  closed  by  a  careful  and 
light  touch  of  a  pointed  iron  heated  to  a 
red  heat.  Generally,  however,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  apply  some  dry  carded  cotton  to 
the  wound,  and  a  bandage  over  this, 
leaving  all  on  for  four  or  five  days,  when 
it  may  be  removed  and  reapplied.  The 
horse  should  be  bled  largely  and  physic- 
ed,  taking  care  to  prevent  all  chance  of 
his  lying  down  by  racking  him  up.  He 
will  seldom  attempt  to  do  this,  on  ac- 
count of  the  pain  occasioned  in  bending 
the  knee,  but  some  animals  will  disregard 
this  when  tired,  and  will  go  down  some- 
how. When  the  cotton  is  reapplied,  if 
there  are  granulations  above  the  level  of 
the  skin,  they  must  be  kept  down  as  re- 
commended in  the  last  paragraph,  and 
the  subsequent  treatment  by  blister  may 
be  exactly  the  same.  By  these  means  a 
very  extensive  wound  of  the  knee  may 
be  often  speedily  cured,  and  the  blemish 
will  be  comparatively  trifling. 

The  knee  is  sometimes  punctured  by  a 
thorn  in  hunting,  causing  great  pain  and 
lameness.  If  it  can  be  felt  externally,  it 
is  well  to  cut  down  upon  it  and  remove 
it;  but  groping  in  the  dark  with  the 
knife  among  important  tendons  in  front 
of  the  knee  is  not  on  any  account  to  be 
attempted.  The  knee  should  be  well  fo- 
mented, five  or  six  times  a  day,  until  the 


70 


HORSE—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


swelling,  if  there  is  any,  subsides,  and,  in 
process  of  time,  the  thorn  will  either 
show  its  base,  or  it  will  gradually  free  it- 
self from  its  attachments  and  lie  beneath 
the  skin,  from  which  position  it  may 
be  safely  extracted  with  the  knife. 

HORSE,  Thoracic  Organs  and  their 
Appendages,  Diseases  of  the. — The  im- 
portance of  soundness  in  the  respiratory 
apparatus  is  so  fully  recognized,  that  in 
common  parlance  it  is  put  before  the  or- 
gans of  locomotion,  a  popular  expression 
being  "sound  wind  and  limb."  It  is 
true  that  good  wind  is  useless  without 
legs;  but  the  diseases  of  the  latter  are 
known  to  be  more  under  control  than 
those  of  the  chest,  and  hence  it  is,  per- 
haps, that  the  wind  is  so  carefully  scrutin- 
ized by  all  purchasers  of  horses.  There 
is,  also,  much  greater  difficulty  in  ascer- 
taining the  condition  of  the  lungs  and 
their  appendages,  and  the  ordinary  ob- 
server can  only  judge  of  them  by  an  ab- 
solute trial;  while  the  state  of  the  legs 
may  be  seen  and  felt,  and  that  of  the  feet 
can  be  tolerably  well  ascertained  by  a 
very  short  run  upon  hard  ground.  So, 
also,  with  the  acute  diseases  of  these 
parts;  while  the  legs  and  feet  manifest 
the  slightest  inflammation  going  on  in 
them  by  swelling  and  heat,  the  air-passa- 
ges may  be  undergoing  slow  but  sure  de- 
struction, without  giving  out  any  sign 
that  can  be  detected  by  any  one  but  the 
practiced  veterinarian.  In  most  of  the 
diseases  of  the  chest  there  is  disturbance 
of  the  breathing,  even  during  a  state  of 
rest ;  but  in  some  of  them,  as  in  roaring, 
for  instance,  no  such  evidence  is  afford- 
ed, and  the  disease  can  only  be  detected 
by  an  examination  during,  or  immedi- 
ately after,  a  severe  gallop. 

HORSE,  Catarrh,  or  Cold.— Catarrh 
may  be  considered  under  two  points  of 
view — either  as  an  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal  cavities, 
accompanied  by  slight  general  fever;  or 
as  an  ephemeral  fever  of  three  or  four 
days'  duration,  complicated  with  this  con- 
dition of  the  nose.  The  latter  is,  perhaps, 
the  more  scientific  definition,  but  for  com- 
mon purposes  it  is  more  convenient  to 
consider  it  as  mainly  consisting  in  the 
most  prominent  symptom.  There  is  in- 
variably some  degree  of  feverishness, 
sometimes  very  considerable  rt  others  so 
slight  as  to  be  easily  passed  ovci.    Usually 


the  pulse  is  accelerated  to  about  forty  or 
fifty,  the  appetite  is  impaired,  and  there  is 
often  sore  throat,  with  more  or  less  cough. 
On  examining  the  interior  of  the  nostrils, 
they  are  more  red  than  natural ;  at  first 
dry  and  swollen,  then  bedewed  with  a 
watery  discharge,  which  soon  becomes, 
yellow,  thick,  and,  in  bad  cases,  purulent, 
The  eyes  are  generally  involved,  their 
conjunctival  coat  being  injected  with 
blood,  and  often  some  slight  weeping 
takes  place,  but  there  is  always  an  expres- 
sion of  sleepiness  or  dullness,  partly  owing 
to  the  local  condition  of  the  organ,  and 
partly  to  the  general  impairment  of  the 
health.  The  disease  is  caused  in  most 
instances  by  a  chill,  either  in  the  stable  or 
out,  but  sometimes,  even  in  the  mildest 
form,  it  appears  to  be  epidemic.  The 
treatment  will  greatly  depend  upon  the 
severity  of  the  seizure;  usually,  a  bran- 
mash  containing  from  six  drachms  to  one 
ounce  of  powdered  nitre  in  it,  at  night, 
for  two  or  three  consecutive  periods,  will 
suffice,  together  with  the  abstraction  of 
corn,  and,  if  the  bowels  are  confined,  a 
mild  dose  of  physic  should  be  given.  In 
more  severe  cases,  when  there  is  cough 
and  considerable  feverishness,  a  ball  com- 
posed of  the  following  ingredients  may  be 
given  every  night : 

Take  of  Nitrate  of  Potass     -     -    2      drachms. 

Tartarised  Antimony    -     I       drachm. 

Powdered  Digitalis       -       }4  drachm. 

Camphor   -----     1^  drachm. 
Linseed  meal  and  boiling  water  enough  to  make 
into  a  ball. 

If  the  throat  is  sore,  an  embrocation  or 
equal  parts  of  oil,  turpentine,  tincture 
of  cantharides,  and  hartshorn,  may  be 
rubbed  in  night  and  morning. 

Should  the  disease  extend  to  the  bron- 
chial tubes,  or  substance  of  the  lungs,  the 
treatment  for  bronchitis  or  pneumonia 
must  be  adopted. 

The  stable  should  be  kept  cool,  taking 
care  to  make  up  for  the  difference  in  tem- 
perature by  putting  on  an  extra  rug; 
water  should  be  allowed  ad  libitum,  and 
no  corn  should  be  given. 

Sometimes  the  discharge  becomes 
chronic,  and  it  is  then  known  by  the 
name  ozena. 

HORSE,  Influenza,  or  Distemper. — 
This  may  be  considered  to  be  an  epidemic 
catarrh,  but  the  symptoms  are  generally 
more  severe  and  leave  greater  prostration 
of  strength  behind  them.     They  also  re- 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


1* 


quire  more  careful  treatment,  which  must 
be  specially  adapted  to  the  attack,  for 
remedies  which  will  arrest  the  disease  in 
one  year  will  totally  fail  the  next  time  that 
the  epidemic  prevails.  The  fever  of  late 
years  has  had  a  tendency  to  put  on  the 
typhoid  type,  and  bleeding,  which  for- 
merly was  often  beneficial,  is  now  com- 
pletely forbidden.  The  symptoms  are  at 
first  similar  to  those  already  described  as 
pertaining  to  common  catarrh,  but  after  a 
few  days  the  accompanying  fever  is  more 
severe  than  usual,  and  does  not  abate  at 
the  customary  period.  The  appetite  is 
altogether  lost,  and  the  appearance  of  the 
patient  is  characteristic  of"  severe  disease 
rather  than  of  a  trifling  cold.  It  is,  how- 
ever, chiefly  from  the  fact  that  a  number 
of  horses  are  seized  with  similar  symp- 
toms, either  at  the  same  time  or  rapidly 
following  one  another,  that  the  disease  is 
recognized.  It  usually  prevails  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  or  in  a  wet  and  un- 
healthy autumn.  Sometimes  almost  every 
case  runs  on  to  pneumonia,  at  others  the 
bronchial  mucous  membrane  alone  is  at- 
tacked ;  but  in  all  there  is  extreme  debility 
in  proportion  to  the  apparent  nature  of  the 
disease.  The  ordinary  appearances  ex- 
hibited in  recent  epidemics  have  been  as 
follows:  The  first  thing  observed  is  a 
general  slight  shivering,  accompanied  by 
a  staring  coat.  The  pulse  is  weak  and 
slightly  accelerated,  but  not  to  any  great 
extent;  the  mouth  feels  hot;  the  eyes  and 
the  nostrils  are  red ;  the  belly  is  tucked 
up;  there  is  no  appetite;  cough,  to  a  va- 
rying extent,  begins  to  show  itself;  and 
there  is  generally  a  heaving  of  the  flanks. 
The  legs  and  feet  are  not  cold  as  in  pneu- 
monia, but  beyond  this  they  afford  no 
positive  signs.  The  cellular  membrane 
around  the  eyes,  and  of  the  legs,  gener- 
ally swells  about  the  second  day,  and 
often  the  head  and  limbs  become  quite 
shapeless  from  this  cause.  In  the  early 
stage  the  bowels  are  often  relaxed,  but 
afterwards  they  are  as  frequently  confined. 
Sore  throat  is  very  a  common  complica- 
tion, but  it  is  not  by  any  means  an  invari- 
able attendant  on  influenza.  It  is,  how- 
ever, somewhat  difficult  to  ascertain  its 
existence,  as  in  any  case  there  is  no  appe- 
tite for  food.  The  treatment  should  be 
conducted  on  the  principle  of  husbanding 
the  strength,  and,  unless  urgent  symp- 
toms of  inflammation  show   themselves, 


the  less  that  is  done  the  better.  If  the 
trachea  or  larynx  is  involved  only  slightly, 
counter-irritation,  by  means  of  a  liquid  blis- 
ter, must  be  tried,  without  resorting  to* 
strong  internal  medicines;  but  if  serious 
mischief  ensues,  the  case  must,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  be  treated  as  it  would  be 
when  coming  on  without  the  complica- 
tion of  influenza,  always  taking  care  to 
avoid  bleeding,  and  merely  acting  on  the 
bowels  by  gentle  aperients,  and  on  the 
skin  and  kidneys  by  the  mildest  diaphor- 
etic. The  following  is  the  ordinary  plan 
of  treatment  adopted: 

Take  of  Spirit  of  Nitric  Ether  -    -     I  ounce. 

Laudanum   ...    -     -     4  drachms. 

Nitrate  of  Potass  -    -    -    3  drachms. 

Water 1  pint. 

Mix,  and  give  as  a  drench  night  and  morning. 

By  constantly  offering  to  the  horse- 
thin  gruel  (taking  care  that  is  does  not 
become  sour),  and  no  plain  water,  suffi- 
cient nourishment  may  be  given,  as  his- 
thirst  will  induce  him  to  drink. 

During  the  stage  of  convalescence  the 
greatest  care  must  be  taken.  At  first,  as 
soon  as  the  cough  has  somewhat  subsided, 
a  mild  stomachic  ball  will  be  desirable, 
such  as  the  following : 

Take  of  Extract  of  Gentian  -     -     6  drachms. 

Powdered  Ginger  -     -     2         "      Mix. 

Afterwards,  if  the  case  goes  on  favorably,  - 
and  the  appetite  returns,  the  restoration 
may  be  left  to  nature,  giving  the  horse  by 
degrees  his  usual  allowance  of  corn,  and 
adding  to  his  morning  and  evening  feed 
one  drachm  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  fine- 
powder.  It  must  not  be  attempted  to* 
give  this  until  the  appetite  is  pretty  keen^, 
or  the  horse  will  be  disgusted,  and  wilt 
probably  refuse  his  corn  altogether. 

Should  typhoid  symptoms  be  clearly 
established,  the  case  must  be  treated  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  hereafter  laid 
down  for  typhus  fever. 

HORSE,  Bronchitis. — Bronchitis  is  an 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  bronchi,  and  almost  invariably 
extending  to  these  parts  through  the  tra- 
chea, from  the  larynx  and  nasal  passages,, 
which  are  primarily  affected  as  in  ordina- 
ry cold.  The  membrane  in  the  early 
stage  becomes  filled  with  blood,  and  as  a 
consequence  the  diameter  of  the  tubes- 
is  diminished,  attended  by  some  difficulty 
and  increased  rapidity  of  breathing.  Af- 
ter a  time  a  frothy  mucus  is  poured  out 


72 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


from  it,  and  this  still  further  interferes  with 
respiration,  and  necessitates  a  constant 
cough  to  get  rid  of  it.  These  symptoms 
are  always  present,  but  they  will  vary 
greatly  in  intensity,  and  in  the  rapidity 
with  which  they  progress,  from  which  cir- 
cumstances bronchitis  is  usually  said  to 
be  acute  or  chronic,  as  the  case  may  be. 
In  the  acute  form  there  are  also  several 
variations,  and  veterinary  writers  are  in 
the  habit  of  again  sub  dividing  it  into 
acute  and  sub-acute,  but  the  two  leading 
divisions  are  sufficient  for  all  practical 
purposes.  It  begins  with  the  usual  pre- 
monitory appearances  of  a  severe  cold, 
accompanied  by  a  staring  coat,  and  entire 
loss  of  appetite.  The  breathing  is  some- 
what quicker  than  natural,  and  the  pulse 
is  raised  to  sixty  or  seventy.  The  legs 
remain  of  the  usual  temperature,  and 
vthere  is  a  hard,  dry  cough,  the  lining 
•membrane  of  the  nostrils  being  intensely 
<red,  and  in  severe  cases  dry  and  swollen. 
On  auscultation  there  is  a  dry  rattling 
rsound,  very  different  from  the  crepitation 
^of  pneumonia,  and  as  soon  as  mucus  is 
.  secreted,  succeeded  by  gurgling,  and  soap 
.bubble  sounds  easily  distinguished  when 
-once  heard.  If  the  attack  goes  on  favor- 
ably, the  cough  becomes  loose,  and  there 
is  a  free  discharge  of  mucus,  both  from 
the  lungs,  as  evidenced  from  the  nature 
.of  the  cough,  and  from  the  nostrils,  as 
.-shown  by  the  running  from  them.  On 
the  other  hand  the  prognosis  is  unfavor- 
able when  the  breathing  is  very  laborious, 
with  the  legs  extended,  and  the  cough 
■constant  and  ineffectual  in  affording  re- 
lief. Should  no  relief  be  afforded,  death 
takes  place  a  week  or  ten  days  alter  the 
onset  of  the  disease  from  soffocation. 
The  treatment  should  depend  greatly  up- 
on the  urgency  of  the  inflammation,  which 
only  an  experienced  eye  can  judge  of. 
If  slight,  nitre  and  tartar  emetic  internal- 
ly, and  a  blister  (to  one  or  both  sides, 
according  to  the  extent  of  the  bronchi 
involved),  will  suffice,  but  in  severe  cases 
blood  must  be  taken  at  the  onset,  or  it 
will  be  impossible  to  control  the  inflam- 
mation. Bleeding  should  be  avoided  if 
It  is  judged  prudent  to  do  so,  for  of  late 
■years  the  type  of  diseases  has  changed  so 
;much  in  the  horse  that  he  is  found  to 
bear  loss  of  blood  badly.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  not  wise  to  lay  down  the  rule  that  it 
is  never  desirable.     The  bowels  must  be 


acted  upon  by  the  ordinary  physic  ball, 
resorting  to  raking  and  clysters,  if  the 
time  cannot  be  afforded  for  the  usual  lax- 
ative preparation.  For  the  special  con- 
trol of  the  morbid  state  of  the  membrane 
the  following  ball  will  be  found  advant- 
ageous : 
Take  of  Digitalis   ••-••%  drachm. 

Calomel   -----     X  drachm. 

Tartar  Emetic   -     -     -     60  to  80  grains. 

Nitre   ------     2  drachms. 

Mix  with  treacle,  and  give  twice  a  day. 

Should  the  disease  continue  after  the  blis- 
ter is  healed,  a  large  seton  may  be  put 
in  one  or  both  sides  with  advantage. 

Chronic  bronchitis  seldom  exists  ex- 
cept as  a  sequel  to  the  acute  form,  and  after 
adopting  the  balls  recommended  for  that 
state,  it  may  be  treated  by  attention  to 
the  general  health,  a  seton  in  the  side, 
and  the  exhibition  of  an  expectorant 
ball  twice  a  day,  composed  of  the  follow- 
ing materials; 

Take  of  Gum  Ammoniacum  -  -  %.  ounce. 

Powdered  Squill    -  -  -  I  drachm. 

Castle  Soap  •     -     -  -  -  2  drachms. 
Mix  and  make  into  a  ball. 

HORSE,  Epizootic  Apthse. — This  con- 
tagious malady  of  stock  belongs  to  the 
class  of  zymotic  diseases,  or,  in  other 
words,  it  is  caused,  like  specific  fevers 
generally,  by  the  introduction  into  the 
system  of  a  poison  germ,  which  propa- 
gates itself,  and  increases  in  the  blood 
and  tissues  in  a  manner  allied  to  the 
growth  of  a  ferment  in  a  saccharine  solu- 
tion. During  this  reproduction  of  the 
virus  in  such  fevers,  the  system  passes 
through  a  series  of  successive  stages  of 
disease,  the  nature  and  duration  of  which 
are  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
particular  poison  taken  in,  and  during 
which  the  poison  germs  (contagious  prin- 
ciples) are  given  off  abundantly  by  one 
or  other  or  all  of  the  secreting  surfaces. 
Hence,  like  other  zymotic  diseases,  this  is 
altogether  specific  in  its  cause,  its  nature, 
and  its  mode  of  propagation.  As  known 
in  Western  Europe  and  America,  this 
disease  is  invariably  due  to  a  virus  or  con- 
tagion thrown  off  by  some  animal  suffer- 
ing from  the  disease ;  it  is  always  mani- 
fested by  a  slight  preliminary  fever,  and  a 
period  of  eruption  and  decline,  and  these 
are  respectively  of  constant  and  well-de- 
fined duration.  These  different  periods 
of  the  disease  are  characterized  by  varied 
manifestations.     The  first  period  is  that 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


73 


of  incubation,  during  which  the  poison 
germs  are  in  the  body  of  the  animal,  and 
propagating  themselves  there,  but  have 
not  yet  affected  the  constitution  so  as  to 
impair  the  functions,  or  give  rise  to  the 
more  manifest  symptoms  of  illness.  To- 
ward the  end  of  this  period,  however,  the 
thermometer  shows  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature, in  the  interior  of  the  body,  of 
about  two  degrees  beyond  the  natural 
standard.  This  period  lasts  twenty-four 
to  forty-eight  hours,  though  in  rare  cases 
it  may  apparently  extend  to  a  week. 

It  is  followed  by  the  period  of  eruption, 
which  is  first  manifested  by  the  redness, 
heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  udder  and 
teats,  of  the  space  between  the  hoofs,  and 
-of  the  membrane  of  the  mouth.  In  the 
course  of  one  day  more,  these  parts  are 
found  to  be  the  seat  of  numerous  hemis- 
pherical elevations  or  blisters,  caused  by 
the  effusion  of  a  clear,  yellowish  fluid 
from  the  blood-vessels  beneath  the  cuticle 
•or  scarfskin.  These  increase  in  size  for 
the  next  two  or  three  days,  burst,  and  dry 

The  period  of  decline  is  marked  by  the 
•drying  and  scabbing  over  of  the  sores 
caused  by  the  rupture  of  the  blisters,  and 
by  the  reproduction  of  the  lost  cuticular 
covering  or  scarfskin.  The  elevated  tem- 
perature, which  had  declined  somewhat 
on  the  appearance  of  the  blisters,  now  en- 
tirely subsides,  unless  maintained  by  ex- 
posure, or  the  irritation  of  the  sores  by 
dirt  or  other  bodies.  This  period  has 
passed  and  the  disease  is  at  an  end  by  the 
fifteenth  day,  in  favorable  cases. 

Causes. — The  only  known  cause  of 
Itself  capable  of  inducing  the  disease  is 
contagion,  or  contact  of  a  sound  animal 
with  the  virus  discharged  trom  the  sores 
of  an  aphthous  patient.  Many  accessory 
causes  may  be  named,  such  as  a  wet, 
muddy  season,  which  insures  the  contact 
of  the  virus  deposited  on  the  soil  with  the 
skin  about  the  top  of  the  hoofs ;  the  ac- 
cumulation of  cattle  in  large  fairs  or  mar- 
kets; the  aggregation  of  large  numbers 
•of  live  stock  for  the  supply  of  armies  in 
the  field;  travel  of  stock  by  rail  or  road, 
and  the  like.  Yet  these  are  but  means  of 
the  diffusion  of  poison,  while  no  one  of 
them,  nor  all  taken  together,  can  call  the 
•disease  into  existence  where  the  poison  is 
not  already  present.  Though  prevalent 
extensively   in   Europe   during   or    after 


almost  every  great  war  since  1695,  it  did 
not  reach  Great  Britain  till  1839,  when  it 
was  brought  by  some  Dutch  cattle  im- 
ported into  London.  In  the  same  year 
it  was  brought  by  Dutch  cattle  to  Cork, 
Ireland ;  and,  as  free  trade  in  continental 
cattle  was  established  four  years  after,  it 
has  been  since  steadily  maintained  by  the 
constant  importations.  In  1 84 1  it  Avas  first 
reported  in  Denmark,  a  country  which 
breeds  its  own  stock,  and  rarely  imports 
any.  In  the  year  1872  was  the  first 
time  it  appeared  on  American  soil,  and  it 
has  not  yet  reached  the  great  stock  ranges 
of  Australia.  In  Great  Britain  it  spreads 
widely  every  year,  after  the  great  autumn 
markets,  in  which  home  and  foreign  store 
cattle  mix  freely;  and  yet  there  are  in 
that  country  many  breeding  districts  into 
which  strange  stock  are  never  taken,  and 
where  the  disease  has  not  yet  penetrated. 
It  prevails  very  frequently  on  cattle  deal- 
ers' farms  in  the  same  country. 

Such  comprehensive  facts  as  these  nar- 
row the  list  of  real  causes  down  to  the 
simple  contact  of  the  virus  with  a  healthy 
animal.  This  virus,  however,  is  perhaps 
the  most  contagious  known.  It  is  often 
carried  on  the  clothes,  boots,  and  hands 
of  men;  on  the  fibres  of  hay  or  straw; 
preserved  on  the  walls,  floors,  mangers, 
and  other  fittings  of  buildings ;  on  stable 
utensils ;  in  yards,  parks,  roads,  and  rail- 
road cars;  on  drinking  troughs;  or  it 
may  be  carried  on  the  legs  or  bodies  of 
dogs,  chickens,  rats,  and  other  animals 
which  themselves  escape  the  infliction. 
In  short,  any  solid  body  may  retain  and 
be  a  bearer  of  this  contagion.  Fortu- 
nately, it  does  not  spread  to  any  extent 
in  the  atmosphere.  Nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  to  find  a  herd  on  one  side  of  a 
road  struck  down  by  the  disease,  while 
another  in  a  field  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  road  remains  perfectly  healthy.  It 
may  be  carried  by  a  strong  wind  in  the 
form  of  the  virulent  saliva,  or  the  virus 
may  dry  up  on  light  bodies,  such  as  paper, 
hay,  etc.,  which  are  afterward  borne  off 
by  the  wind.  It  may  be  carried  by  men 
or  animals,  or  by  water  running  from  the 
diseased  to  the  healthy  lot ;  but,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  such  agencies,  the  breadth  of  a 
common  road  is  amply  sufficient  to  cir- 
cumscribe the  disease. 

Susceptibility  of  Different  Ani- 
mals.— Cloven-footed  animals  appear  to 


74 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


be  the  natural  victims  of  this  disease,  and 
all  species  are  about  equally  obnoxious  to 
its  attacks;  but  it  may  be  communicated 
to  many  if  not  all  other  warm-blooded 
animals  by  inoculation  or  by  contact  of 
the  virulent  discharges  with  their  mucous 
membranes. 

Its  transmission  to  man  has  been  no- 
ticed during  almost  every  great  outbreak 
since  that  of  1695.  Cases  ot  the  disease 
in  man  have  been  seen  in  Albany  and  at 
South  Dover,  Dutchess  County,  New 
York,  during  the  outbreak  in  1872.  It 
shows  itself  in  man  by  slight  feverishness, 
and  the  formation  on  the  tongue  and  in- 
side the  lips  and  cheeks,  and  sometimes 
on  the  hands,  of  small  blisters,  rarely 
amounting  to  the  bulk  of  a  lentil.  In 
children  and  young  animals,  feeding  ex- 
clusively on  milk,  diarrhoea  and  fatal  in- 
flammation of  the  stomachs  and  bowels 
occasionally  supervene.  It  is  further  to 
be  dreaded  that  the  malady,  gaining  a 
lasting  hold  on  the  dairies  of  our  large 
cities,  may  swell  the  lists  of  mortality  of 
the  infant  population  by  inducing  those 
fatal  diarrhceas  and  enteritis  reported  by 
Hubner,  Balfour,  and  Watson. 

In  chickens  it  has  been  frequently  no- 
ticed. Chickens  were  attacked  in  De- 
cember, 1870,  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Eighmie, 
La  Grange,  Duchess  County,  New  York. 
Drinking  the  castaway  milk  is  probably 
the  common  cause.  Dogs  and  cats  have 
been  noticed  by  Lagar,  Younghusband, 
and  others,  to  suffer  from  drinking  the 
milk.  A  shepherd  dog  at  Mr.  Eighmie's 
suffered  from  the  disease,  and  another, 
Mr.  Preston's,  South  Dover,  New  York, 
had  only  partially  recovered  when  seen 
by  the  writer. 

Symptoms. — The  victims  may  be  usu- 
ally picked  out  from  a  herd,  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours  before  they  show  dis- 
tinct signs  of  the  disease,  by  the  increase 
of  temperature  indicated  by  a  clinical 
thermometer  introduced  into  the  rectum 
and  retained  there  for  three  minutes. 

In  cattle  the  eruption  may  be  concen- 
trated on  the  mouth,  (including  the  muz- 
zle and  nostrils)  on  the  udder  and  teats, 
or  en  the  space  between  the  hoofs,  though 
it  usually  attacks  all  of  these  parts  simul- 
taneously, and  in  rare  cases  even  extends 
to  the  general  integument  or  to  the  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  throat,  stomach 
and   bowels,   or   other   internal    organs. 


The  symptoms  are  slight  shivering  or 
roughness  of  the  coat,  neglect  of  feeding 
and  rumination,  redness,  heat,  swelling 
and  tenderness  of  the  pasterns,  teats  and 
mouth,  arching  of  the  back,  and  a, 
crouching,  hesitating  gait,  accumulation 
of  a  white  froth  around  the  margin  of 
the  lips,  and  a  loud  smacking  noise  made 
by  the  tongue  and  lips.  On  the  second 
or  third  day  the  blisters  may  be  seen  on 
the  gums,  on  the  dental  pad  behind  the 
upper  lip,  on  the  tongue,  on  the  teats,, 
and  around  the  upper  borders  of  the 
hoofs  and  between  them.  In  twenty-four 
to  thirty-six  hours  more — sometimes  at 
once — these  burst,  the  cuticle  is  detached, 
and  raw  pink  sores  are  left,  most  notice- 
able on  the  mouth  and  teats.  With  care 
the  process  of  healing  goes  on  rapidly, 
and  is  completed  about  the  fifteenth  day. 
Complications  are  rare,  unless  as  the  re- 
sult of  neglect,  and  consist  in  inflamma- 
tion and  loss  of  the  udder;  extensive 
formation  of  matter  beneath  the  hoofs, 
causing  them  to  be  shed;  extension  of 
disease  to  the  sinews,  bones  and  joints  of 
the  foot,  with  wide-spread  destruction  of 
parts ;  eruption  on  the  stomach  or  bow- 
els, with  dangerous  or  fatal  inflammation; 
or  implication  of  the  womb  with  abor- 
tion or  long-continued  weakening  dis- 
charges. 

In  sheep  the  feet  are  mainly  affected, 
and  the  malady  bears  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  foot-rot,  and,  under  neglect, 
may  merge  into  this. 

Swine  also  suffer  severely  in  the  feet, 
and,  as  they  are  too  commonly  neglected 
and  left  on  mud  and  filth,  shedding  of  the 
hoofs  is  frequent.  When  the  mouth  suf- 
fers they  champ  the  jaws,  and  frothy  sa- 
liva collects  around  the  lips. 

The  general  system  of  treatment 
which  has  proved  successful  has  been 
such  as  would  be  indicated  in  cases  of 
severe  cold  or  influenza.  The  stables 
should  be  thoroughly  ventilated,  and  dis- 
infectants, such  as  chloride  of  lime,  car- 
bolic acid,  or  bromo-chloralum,  freely 
used.  The  horses  are  to  be  kept  well 
blanketed,  their  bowels  gently  open  by 
the  use  of  bran  mashes,  and,  if  necessa- 
ry, aperients.  The  nostrils  should  be 
sponged  out  several  times  a  day  with  a 
weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  or  bromo- 
chloralum  is  also  used  as  a  wash  for  the 


HORSE— CARE  AND    MANAGEMENT. 


7S 


throat.     The    following    prescription    is 

used  quite  commonly: 

Nitrate  potash    -------     iy£  ounces. 

Tartarized  antimony     -     -     -     t     .     \%       " 
Digatilis #       " 

Pulverize  together,  and  make  twelve  powders  ; 
give  one  morning  and  night.  If  the  case  is  not 
very  bad  omit  the  digitalis. 

In  cases  where  the  soreness  has  reach- 
ed the  throat,  the  following  is  used : 

Unseed  oil i}4  ounces. 

Turpentine -     1%       ** 

Liquor  ammonia  fort I  " 

Mix  altogether  in  a  four-ounce  bottle  and  apply 
to  the  throat. 

The  same  veterinary  surgeon  who  rec- 
ommends the  above  prescriptions  re- 
marks : 

So  long  as  the  disease  is  confined  to 
the  larynx  there  is  very  little  danger,  but 
should  it  descend  to  the  lungs — which 
will  be  indicated  by  the  continued  stand- 
ing up  of  the  animal,  cold  extremities  and 
labored  breathing — a  half-pound  of  mus- 
tard should  be  mixed  with  two  ounces  of 
turpentine  and  water  to  the  consistency 
of  thick  cream,  and  the  mixture  rubbed 
well  in  behind  the  fore-legs  or  over  the 
region  of  the  lungs.  The  legs  should  be 
bandaged,  if  cold.  If  the  pulse  should 
be  over  fifty-five  per  minute,  fifteen  drops 
of  Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite  should 
be  given  every  two  hours,  and  if  the 
breathing  still  continues  labored  and  the 
pulse  grows  more  rapid,  apply  the  mus- 
tard again,  and  give  one  and  a  half 
drachms  of  calomel  for  two  mornings. 

The  homoepathic  treatment  which  has 
been  employed  with  the  greatest  success 
by  those  who  prefer  that  system,  is  aco- 
nite and  stibium  in  the  first  stage  of  the 
disease,  and  arsenicum  and  nux  vomica 
in  the  more  advanced  stages. 

HORSE,  Cough,  Common.  —  Common 
cough  is  generally  subdued  without  much 
difficulty,  though  it  often  becomes  of 
most  serious  consequence  if  neglected. 
It  is  accompanied  by  a  heightened  pulse, 
a  slight  discharge  from  the  nose  and  eyes, 
a  rough  coat  and  a  diminished  appetite 
being  its  symptoms.  The  horse  should 
be  kept  warm,  fed  on  mashes,  and  should 
have  a  dose  or  two  of  medicine.  If  the 
cough  be  very  obstinate  bleeding  may  be 
necessary. 

The  following  further  directions  by  the 
same  author  contain  valuable  information 
for  all  owners  of  horses : 


In  giving  medicine,  if  balls  are  used, 
they  should  never  weigh  above  an  ounce 
and  a  half,  or  be  above  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  three  in  length.  The  horse 
should  be  lashed  in  the  stall,  the  tongue 
should  be  drawn  gently  out  with  the  left 
hand  on  the  off  side  of  the  mouth,  and 
fixed  there,  not  by  continuing  to  pull  at  it,, 
but  by  pressing  the  fingers  against  the  side 
of  the  lower  jaw.  The  ball  is  then  taken 
between  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  the 
right  hand,  the  arm  being  bared  and 
passed  rapidly  up  the  mouth,  as  near  the 
palate  as  possible,  until  it  reaches  the  root 
of  the  tongue,  when  it  is  delivered  with  a. 
slight  jerk,  the  hand  is  withdrawn,  and 
the  tongue  being  released,  the  ball  is. 
forced  down  into  the  oesophagus.  Its  pass- 
age should  be  watched  down  the  left 
side  of  throat,  and  if  it  do  not  pass  immedi- 
ately, a  slight  tap  under  the  chin  will  easily 
cause  the  horse  to  swallow  it.  The  only 
safe  purgative  for  a  horse  is  Barbadoes 
aloes,  or  the  flour  of  the  Croton  bean,  for 
some  peculiar  purposes,  but  its  drastic  na- 
ture renders  it  undesirable  as  a  general 
aperient.  When  aloes  are  used,  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  them  new,  as 
they  speedily  lose  their  power,  and  they 
should  be  freshly  mixed.  Very  mild  doses 
only  should  be  used;  four  or  five  drachms 
are  amply  sufficient,  if  the  horse  has  been 
prepared,  as  he  should  be,  by  being  fed, 
for  two  days  at  least,  entirely  on  mashes, 
which  will  cause  a  small  dose  to  have  a. 
beneficial  effect,  equal  to  double  the  quan- 
tity administered  to  a  horse  not  duly  pre- 
pared for  it.  The  immense  doses  of  eight, 
nine,  ten,  and  even  twelve  drachms,  which 
were  formerly  in  vogue,  and  which  are 
still  favored  by  grooms,  hostlers  and  cart- 
ers, are  utterly  exploded;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  eight  or  nine  good  fluid  evacu- 
ations are  all  that  can  be  desired,  and  far 
safer  than  twice  the  number. 

Four  and  a  half  drachms  of  Barbadoes 
aloes,  with  olive  or  linseed  oil  and  mo- 
lasses, sufficient  to  form  a  mass  in  the 
proportion  of  eight  of  the  aloes  to  one  of 
the  oil  and  three  of  the  molasses,  is  the 
best  general  ball,  though  often  four  drachms 
given  after  a  sufficiency  of  mashes  or  green 
food,  will  accomplish  all  that  is  needed 
or  desirable.  Castor  oil  is  a  most  danger- 
ous and  uncertain  medicine.  Linseed  oil  is 
not  much  better.  Olive  oil  is  safe,  but 
weak.    Epsom  salt  is  inefficient,  except  in. 


76 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


enormous  doses,  and  is  then  dangerous. 
It  is,  however,  excellent,  given  in  clysters 
of  weak  gruel,  which,  by  the  way,  except 
where  very  searching  and  thorough  purg- 
ing is  required,  as  in  cases  of  mange  or 
grease,  is  by  far  the  safest,  most  agreea- 
ble and  mildest  way  of  purging  the  horse 
and  evacuating  his  bowels.  Where,  how- 
ever, his  intestines  are  overloaded  with 
fat,  where  he  shows  signs  of  surfeit,  or 
where  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  him  to 
undergo  some  great  change  of  system,  as 
from  a  long  run  at  grass  to  a  hot  stable, 
or  vice  versa,  a  mild  course  of  two  or 
three  doses  of  physic,  with  a  clear  inter- 
val of  a  week  between  the  setting  of  one 
dose  and  the  giving  of  another,  is  neces- 
sary, and  cannot  be  properly  dispensed 
with. 

HORSE,  Cough,  Chronic  in.— By  this 
term  is  understood  a  cough  that  comes  on 
without  any  fever  or  evidences  of  the 
horse  having  taken  cold.  It  differs  in 
•this  respect  from  chronic  bronchitis,  which 
generally  supervenes  upon  the  acute  form, 
and  is  always  attended  in  the  early  stage 
by  feverishness.  It  appears  probable  that 
chronic  cough  is  dependent  upon  an  un- 
natural stimulus  to  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, for  it  almost  always  makes  its 
appearance  when  much  corn  is  given 
without  due  preparation,  and  ceases  on  a 
return  to  green  food.  It  is,  therefore, 
very  commonly  termed  a  stomach  cough. 
The  symptoms  are  all  summed  up  in  the 
presence  of  a  dry  cough,  which  is  seldom 
manifested  while  in  the  stable,  but  comes 
on  whenever  the  breathing  is  hastened  by 
any  pace  beyond  a  walk.  Two  or  three 
coughs  are  then  given,  and  the  horse  per- 
haps is  able  to  go  on  with  his  work,  but 
after  resting  for  a  few  minutes,  and  again 
starting,  it  comes  on  again,  and  annoys 
the  rider  or  driver  by  its  tantalizing  prom- 
ise of  disappearance  followed  by  disap- 
pointment. Very  often  this  kind  of  cough 
is  caused  by  the  irritation  of  worms,  but 
any  kind  of  disorder  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans appears  to  have  the  power  of  pro- 
ducing it.  The  usual  treatment  for 
chronic  bronchitis  seems  here  to  be  quite 
powerless,  and  the  only  plan  of  proceed- 
ing likely  to  be  attended  with  success,  is 
to  look  for  the  cause  or  the  irritation, 
and  remove  it.  Sometimes  this  will  be 
found  in  a  hot  stable,  the  horse  having 
.previously  been   accustomed   to   a  cool 


one.  Here  the  alteration  of  the  temper- 
ature by  ten  or  fifteen  degrees  will  in  a 
few  days  effect  a  cure,  and  nothing  else 
is  required.  Again,  it  may  be  that  the 
corn  has  been  over-done,  in  which  case  a 
gentle  dose  of  physic,  followed  by  a  di- 
minished allowance  of  corn,  and  a  bran- 
mash  twice  a  week,  will  be  successful.  If 
the  stomach  is  much  disordered,  green 
food  will  be  the  best  stimulus  to  a  healthy 
condition,  or  in  its  absence  a  few  warm 
cordial  balls  may  be  tried.  The  existence 
of  worms  should  be  ascertained  in  doubt- 
ful cases,  and  if  they  are  present,  the 
proper  remedies  must  be  given  for  their 
removal.  Linseed  oil  and  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, which  are  both  excellent  worm 
remedies,  are  highly  recommended  in 
chronic  cough,  and  whether  or  not  their 
good  effect  is  due  to  their  antagonism  to 
worms,  they  may  be  regarded  as  specially 
useful. 

A  very  successful  combination  is  the 
following  mixture: 

HORSE,  Costiveness.. —  Ordinary  cases 
can  generally  be  conquered  without 
medicine,  by  diet,  such  as  hop  or  bran 
mashes,  green  meat  and  carots;  but 
where  it  is  obstinate,  the  rectum  should  be 
cleared  of  dry  fceces  by  passing  the  naked 
arm,  well  greased,  up  the  anus;  and  the 
bowels  should  be  then  thoroughly  evacu- 
ated by  clysters  of  thin  gruel,  with  half  an 
ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  or  half  a 
pound  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  it.  If 
the  patent  syringe  be  used  the  injection 
will  reach  the  colon  and  ccecum,  and  dis- 
pose them  also  to  evacuate  their  con- 
tents. 

Take  of  Spirits  of  Turpentine    -    -    2    ounces. 
Mucilage  of  Acacia      -     -    6    ounces. 
Gum  Ammoniacum      -    -     %  ounce. 
Laudanum      -----    4    ounces. 

Water   -------     2     quarts. 

Mix,  and  give  half-a-pint  as  a  drench  every  night: 
the  bottle  must  be  well  shaken  before  pouring 
out  the  dose. 

HORSE.  Laryngitis,  Roaring,  Whist- 
ling, etc.,  in. — One  of  the  most  common 
diseases  among  well-bred  horses  of  the 
present  day  is  the  existence  of  some  me- 
chanical impediment  to  the  passage  of 
the  air  into  the  lungs,  causing  the  animal 
to  "  make  a  noise."  The  exact  nature  of 
the  sound  has  little  or  no  practical  bear- 
ing on  the  cause  that  produces  it ;  that  is 
to  say,  it  cannot  be  predicated  that  roar- 
ing is  produced  by  laryngitis;  nor  that 


HORSE— CARE  AND    MANAGEMENT. 


77 


whistling  is  the  result  of  a  palsy  of  some 
particular  muscle,  but  undoubtedly  it  may 
safely  be  asserted  that  all  lesions  of  the 
larynx,  by  which  the  shape  and  area  of  its 
opening  (rima  glottidis)  are  altered  and 
diminished,  are  sure  to  have  a  prejudicial 
effect  upon  the  wind,  and  either  to  pro- 
duce roaring,  whistling,  wheezing,  or 
trumpeting,  but  which  would  result  it 
might  be  difficult  to  say,  although  the 
precise  condition  of  the  larynx  were 
known,  which  it  cannot  be  during  life. 
Until  recently  veterinary  surgeons  were 
puzzled  by  often  finding  on  examination 
of  a  roarer's  larynx  after  death  no  visible 
organic  change  in  the  opening,  and  many 
were  led  to  imagine  that  this  part  could 
not  be  the  seat  of  the  disease.  On  a 
careful  dissection,  however,  it  is  found 
that  a  muscle  or  muscles  whose  office  it  is 
to  dilate  the  larynx  is  wasted  and  flabby 
(crico-arytenoideus  lateralis  and  thyro- 
arytenoideus).  The  other  muscles  are 
perhaps  equally  atrophied,  but  as  their 
office  is  to  close  the  opening,  their  defects 
are  not  equally  injurious,  and  at  all  events 
are  not  shown  by  producing  an  unnatural 
noise  The  cause  of  this  wasting  is  to  be 
looked  for  in  the  pressure  upon  the  nerve 
which  supplies  these  muscles,  and  which 
passes  through  an  opening  in  the  posterior 
ala  of  the  thyroid  cartilage,  so  that  what- 
ever causes  a  displacement  of  that  part 
will  mechanically  affect  the  nerve.  For 
these  several  reasons  it  will  be  necessary 
to  examine,  first  of  all,  into  the  several 
kinds  of  inflammation,  etc.,  to  which  the 
larynx  is  subject,  and  then  to  investigate 
as  far  as  we  may  the  nature,  mode  of  de- 
tection, and  treatment  of  the  several  con- 
ditions known  to  horsemen  by  the  names 
of  roaring,  whistling,  etc.,  which  are  only 
symptoms  of  one  or  other  of  the  diseases 
to  which  allusion  will  presently  be  made. 
By  acute  laryngitis  is  meant  a  more 
than  ordinary  inflammation  of  the  larynx, 
and  not  that  slightly  morbid  condition  in 
which  the  mucous  membrane  of  that  or- 
gan is  always  involved  in  "  the  passage  of 
a  cold  into  the  chest."  In  the  latter  state 
the  ear  detects  no  unusual  sound,  and  in- 
deed there  is  plenty  of  room  for  the  air 
to  pass.  But  in  true  laryngitis,  on  placing 
the  ear  near  the  throat,  a  harsh,  rasping 
sound  is  heard,  which  is  sufficient  at  once 
to  show  the  nature  and  urgency  of  the 
symptoms.      The  mucous   membrane  is 


swollen,  and  tinged  with  blood ;  the  rima. 
glottidis  is  almost  closed,  and  the  air  in 
passing  through  it  produces  the  sound 
above  described,  which,  however,  is  some- 
times replaced  by  a  stridulous  or  hissing 
one.  In  conjunction  with  this  well- 
marked  symptom  there  is  always  a  hoarse 
cough  of  a  peculiar  character,  and  some 
considerable  fever,  with  frequent  .respira- 
tion, and  a  hard,  wiry  pulse  of  seventy  to 
eighty.  The  treatment  must  be  of  the 
most  active  kind,  for  not  only  is  life 
threatened,  but  even  if  a  fatal  result  does 
not  take  place,  there  is  great  danger  of 
permanent  organic  mischief  to  the  deli- 
cate apparatus  of  the  larynx,  generally 
from  the  effusion  of  lymph  into  the  sub- 
mucous cellular  membrane.  A  full  bleed- 
ing should  at  once  be  practised,  and  re- 
peated at  the  end  of  twelve  hours  if  there 
is  no  relief  afforded  and  the  pulse  still 
continues  hard.  The  hair  should  be  cut 
off  the  throat,  and  the  tincture  of  can- 
tharides  brushed  on  in  a  pure  state  until 
a  blister  arises,  when  the  part  may  be  con- 
stantly well  fomented,  to  encourage  the 
discharge.  Large  doses  of  tartar  emetic, 
calomel,  and  digitalis,  must  also  be  given, 
but  their  amount  and  frequency  should  be 
left  to  an  experienced  veterinarian,  the 
preliminary  bleeding  and  blistering  being 
done  in  his  absence  to  save  time.  It  is  a 
case  in  which  medicine  must  be  pushed 
as  far  as  can  be  done  with  safety,  and  this 
cannot  well  be  left  to  any  one  who  is  not 
well  acquainted  with  its  effects,  and  with 
the  powers  of  the  animal  economy. 
Cruel  is  he  only  food  allowed  during  the 
acute  stage,  and  there  is  seldom  time  to 
have  recourse  to  aperient  physic  until  the 
urgent  symptoms  are  abated,  when  an 
ordinary  dose  may  be  given.  During 
convalescence  the  greatest  care  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  a  relapse,  by  avoiding 
all  excitement  either  by  stimulating  food 
or  fast  exercise. 

Chronic  Laryngitis  may  occur  as  the 
result  of  the  acute  form  above  described, 
or  it  may  come  on  gradually,  without  any 
violent  inflammation  preceding  it.  In 
either  case  the  symptoms  are  similar  in 
their  nature  to  those  met  with  in  the  acute 
form,  but  less  in  degree.  The  noise  made 
is  not  nearly  so  harsh,  and  can  often 
hardly  be  heard  on  the  most  careful  ex- 
amination. The  peculiar,  harsh,  grating 
cough  is,  however,  always  present,  and  by 


78 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


it  the  nature  of  the  case  may  generally  be 
easily  made  out.  The  disease  often  ac- 
companies strangles,  although  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  it  is  overlooked  by  the 
careless  attendant.  Very  commonly,  how- 
ever, it  makes  its  ravages  in  so  insidious  a 
manner  that  no  suspicion  is  felt  of  its 
presence,  until  the  horse  begins  to  make  a 
noise,  though  he  must  in  all  probability 
have  shown  by  the  cough  peculiar  to  the 
complaint  that  it  has  been  working  its 
way  for  some  weeks  at  least.  Such  cases 
chiefly  occur  in  the  training  stable,  and 
are  due,  according  to  our  belief,  to  the 
enormous  quantity  of  oats  which  it  is  now 
the  fashion  to  give  to  colts  from  the  earli- 
est period  of  their  lives,  increased  to 
seven  and  eight  feeds  a  day  during  the 
second  year.  Continued  spirit-drinking 
has  precisely  the  same  effect  upon  the 
human  being,  and  the  harsh,  stridulous 
cough  of  the  confirmed  drunkard  marks 
the  existence  of  ulceration  of  the  larynx, 
in  the  only  way  which  he  will  allow  it  to 
be  displayed,  for  he  is  not,  like  the  horse, 
made  to  exert  his  powers  of  running, 
whether  his  wind  is  good  or  bad.  There 
is,  of  course,  a  considerable  difference  be- 
tween the  two  diseases,  but  there  is  suffi- 
cient analogy  between  them  to  explain 
why  the  stimulus  of  over-corning  should 
affect  the  larynx  in  preference  to  any 
other  part.  It  would  be  difficult  to  show 
the  connection  between  the  two  in  any  oth- 
er way,  beyond  the  simple  fact  that  roaring 
has  become  general  in  an  exact  propor- 
tion to  the  prevalence  of  the  present 
fashion  of  feeding.  The  advocates  of  the 
plan  will  say  that  though  the  two  have 
come  in  together,  yet  it  is  merely  a  coinci- 
dence, and  not  a  consequence,  the  one  of 
the  other;  but  if  it  can  be  shown  that  in 
man  a  similar  cause  produces  a  similar  ef- 
fect, the  argument  is  strengthened  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  be  almost  unanswerable. 
But  whatever  may  be  the  cause  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  treatment  is  most 
troublesome  and  often  baffles  the  skill  of 
the  most  accomplished  veterinarian.  Blis- 
tering is  not  so  useful  as  counter-irritation 
by  a  seaton,  which  must  be  inserted  in 
the  loose  skin  beneath  the  jaw,  as  close 
as  possible  to  the  larynx.  This  alone  will 
do  much  towards  the  cure,  but  no  pains 
must  be  spared  to  assist  its  action  by  a 
cooling  regimen,  consisting  of  bran 
mashes,  and  if  in  the  spring  or  summer, 


green  food,  or  in  the  winter,  carrots. 
Corn  must  be  entirely  forbidden,  and  the 
kidneys  should  be  encouraged  to  act  free- 
ly by  two  or  three  drachms  of  nitre  given 
in  the  mash  twice  a  day.  When  the  case 
is  very  intractable,  the  nitrate  of  silver 
may  be  applied  to  the  part  itself  by 
means  of  a  sponge  fastened  to  a  piece  of 
flexible  cane  or  whalebone.  The  mouth 
should  then  be  kept  open  with  the  ordi- 
nary balling  iron,  and  the  sponge  rapidly 
passed  to  the  situation  of  the  top  of  the  lar- 
ynx, and  held  there  for  a  second,  and  then 
withdrawn.  We  have  succeeded  in  curing 
two  obstinate  cases  of  chronic  laryngitis  by 
this  plan,  but  some  little  risk  is  incurred, 
as  in  one  of  them  imminent  symptoms  of 
suffocation  presented  themselves,  but  soon 
went  off.  We  should  not,  therefore,  recom- 
mend the  application  excepting  in  cases 
where  all  other  means  have  failed,  and  in 
which  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
patient  is  likely  to  become  a  permanent 
roarer  or  whistler.  The  nitrate  of  silver 
has  great  power  in  producing  resolution  of 
inflammation  in  mucous  surfaces,  and  in 
this  disease  little  or  nothing  can  be  effect- 
ed by  general  measures.  The  solution 
should  be  from  ten  to  fifteen  grains  in  the 
ounce  of  distilled  water. 

Roaring  is  the  bugbear  of  the  purchas- 
er at  the  hammer,  and  not  without  good 
reason.  The  most  experienced  veterina- 
rian or  dealer  will  often  fail  to  ascertain 
its  existence,  in  spite  of  all  the  artifices 
he  may  call  into  play.  Not  the  slightest 
sound  is  heard  during  a  state  of  quies- 
cence, or  even  when  the  horse  is  trotted 
or  galloped  for  the  short  distance  which 
"  the  ride"  will  afford.  The  blow  on  the 
side  given  with  an  artistic  effect  elicits  no 
grunt,  and  yet  the  animal  is  a  confirmed 
roarer,  and  not  worth  a  shilling  perhaps 
for  the  purpose  to  which  he  is  intended  to 
be  devoted.  On  the  other  hand,  many  a 
sound  horse  is  condemned  as  a  roarer  for 
giving  out  the  obnoxious  grunt;  and 
though  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  sign 
may  be  relied  on  in  a  great  many  cases, 
yet  it  cannot  be  accepted  as  either  nega- 
tively or  positively  a  certain  proof.  The 
only  real  trial  is  the  noiseless  gallop  on 
turf  or  plough,  when  the  ear  can  detect 
the  slightest  sound,  and  can  distinguish 
its  exact  nature,  and  the  precise  spot  from 
which  it  proceeds.  Many  a  horse  will, 
when  he  is  excited,  make  a  harsh  noise  in 


HORSE—CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


79 


his  breathing,  accompanied  by  a  kind  of 
"gluck,"  proceeding  from  a  spasmodic 
flapping  of  the  velum  palati ;  but  on  gal- 
loping him  all  this  goes  off,  and  he  may 
probably  exhibit  excellent  wind.  Such 
cases  we  have  many  times  known,  and  they 
would  be  condemned  as  unsound  by 
those  who  have  had  little  experience,  or 
are  content  with  a  careless  and  inefficient 
trial.  Stallions  are  particularly  prone  to 
make  this  kind  of  noise,  and  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  ascertain  their  sound- 
ness in  this  respect  by  any  means  which 
•can  be  safely  resorted  to.  The  causes  of 
roaring  are  of  three  kinds :  ist,  Inflamma- 
tion, which  has  left  a  thickening  or  ulcer- 
ation of  the  mucous  membrane,  or  a  fun- 
gous growth  from  it;  2d,  Paralysis  of  the 
muscles;  and  3d,  An  alteration  of  the 
shape  of  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx,  pro- 
duced by  tight  reining. 

In  roaring  produced  by  an  ulcerated  or 
thickened  condition  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, or  by  a  fungous  growth,  the  sound 
elicited  is  always  the  same  in  proportion 
to  the  rapidity  of  respiration.  None  of 
the  ordinary  expedients  by  which  the 
breath  is  introduced  in  a  modified  stream 
(such  as  a  full  meal,  or  pressure  on  the 
nostrils  or  windpipe),  will  be  of  much 
avail,  and  the  horse  roars  sturdily  when- 
ever his  pace  is  sufficiently  accelerated. 
If  a  horse  so  affected  can  be  made  to 
grunt  by  the  blow  on  the  side,  the  sound 
will  always  indicate  the  disease,  for  it  will 
be  harsh  and  rough,  and  not  the  natural 
grunt  of  the  animal.  It  is  usually  sup- 
posed that  no  treatment  can  be  of  the 
slightest  avail  here ;  but  wl  believe  that 
sometimes  the  continued  application  of  ni- 
trate of  silver  would  be  followed  by  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  amelioration,  the  extent  of 
which  it  is  impossible  to  guess  at  without 
a  trial.  In  any  case,  when  the  animal  is 
rendered  almost  worthless  by  disease,  it  is 
fair  to  try  experiments  which  are  neither 
expensive  nor  cruel ;  and  from  the  effect 
of  the  remedy  in  those  cases  in  which  it 
has  been  used,  we  are  led  to  expect  that  it 
may  prove  beneficial  in  those  of  longer 
standing.  Setons,  blisters  and  embroca- 
tions are  all  useless,  as  has  been  proven  in 
numberless  cases;  and  beyond  the  pallia- 
tion which  can  be  afforded  by  employing 
the  horse  only  at  such  a  pace  as  his  state 
will  allow,  nothing  else  can  be  suggested. 
In  some  cases  the  roarer  will  be  able  to 


do  ordinary  harness  work,  which,  howev- 
er, in  hot  weather,  will  try  him  severely; 
in  others  he  may  be  so  slightly  affected  as 
to  be  fit  to  hunt  in  a  country  where,  from 
its  nature,  the  pace  is  not  very  severe ;  but 
by  confirmed  roarers  the  slow  work  of  the 
cart  is  all  that  can  be  performed  without 
cruelty. 

Where  paralysis  of  the  muscles  that 
open  the  rima  glottidis  is  the  seat  of  the 
roaring,  no  plan  has  yet  been  suggested 
which  is  of  the  slightest  avail.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  extremely  difficult,  and  in- 
deed almost  impossible,  to  diagnose  the 
affection,  and  we  know  of  no  means  by 
which  paralysis  can  be  ascertained  to  exist 
during  life.  Hence,  although  it  is  barely 
possible  that  by  the  use  of  strychnine  the 
nerve  might  be  stimulated  into  a  restora- 
tion of  its  functions,  yet  as  the  case  can- 
not be  ascertained,  it  is  scarcely  wise  to 
give  this  powerful  drug  in  the  hope  that  it 
may  by  chance  hit  the  right  nail  on  the 
head.  This  paralytic  condition  seems 
chiefly  to  attack  carriage  horses,  and  prob- 
ably arises  from  the  pressure  made  by  the 
over-curved  larynx  upon  the  laryngeal 
nerve  as  it  passes  through  the  opening  in 
the  thyroid  cartilage.  Many  veterinary 
writers  have  looked  to  the  recurrent 
branch  of  the  par  vagum  to  explain  the 
loss  of  power,  but  we  believe  it  is  rather 
to  the  laryngeal  nerve  that  the  mischief  is 
due.  It  must  be  remembered  that  carriage- 
horses  are  not  only  reined  up  for  hours 
while  doing  their  daily  work  out  of  doors, 
but  they  are  also  often  placed  in  the  same 
position,  or  even  a  more  constrained  one, 
by  the  coachman  in  the  stable,  in  order  to 
improve  their  necks.  One  horse  of  his 
pair  perhaps  has  naturally  a  head  better 
set  on  than  the  other,  and  he  wishes  to 
make  nature  bend  to  his  wishes  by  com- 
pelling the  other  to  do  that  which  the 
shape  of  his  jaw  forbids  without  a  sacri- 
fice. The  mouthing  tackle  is  put  on  in 
the  stable  with  this  view,  and  the  poor 
horse  is  "  kept  on  the  bit "  for  three  or 
four  hours  early  in  the  morning,  during 
which  time  his  larynx  is  pressed  between 
his  narrow  jaws  into  a  most  unnatural 
shape.  The  consequence  is,  either  that 
the  nerve  is  pressed  upon,  and  the  mus- 
cles to  which  it  is  supplied  are  paralyzed, 
as  in  the  condition  which  we  are  now 
considering,  or  the  cartilages  are  perma- 
nently disfigured,  which  is  the  subject  of 


8o 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


the  next  paragraph.  When  the  paralyses 
is  established,  we  believe  no  means  but 
the  internal  use  of  strychnine  are  at  all 
likely  to  be  beneficial. 

An  alteration  in  the  shape  of  the  car- 
tilages, so  as  to  permanently  change  their 
form,  is,  we  believe,  the  least  common  of 
all  the  causes  of  roaring.  Pressure  for  a 
very  long  time  will  be  required  to  effect 
this,  and  far  more  than  suffices  to  paralyze 
the  nerve.  Cases,  however,  are  recorded, 
and  the  parts  have  been  preserved,  so  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  occasional 
occurrence.  No  treatment  can  be  of  the 
slightest  service. 

Although  roaring,  in  all  its  varieties, 
may  be  said  to  be  generally  incurable,  yet 
it  may  be  greatly  palliated  by  general  at- 
tention to  the  state  of  the  lungs  and 
stomach,  by  proper  food,  and  by  the  use, 
while  the  horse  is  at  work,  of  a  special 
contrivance,  of  a  most  ingenious  nature, 
published  by  a  Mr.  Reeve,  but  said  to 
have  been  in  use  for  many  years  among 
the  London  omnibus  and  cab  men.  At 
all  events,  Mr.  Reeve  deserves  the  credit 
of  having  laid  the  matter  before  the  pro- 
fession, and  of  explaining  the  true  princi- 
ple upon  which  it  acts.  He  says,  in  his 
paper  upon  the  subject:  "I  thought  it 
possible  to  so  modify  the  atmostpheric 
supply  to  the  lungs,  that,  during  exercise, 
the  volume  of  air  when  it  arrives  at  the 
glottis,  should  not  exceed  that  which  pas- 
sed through  its  opening  when  the  horse 
was  tranquil,  and  which  (from  the  fact  of 
the  sound  being  absent)  does  not  at  that 
time  produce  roaring.  A  strap  was  ac- 
cordingly made  to  pass  around  the  nose 
of  the  horse,  just  over  the  region  of  the 
false  nostrils,  and  buckle  beneath  the 
lower  jaw.  To  the  inner  surface  of  this 
strap,  and  immediately  over  the  false  nos- 
tril on  each  side,  was  fixed  a  body  re- 
sembling in  shape  the  half  of  a  hen's  egg, 
cut  longitudinally.  When  applied,  these 
bodies  pressed  upon  the  triangular  spaces 
formed  by  the  apex  of  the  nasal  bones 
and  upper  jaw,  thus  closing  the  false  nos- 
trils, and  partly  diminishing  the  channel 
of  the  true  ones.  The  result  was  highly 
gratifying;  for  the  patient,  which  pre- 
viously could  not  travel  without  stopping 
every  minute  to  take  breath,  now  travel- 
led, to  all  appearance,  without  inconven- 
ience or  noise.  At  first  the  strap  seemed 
slightly  to  annoy  the  horse;  and  when- 


ever it  became  displaced,  the  roaring 
would  again  commence.  A  slight  modi- 
fication, however,  overcame  every  diffi- 
culty; the  strap  instead  of  being  buckled 
around  and  under  the  jaw,  was  fastened 
on  each  side  of  the  bit ;  and,  to  prevent  its 
descent,  another  was  carried  from  its  cen- 
tre, and  fastened  to  the  front  of  the  har- 
ness-bridle." Mr.  Reeve  asserts  that  the 
effect  was  all  he  could  have  wished,  and 
that  the  horse  on  which  he  had  tried  the 
plan,  "  which  previously  had  been  entire- 
ly useless,  now  performs  his  work  in  a 
heavy  brougham,  and  gives  great  satisfac- 
tion. The  roaring  is  stopped,  and,  with 
the  usual  speed,  there  appears  no  impedi- 
ment to  respiration."  He  concludes :  "  I 
have  paid  particular  attention  to  this  case, 
and  am  inclined  to  think,  that  when  by 
the  compression  we  have  neutralized  the 
action  of"  the  false  nostrils,  the  object  is 
effected  without  the  necessity  of  further 
narrowing  the  nasal  passage." 

Few  people  would  care  to  drive  a  roarer, 
if  they  could  help  it,  even  with  the  aid 
of  the  nasal  compress;  but  if  necessity 
compels  such  a  proceeding,  it  is  well  to 
know  how  the  poor  animal  may  be  used 
with  least  annoyance  to  himself  and  his 
master. 

Highblowing  is  a  perfectly  healthy 
and  natural  habit,  and  cannot  be  con- 
founded with  roaring  by  any  experienced 
horseman.  It  is  solely  confined  to  the 
nostrils ;  and  the  noise  is  not  produced  in 
the  slightest  degree  during  inspiration, 
but  solely  during  the  expulsion  of  the  air, 
which  is  more  forcible  and  rapid  than  us- 
ual, and  accompanied  by  a  vibratory 
movement  of  the  nostrils,  which  is  the 
seat  of  the  noise.  Roaring,  on  the  con- 
trary, continues  during  inspiration  as  well 
as  expiration;  and  by  this  simple  test  the 
two  may  readily  be  distinguished.  Most 
highblowers  have  particular  good  wind, 
of  which  the  celebrated  Eclipse  is  an  ex- 
ample; for  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was 
addicted  to  the  habit. 

Whistling  (and  piping,  which  is  very 
similar  to  it)  are  produced  by  the  same 
causes  as  roaring,  in  an  exaggerated  con- 
dition. Thus  a  roarer  often  becomes  a 
whistler  as  the  rima  glottidis  is  more  and 
more  closed  by  disease;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  whistler  is  never  converted  into 
a  roarer.  The  noise  made  is  seldom  a 
decidedly  shrill  whistle,  but  it  has  more 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


8r 


resemblance  to  that  sound  than  to  roar- 
ing, and  the  name  may  well  be  retained 
as  descriptive  of  it.  Whistlers  are  always 
in  such  a  state  of  confirmed  disease,  that 
treatment  is  out  of  the  question — indeed, 
they  can  only  be  put  to  the  very  slowest 
kind  of  work. 

Wheezing  is  indicative  of  a  contracted 
condition  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  which 
is  sometimes  of  a  spasmodic  nature,  and 
at  others  is  only  brought  on  during  oc- 
casional attacks  after  exposure  to  cold. 
The  treatment  should  be  that  recommend- 
ed for  chronic  bronchitis,  which  is  the 
nature  of  the  disease  producing  these 
symptoms. 

Trumpeting  is  not  very  well  defined 
by  veterinary  writers,  and  we  confess  that 
we  have  never  heard  any  horse  make  a 
noise  which  could  be  compared  to  the 
trumpet,  or  to  the  note  of  the  elephant  so 
called. 

The  question  relating  to  the  hereditary 
nature  of  roaring  is  one  which  demands 
the  most  careful  examination  before  a  re- 
liable answer  can  be  given  to  it.  It  would 
be  necessary  to  select  at  random  a  num- 
ber of  roaring  sires  and  dams,  and  com- 
pare their  stock  with  that  of  an  equal 
proportion  of  sound  animals,  which  would 
be  a  Herculean  task,  beyond  the  power 
of  any  private  individual.  Nothing  short 
of  this  could  possibly  settle  the  dispute; 
but,  as  far  as  opinion  goes,  it  may  be  as- 
sumed that  there  are  strong  authorities 
against  the  hereditary  nature  of  the  dis- 
eases which  produce  roaring.  That  it  is 
often  the  result  of  ordinary  inflammation, 
which  in  itself  can  scarcely  be  considered 
hereditary,  is  plain  enough;  and  that  it  is 
also  produced  by  mismanagement  in  tight- 
reining  is  also  admitted,  which  latter  kind 
can  scarcely  be  supposed  to  be  handed 
down  from  sire  to  son;  but  that  it  is  safer, 
when  practicable,  to  avoid  parents  with 
any  disease  whatever,  is  patent  to  all. 

HORSE,  Pneumonia  and  Congestion 
of  the  Lungs  in. — The  theoretical  defi- 
nition of  pneumonia  is  that  it  consists  of 
inflammation  of  the  parenchyma  of  the 
lungs,  independently  both  of  the  mucous 
lining  to  the  air  passages,  and  of  the 
serous  covering  of  the  whole  mass.  The 
mucous  membrane  ceases  abruptly  at 
the  terminations  of  the  bronchial  subdi- 
visions, and  consequently  the  air  cells  are 
not  lined  with  a  continuation  from  it. 


Hence  there  is  an  extensive  cellulo-fibrous 
area,  which  may  be  the  subject  of  inflam- 
mation, without  implicating  the  mucous 
surface.  Until  within  the  last  fifteen  or 
twenty  years,  it  was  commonly  supposed 
that  the  air  cells  were  all  lined  by  mucous 
membrane,  and  that  the  parenchyma  was 
confined  to  an  almost  infinitesimally  thin 
structure,  filling  up  its  interstices ;  but  the 
microscope  has  revealed  the  true  struc- 
ture of  the  lungs,  and  has  shown  that 
there  is  a  well-founded  distinction  be- 
tween bronchitis  and  pneumonia,  upon 
the  ground  of  anatomy,  as  well  as  obser- 
vation. Still,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  one  seldom  exists  to  any  great  extent, 
or  for  any  long  period,  without  involving 
the  adjacent  tissue;  and  broncho-pneu- 
monia as  well  as  pleuro-pneumonia  are  as 
common  as  the  pure  disease. 

Pneumonia,  or  peripneumony,  must 
be  examined,  with  a  view,  first,  to  its  in- 
tensity, whether  acute  or  sub-acute ;  and 
secondly,  as  to  its  effects,  which  may  be  • 
of  little  consequence,  or  they  may  be  sa» 
serious  as  to  completely  destroy  the  sub- 
sequent usefulness  of  the  patient.     It  is- 
not,  therefore,  alone  necessary  to  provide 
against  death  by  the  treatment  adopted, 
but  due  care  must  also  be  taken  that  the- 
tissue  of  the  lungs  is  not  disorganized  by 
a  deposition  of  lymph,  or  of  matter,  so-' 
as  to  lead,  in  the  one  case,  to  a  consoli- 
dation of  the  air  cells,  and,  in  the  other, 
to  the  formation  of  a  large  abscess,  and{ 
consequent  destruction  of  substance.   The 
former  is  a  very  common  sequel  of  pneu- 
monia; and  probably  there  are  few  at- 
tacks of  it  without  being  followed  by  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  hepatization,  by 
which  term  the  deposit  of  lymph  is  known, 
from  its  causing  the  lungs  to  assume  the- 
texture  of  liver.     In  very  severe  cases, 
gangrene  of  the  lungs  is  induced;  but  as- 
death  almost  always  speedily  follows  this 
condition,  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider 
it,  excepting  as  bearing  upon  the  fatal  re- 
sults. 

The  cause  of  pneumonia  may  be  over- 
exertion, as  in  the  hunting-field,  especially 
in  an  unprepared  horse ;  or  it  may  come- 
on  as  a  primary  disease  after  exposure  to> 
cold ;  or  it  may  follow  upon  bronchitis 
when  neglected  and  allowed  to  run  on 
without  check.  In  the  two  first  cases  it 
appears  to  be  produced  by  the  great  con- 
|  gestion  of  blood  which  takes  place  in  the 


82 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


fine  network  of  vessels  of  which  the  lungs 
are  in  great  part  composed.  The  blood 
in  the  one  case  is  collected  by  the  in- 
creased necessity  for  its  aeration  with  a 
failing  circulation,  as  in  over-exhaustion,  or 
in  the  other  it  is  forced  inwards  upon  the 
vital  organs  by  the  chill  which  the  skin 
has  received.  The  capillaries  are  then 
roused  to  act  beyond  their  strength,  and 
an  inflammatory  condition  is  established 
as  a  reparatory  effort  of  nature,  which 
may  possibly  stop  short  as  soon  as  the  ob- 
ject is  accomplished,  but  more  frequently 
.goes  on  beyond  this,  and  an  attack  of 
pneumonia  sets  in  with  more  or  less  inten- 
sity, according  to  circumstances.  For 
these  reasons,  when  the  lungs  are  evi- 
dently congested  no  pains  should  be 
:spared  to  relieve  them  by  causing  the  skin 
to  act,  before  the  aid  of  nature  is  invoked, 
rsince  it  can  never  be  certain  that  she  will 
-stop  short  at  the  proper  point. 

Congestion   of  the  lungs  is  too  often 
neglected  and  allowed  to  go  on  to  inflam- 
mation.    Veterinary  surgeons,  indeed,  are 
:  seldom  called  in  before  this  stage  has  run 
its  course  and  inflammation  is  established. 
It  is  true  that  every  horse  owner  endeav- 
ors to  ascertain  all  the  particulars  relating 
to  it,  because  he  is  constantly  in  fear  of 
having  to  treat  it,  and  he  would  gladly 
benefit  by  the  advice  and  experience  of 
those,  more  competent  to  treat  it  than 
himself.     But  the  great  mass  of  horse- 
masters  are  wholly  ignorant  of  its  action, 
.and  we  shall  therefore  endeavor  to  lay 
■  down  instructions  which  may  be  benefi- 
.  cia>  to  those  who  are  so  unlucky  as  to 
shave  a  horse  with  congested  lungs,  either 
.caused  by  over-exertion  or  by  a  chill,  or 
Iby  a  combination  of  the  two,  as  most  fre- 
quently happens. 

When  a  fat  "  dealer's  horse,"  that  is, 
one  made  up  for  sale  and  not  for  use,  is 
ridden  in  a  sharp  burst  across  the  country, 
his  lungs  are,  most  unfortunately,  tried; 
for  he  is  not  only  loaded  with  blood  con- 
taining an  excess  of  stimulating  materials 
(or  in  a  state  of  plethora,  as  it  is  called), 
but  his  heart  and  blood-vessels  are  not 
prepared  by  previous  exercise  to  carry  on 
khe  circulation  when  unusual  demands 
•upon  them  are  made.  The  consequence 
is,  that  as  soon  as  he  has  gone  half  a 
dozen  miles,  he  not  only  tires,  but,  if 
pressed,  his  gallant  spirit  carries  him  on 
until  the  blood  collects  and  stagnates  in 


his  lungs,  from  a  defect  in  the  circulating 
apparatus,  and  he  becomes  absolutely 
choked  from  a  want  of  that  decarboniza- 
tion  which  is  necessary  to  his  very  exist- 
ence. Air  is  taken  freely  into  his  lungs, 
but  the  circulation  almost  ceases  in  them, 
and  in  spite  of  his  hurried  breathing,  as 
shown  by  his  panting  sides,  he  is  almost 
as  completely  suffocated  as  if  a  cord  was 
tied  round  his  neck.  On  examining  his 
eyes  and  nostrils  they  are  seen  to  be  tur- 
gid and  purple,  the  vessels  being  filled 
with  carbonized  blood,  while  the  heart 
beats  rapidly  but  feebly,  and  the  counten- 
ance is  expressive  of  anxiety  and  distress. 
In  this  state  many  a  horseman  finds  his 
steed  every  winter,  and  a  pretty  dilemma 
he  is  in.  The  question  of  treatment  is  a 
serious  one  even  to  the  most  experienced 
in  such  matters,  but  one  thing  is  quite 
clear,  that  the  more  urgent  the  case  the 
more  danger  there  is  in  having  recourse 
to  the  lancet.  Bleeding  to  the  extent  of 
a  few  pounds  will  sometimes  relieve  a 
trifling  case  of  exhaustion,  but  in  a  really 
severe  one  it  will  take  away  the  only 
chance  which  remains.  The  best  plan  is 
to  give  the  animal  plenty  of  air,  turn  his 
head  to  the  wind,  and  if  any  kind  of  fer- 
mented liquor  can  be  obtained,  give  him 
a  little  at  once.  Neat  spirits  are  apt  to 
cause  increased  distress  from  spasm  of  the 
larynx,  but  it  is  even  better  to  risk  this 
than  to  let  the  exhaustion  continue.  If, 
therefore,  the  horse  is  incapable  of  walk- 
ing to  the  nearest  farm-house  or  inn,  the 
better  plan  is  to  leave  him  with  a  light 
covering  on  him  of  some  kind,  and  at 
once  to  proceed  to  procure  a  quart  of  ale 
or  wine,  whichever  can  be  obtained  the 
most  easily.  One  or  the  other  of  these, 
slightly  warmed,  and  spiced  if  possible, 
should  be  poured  down  his  throat,  which 
can  readily  be  done,  as  he  has  no  power 
to  resist,  and  then  in.  a  few  minutes  he 
may  generally  be  induced  to  move  quietly 
on  towards  the  nearest  stable.  Here  he 
must  remain  all  night  if  the  attack  is  a 
bad  one,  or  if  he  recovers  soon  he  may 
be  walked  quietly  home.  When  he 
reaches  his  stable,  in  the  evening  or  the 
next  morning  early,  if  the  pulse  rises  and 
is  hard  and  jerking,  he  may  be  bled  with 
advantage,  but  rarely  should  this  be  done 
for  some  hours  after  the  first  attack.  Con- 
gestion is  essentially  produced  by  debility, 
and  although  an  abstraction  of  blood  re- 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


8.3 


lieves  the  vessels  of  a  part  of  their  load, 
it  increases  their  weakness  in  a  still  greater 
degree,  and  they  are  less  able  to  do  their 
work,  diminished  though  it  may  be,  than 
they  were  before.  Hundreds  of  over- 
worked horses  have  been  killed  by  the 
abuse  of  the  lancet  in  the  hunting-field, 
but  the  principle  on  which  their  treatment 
should  be  conducted  is  better  understood 
now  than  formerly. 

When  congestion  shows  itself  as  the 
result  of  a  chill,  the  following  symptoms 
are  displayed  :  First  and  foremost  there  is 
rapid  and  laborious  breathing,  the  horse 
standing  with  his  legs  wide  apart,  his 
head  thrust  straight  forward,  and  his 
flanks  heaving.  The  skin  is  generally  dry, 
but  if  there  is  any  sweat,  it  is  a  cold  one. 
The  legs  are  icy  cold,  and  also  the  ears. 
The  whites  of  the  eyes  and  lining  of  the 
nostrils  are  of  a  purplish  hue,  but  not  very 
deep  in  color.  The  pulse  is  slightly  ac- 
celerated (from  forty  to  fifty),  but  not  hard 
and  incompressible ;  and  lastly,  the  attack 
is  of  recent  duration.  These  signs,  how- 
ever, are  not  to  be  fully  relied  on  as  mark- 
ing congestion  rather  than  inflammation, 
without  having  recourse  to  an  examina- 
tion of  the  lungs  by  means  of  the  ear. 
Placing  it  against  the  side  of  the  chest, 
in  inflammation  there  would  be  certain 
marked  sounds,  presently  to  be  described, 
whilst  in  the  state  we  are  now  consider- 
ing they  are  wholly  absent,  and  all  that  is 
heard  is  the  usual  respiratory  murmur 
slightly  increased  in  intensity.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  make  out  exactly 
the  nature  of  the  case,  for  the  treatment 
should  be  very  different  in  congestion  and 
inflammation.  If  in  the  former  condition 
the  blood  can  only  be  drawn  into  the 
skin,  relief  is  at  once  afforded  and  all 
danger  is  at  an  end;  but  in  the  latter, 
though  some  slight  advantage  would  be 
gained,  the  progress  of  the  disease  would 
not  be  materially  checked.  To  produce 
this  determination  of  blood  to  the  skin 
without  loss  of  time,  is  sometimes  very 
difficult ;  but  by  the  application  of  hot 
water  and  blankets,  it  may  generally  be  ac- 
complished. Two  men,  supplied  with  a 
tub  of  very  hot  water  and  plenty  of  cloth- 
ing, should  be  rapid  in  their  movements, 
and  proceed  as  follows :  Have  an  assist- 
ant ready  to  strip  the  patient  when  or- 
dered, then  dipping  a  blanket  in  the 
water,  it  is  taken  out  and  partially  wrung, 


leaving  as  much  water  in  its  meshes  as  it 
can  hold  without  dropping ;  as  socn  as  it 
is  cool  enough  for  the  human  hand  to 
bear  its  pressure  it  should  be  gently,  but 
quickly,  laid  upon  the  horse's  back,  and 
the  rug,  which  has  just  come  off,  while 
still  warm,  placed  over  it,  with  two  or 
three  more  over  all,  the  number  depend- 
ing upon  the  temperature  of  the  air.  An- 
other smaller  rug  may,  in  the  same  way, 
be  wetted  and  applied  to  the  neck,  cover- 
ing it  with  two  or  three  hoods,  but  taking 
care  to  avoid  pressure  upon  the  windpipe. 
The  legs  also  should  be  wrapped  in  flan- 
nel bandages,  made  as  hot  as  possible  be- 
fore the  fire,  but  dry.  In  the  course  of 
half  an  hour,  if  the  skin  of  the  parts  un- 
covered does  not  become  warm,  and 
show  evidences  of  sweating  coming  on, 
another  rug  must  be  dipped  in  the  same 
way  and  substituted  quickly  for  the  first. 
Usually,  however,  the  desired  effect  is 
produced  within  twenty  minutes,  and 
then  great  care  and  some  little  tact 
are  required  to  manage  the  operation.  If 
the  sweating  is  allowed  to  go  on  beyond 
a  certain  point  exhaustion  is  produced, 
attended  by  almost  as  much  danger  as  in- 
flammation ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  in 
attempting  to  moderate  the  action  of  the 
skin,  risk  is  incurred  of  a  chill,  and  thus 
upsetting  all  the  benefit  which  might 
otherwise  have  been  derived.  But  by 
throwing  open  the  doors  to  the  external 
air,  which  may  freely  be  admitted  as  soon 
as  the  skin  acts,  and  by  reducing  the 
number  of  additional  rugs,  the  amount  of 
sweat  given  off  may  be  kept  within  due 
bounds,  and  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
hours  the  previously  wetted  rug  or  blanket 
may  be  removed,  and  a  dry,  warm  one. 
substituted  for  it,  but  the  assistants  must 
be  "quick  and  handy  in  effecting  the 
change.  Many  a  case  of  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  kidneys,  or  bowels  might  be 
stopped  in  limine  by  the  adoption  of  this 
plan  ;  but  the  misfortune  is  that  it  requires 
all  the  Skill  and  tact  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon,  first  of  all  to  diagnose  the  case, 
and  afterwards  to  manage  its  treatment. 
Still,  if  a  master  will  undertake  the  super- 
intendence of  the  operation  himself,  and 
is  accustomed  to  disease,  there  is  little 
risk  of  failure. 

The  symptoms  of  acute  pneumonia  are 
a  quick  and  distressed  respiration,  averag- 
ing about  sixty  inspirations  in  the  minute. 


84 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


Pulse  quick  (from  seventy  to  eighty-five), 
hard,  often  small,  but  always  compressi- 
ble. Nostrils  distended,  and  the  lining 
membrane  red  (except  in  the  last  stage, 
when  suffocation  is  imminent).  Cough 
short,  and  evidently  giving  pain,  which 
occasions  it  to  be  checked  as  much  as 
possible.  Legs  and  ears  generally  cold, 
often  icy.  Feet  wide  apart,  evidently 
with  an  instinctive  desire  to  dilate  the 
chest  as  much  as  possible.  On  putting 
the  ear  to  the  chest,  if  the  attack  is  very 
recent,  there  will  be  merely  a  greatly  in- 
creased respiratory  murmur;  but  when 
fully  developed  there  may  be  heard  a 
crepitant  rattling,  which  is  compared  to 
the  crackling  of  a  dried  bladder;  but  we 
confess  that  we  could  never  make  out  the 
similarity  between  the  two  sounds.  In 
the  latter  stages,  this  is  succeeded  by  an 
absence  of  all  sound,  owing  to  the  con- 
solidation of  the  lungs,  or  by  mucous  rat- 
tles depending  upon  the  secretion  of  mu- 
cus. On  tapping  the  exterior  of  the 
chest  with  the  ends  of  the  fingers  (percus- 
sion), the  sound  given  out  is  dull  in  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  of  mischief,  the  effect  of 
pneumonia  being  to  convert  the  spongy 
texture  of  the  lungs  into  a  solid  substance 
like  liver.  The  treatment  will  greatly  de- 
pend upon  the  stage  of  the  disease,  the 
age  and  constitution  of  the  horse,  and  the 
nature  of  the  prevailing  epidemic,  if  there 
is  one.  In  modern  days  bleeding  is  very 
badly  borne,  either  by  man  or  horse,  nev- 
ertheless, few  cases  of  genuine  pneumo- 
nia will  be  saved  without  it.  Sufficient 
blood  must  be  taken  to  make  a  decided 
impression  on  the  circulation,  without 
which  the  inflammation  will  not  be  mas- 
tered. The  quantity  necessary  for  this 
cannot  be  fixed,  because  the  effect  will 
vary  so  materially  that  the  abstraction  of 
three  or  four  quarts  of  blood  in  one  case 
will  do  no  more  than  double  or  treble 
that  quantity  in  another.  A  large  orifice 
must  be  made  in  the  vein,  and  it  must  not 
be  closed  until  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  nose  or  the  white  of  the  eye  is  seen 
to  have  become  considerably  paler.  It 
may  [possibly  even  then  be  necessary  to 
repeat  the  operation  six  hours  afterwards, 
or  next  day,  according  to  the  symptoms. 
The  rule  should  be  followed  of  taking 
enough,  but  not  a  drop  too  much,  for 
blood  removed  from  the  circulation  takes 
a  long  time  to  replace.     With  regard  to 


medicine,  tartar  emetic  is  the  only  drug 
which  seems  to  have  much  influence  over 
pneumonia,  and  it  must  be  given  every 
six  hours  in  drachm  doses,  with  from  half 
a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  powdered  digi- 
italis,  or  white  hellebore,  to  keep  down 
the  pulse,  and  two  or  three  drachms  of 
nitre,  to  increase  the  action  of  the  kid- 
neys. Unless  the  bowels  are  confined  no 
aperient  should  be  given,  and  if  necessa- 
ry only  the  mildest  dose  should  be  used. 
The  diet  should  consist  of  bran  mashes,, 
gruel,  and  a  little  hay,  or  green  food  if 
the  season  of  the  year  allows.  A  cool, 
airy  stable  and  warm  clothing  are  indis- 
pensable in  this  disease.  When  the  first 
violence  of  the  attack  has  subsided,  a 
large  blister  on  the  side  of  the  chest  will! 
afford  great  relief,  and  when  it  ceases  to 
act,  if  the  disease  is  not  entirely  cured,  a 
second  may  be  put  on  the  other  side. 

Sub-acute  pneumonia  differs  in  no  res- 
pect from  the  acute  form,  excepting  in 
degree,  and  the  symptoms  and  treatment 
will  vary  only  in  proportion. 

The  terminations  of  pneumonia  may 
be  death,  or  resolution  (by  which  is  to  be 
understood  a  disappearance  of  the  symp- 
toms without  leaving  any  mischief  be- 
hind), or  hepatization,  or  abscess.  The 
last  named  sequel  may  be  very  serious  in 
extent,  but  if  an  opening  is  made  by  nature 
for  the  discharge  of  its  contents  into  the 
bronchial  tubes  the  horse  may  recover,  and 
his  wind  may  be  sufficiently  good  for  any 
purposes  but  the  race  course  or  the  hunt- 
ing field.  Hepatization  is  always  attend- 
ed with  thick  wind,  but  in  other  respects; 
the  health  may  be  good,  and  the  horse 
may  be  suited  to  ordinary  work.  In  pro- 
cess of  time  some  of  the  lymph  is  ab- 
sorbed, and  a  considerable  improvement 
takes  place,  but  it  never  entirely  disap- 
pears, and  a  horse  which  has  once  suf- 
fered from  pneumonia,  attended;  by  hepa- 
tization, remains  permanently  unsound., 

HORSE,  Pleurisy  in. — This  disease  is. 
characterized  by  a  very  peculiar  respira- 
tion, the  expirations  being  much  longer 
than  the  inspirations,  owing  to  the  paini 
which  is  given  by  the  action  of  the  mus- 
cles necessary  for  the  latter,  while  the  for- 
mer, if  the  chest  is  allowed  quietly  to  fall,, 
is  almost  painless.  Nevertheless,  the 
breathing  is  quicker  on  the  whole  than 
natural,  being  from  forty  to  fifty  per  min- 
ute.    The  pulse  is  quick,  small  and.  in- 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


85 


•compressible.  Nostrils  and  eyes  of  a  nat- 
ural color,  and  the  former  are  not  dilated. 
The  countenance  is  anxious,  and  the  legs 
are  rather  drawn  together  than  extended, 
as  in  bronchitis  and  pneumonia,  and  they 
are  not  colder  than  usual.  There  is  a  short 
hurried  cough,  with  great  restlessness, 
and  the  sides  are  always  painful  on  pres- 
sure; but  this  symptom  by  itself  is  not  to 
be  relied  on,  as  it  is  present  in  pleurody- 
nia, which  will  be  presently  described. 

The  treatment  should  consist  of  copi- 
ous bleeding,  followed  by  a  mild  purga- 
tive, and  the  same  ball  as  recommended 
for  pneumonia,  with  the  addition  of  half 
a  drachm  of  calomel.  Blisters  are  not 
desirable  to  be  applied  to  the  sides  of  the 
thorax,  as  there  is  so  little  space  between 
the  two  surfaces  of  the  pleura  and  the 
skin  that  they  are  apt  to  do  harm  by  im- 
mediately irritating  the  former,  rather  than 
to  act  beneficially  by  counter-irritation  of 
the  skin.  A  large  rowel  may,  however, 
be  placed  in  the  breast  with  advantage. 

Hydrothorax,  or  water  in  the  cavity  of 
the  chest,  is  one  of  the  sequels  of  chronic 
pleurisy,  the  serum  thrown  out  being  the 
means  by  which  a  serous  membrane  re- 
lieves itself.  It  can  be  detected  by  the 
entire  absence  of  respiratory  murmur, 
and  by  the  dullness  on  percussion.  No 
treatment  is  of  any  avail  but  tapping, 
which  may  be  readily  and  safely  per- 
formed (if  the  diagnosis  is  correct)  by 
passing  a  trocar  between  the  eighth  and 
ninth  ribs,  near  their  cartilages.  If,  how- 
ever, an  error  has  been  committed  the 
lung  is  wounded,  and  death  will  most 
probably  ensue. 

HORSE,  Pleurodynia  in.  —  Between 
this  disease  and  pleurisy  there  is  some 
similarity  in  the  symptoms ;  but  in  trieir 
nature,  and  in  the  treatment  required, 
they  are  widely  separated.  It  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  that  they  should  not  be 
confounded,  for  in  the  one  case  blood- 
letting and  other  active  measures  may  be 
unnecessarily  adopted,  and  in  the  other  a 
fatal  result  will  most  probably  occur  for 
want  of  them.  In  pleuritis  there  is  a 
quick  pulse,  with  general  constitutional 
disturbance,  which  will  serve  to  distin- 
guish it  from  pleurodynia,  besides  which, 
it  is  rarely  that  we  meet  with  the  former 
without  some  other  affection  of  the  lungs 
co-existing.  When,  therefore,  a  horse  is 
evidently  suffering  from  acute  pain  in  the 


walls  of  the  thorax,  unaccompanied  by 
cough,  hurried  breathing,  quick'pulse,  or 
fever,  it  may  safely  be  diagnosed  that  the 
nature  of  the  attack  is  a  rheumatism  of 
the  intercostal  muscles  (pleurodynia),  and 
not  pleurisy.  In  treating  it  bleeding  and 
tartar  emetic  must  be  carefully  avoided, 
and  hot  mustard  and  vinegar  rubbed  into 
the  sides  will  be  the  most  likely  remedy 
to  afford  relief. 

HORSE,  Pythisis  in.— When  a  horse 
has  long  been  subject  to  a  chronic  cough, 
and,  without  losing  appetite,  wastes  away 
rapidly,  it  may  be  assumed  that  he  is  a 
victim  to  pythisis,  and  especially  if  he  is 
narrow-chested  and  has  long  shown  signs 
of  short  wind.  On  examining  the  chest 
by  the  ear,  it  will  be  found  to  give  out 
sounds  of  various  kinds,  depending  upon 
the  exact  state  of  the  lungs ;  but  in  most 
cases  there  will  be  great  dullness  on  per- 
cussion, owing  to  the  deposit  of  tuber- 
cles, in  which  the  disease  consists.  In  a 
confirmed  case  no  treatment  will  avail, 
and  the  poor  animal  had  better  be  de- 
stroyed. When  the  attack  is  slight,  the 
progress  of  the  disease  may  be  stayed  by 
counteracting  inflammation  in  the  ordi- 
nary way,  avoiding  loss  of  blood  when 
possible.  Hemorrhage,  from  the  break- 
ing down  of  the  substance  of  the  lung, 
by  which  a  large  blood  vsesel  is  opened, 
is  a  common  result  of  pythisis,  and  will 
be  alluded  to  under  the  head  of  the  dis- 
eases OF  THE  VESSELS  OF  THE  LUNGS, 
which  sse. 

HORSE,  Broken- wind.  —  A  broken- 
winded  horse  can  be  detected  at  once  by 
any  horseman  possessed  of  experience, 
from  the  peculiar  and  forcible  double  ex- 
piration. Inspiration  is  performed  as 
usual,  then  comes  a  rapid  but  not  violent 
act  of  expiration,  followed  by  a  forcible 
repetition  of  the  same,  in  which  all  the 
muscles  of  respiration,  auxiliary  and  or- 
dinary, are  called  into  play.  This  is,  of 
course,  most  marked  when  the  horse  has 
been  galloped,  or  even  when  he  is  at 
rest  the  double  expiration  is  manifest  at 
almost  any  ordinary  distance  from  the 
observer.  The  disease  almost  (if  not 
quite)  invariably  consists  in  emphysema, 
or  entrance  of  the  air  into  unnatural 
cells,  which  is  retained  there,  as  the  urine 
is  in  the  bladder,  from  the  valvular  na- 
ture of  the  openings,  and  cannot  be  en- 
tirely expelled,  nor  in  the  slightest  degree, 


86 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


without  calling  into  play  all  the  muscles 
of  the  chest.  The  presence  of  un- 
changed air  is  a  constant  source  of  irri- 
tation to  the  lungs,  and  although  suffi- 
cient may  be  expired  easily  enough  to 
carry  on  their  functions  while  the  body  is 
at  rest,  yet  instinctively  there  is  a  desire 
to  get  rid  of  the  surplus,  and  hence  the 
two  acts  of  respiration.  Immediately 
after  this  second  act  the  muscles  relax, 
and  the  flank  falls  in,  and  this  it  is  which 
catches  the  eye  in  so  remarkable  a  man- 
ner. On  examination  after  death,  the 
lungs  are  found  to  remain  enlarged,  and 
do  not  collapse  as  in  the  healthy  condi- 
tion. They  are  distended  with  air;  and 
this  is  especially  the  case  when  the  em- 
physema is  of  the  kind  called  interlobu- 
lar, in  which  the  air  has  escaped  into  the 
cellular  membrane.  In  the  most  com- 
mon kind,  however,  the  cells  are  broken 
down,  several  being  united  together, 
while  the  enlargement  pressing  upon  the 
tube  which  has  opened  into  them  dimin- 
ishes its  capacity,  and  prevents  the  ready 
escape  of  air.  This  is  the  vesicular  em- 
physema of  pathologists.  The  former  is 
generally  suddenly  produced  by  a  severe 
gallop  after  a  full  meal,  while  the  latter 
is  a  slow  growth,  and  often  occurs  at 
grass,  as  a  consequence  of  neglected 
chronic  cough,  the  constant  muscular 
efforts  appearing  gradually  to  dilate  the 
cells. 

The  treatment  can  only  be  palliative, 
as  there  is  no  recognized  cure  for  the  dis- 
ease, though  M.  Hew,  of  Chaumont,  has 
lately  published  a  report  of  ten  cases  in 
which  treatment  by  arsenic  given  with 
green  food  or  straw,  and  in  some  cases 
bleeding,  was  perfectly  successful.  The 
arsenic  was  given  to  the  extent  of  fifteen 
grains  daily,  and  at  the  end  of  a  fort- 
night the  symptoms  of  broken  wind  were 
completely  removed;  but  as  the  horses 
were  not  subsequently  watched,  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  whether  the  cure  was  per- 
manent. It  is  known,  however,  that  one 
of  them  relapsed  after  three  months,  but 
speedily  yielded  to  a  repetition  of  the 
treatment.  It  may  certainly  be  worth 
while  to  try  the  experiment  of  the  effect 
of  arsenic  where  a  broken-winded  horse 
is  valuable  in  other  respects.  The  medi- 
cine is  not  expensive,  and  the  length  of 
time  necessary  for  the  treatment  is  not 
very  great.    Broken-winded  horses  should 


be  carefully  dieted,  and  even  then  con- 
fined to  slow  work.  The  food  should  be 
in  small  compass,  consisting  chiefly  of 
wheat-straw  chaff,  with  a  proper  quantity 
of  oats,  and  beans  may  be  added  if  the 
animal  is  not  very  young.  The  water 
should  never  be  given  within  an  hour  of 
going  out  of  the  stable,  but  it  is  better  to 
leave  a  constant  supply,  when  too  much 
will  never  be  taken.  Carrots  are  pecu- 
liarly suited  to  this  disease,  and  a  diet  of 
bran  mixed  with  carrots,  sliced,  has  some- 
times been  known  to  relieve  a  broken- 
winded  horse  most  materially. 

HORSE,  Wind,  Thick  in.— Thick  wind 
is  the  horseman's  term  for  any  defective 
respiration,  unaccompanied  by  a  noise,  or 
by  the  signs  of  emphysema  just  alluded 
to.  It  usually  follows  pneumonia,  but  it 
may  arise  from  chronic  bronchitis,  occa- 
sioning a  thickening  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  thus 
lessening  their  diameter,  or  it  may  accom- 
pany phthisic  when  the  deposit  of  tuber- 
cles is  extensive.  No  treatment  will  be 
of  any  service  except  such  as  will  aid  the 
play  of  the  lungs  mechanically,  by  avoid- 
ing overloading  the  stomach,  as  men- 
tioned in  the  last  section. 

HORSE,  Diaphragm,  Spasm,  of  the,  in. — 

Some  horses,  when  at  all  distressed  by  the 
severity  of  their  gallops,  communicate  to 
the  rider  a  most  unpleasant  sensation,  as 
if  some  internal  part  was  given  a  sudden 
blow  or  flap.  This  is  not  only  a  sensa- 
tion, but  a  reality,  for  the  diaphragm  being 
naturally  weak,  or  overstrained  at  some 
previous  period,  acts  spasmodically  in 
drawing  in  the  air.  If  the  horse  thus 
affected  is  ridden  onwards  afterwards,  he 
will  be  placed  in  danger  of  suffocation  and 
death,  either  from  rupture  of  the  dia- 
phragm, or  from  its  cessation  to  act,  or 
from  its  permanently  contracting  and  re- 
fusing to  give  way  during  expiration. 
There  is  no  cure  for  the  weakness  which 
tends  to  produce  the  spasm,  and  all  that 
can  be  done  is  to  avoid  using  the  horse 
affected  with  it  at  any  very  fast  pace,  and 
over  a  distance  of*  ground.  Urgent 
symptoms  may  be  relieved  by  a  cordial 
drench,  such  as  the  following: 

Take  of  Laudanum 6      drachms. 

Ether ij£  ounce. 

Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia  3      drachms. 

Tincture  of  Ginger      -     -     -  3      drachms. 

Ale 1  pint.    Mix. 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


«r 


Or  if  there  is  any  difficulty  in  giving  a 
drench,  a  ball  may  be  made  up  and  given. 

Take  of  Carbonate  of  Ammonia       -     I  drachm. 

Camphor     ...--.*£  drachm. 

Powdered  Ginger  -  -  -  I  drachm. 
Linseed  meal  and  boiling  water  sufficient  to  make 
into  a  ball. 

Either  of  the  above  may  be  repeated 
at  the  end  of  three  hours,  if  relief  is  not 
afforded.  Increased  strength  may  be 
given  to  the  diaphragm  by  regular  slow 
work,  and  the  daily  mixture  of  a  drachm 
of  powdered  sulphate  of  iron  with  the 
feed  of  corn. 

HORSE,  Heart,  Diseases  of  the. — The 
horse  is  subject  to  inflammation  of  the 
substance  of  the  heart  (carditis)  of  a 
rheumatic  nature,  and  of  the  fibro-serous 
covering  (pericarditis),  but  the  symptoms 
are  so  obscure  that  no  one  but  the  pro- 
fessional veterinarian  will  be  likely  to 
make  them  out.  Dropsy  of  the  heart  is 
a  common  disease  in  worn-out  horses, 
and  hypertrophy,  as  well  as  fatty  degen- 
eration, are  often  met  with  among  well- 
conditioned  animals. 

HORSE,  Blood  Vessels  of  the  Chest 
and  Nose,  Diseases  of  the. — The  horse 
is  very  subject  to  hemorrhage  from  the 
nose,  coming  on  during  violent  exertion, 
and  many  a  race  has  been  lost  from  this 
cause.  Fat,  over-fed  horses  are  the  most 
likely  to  suffer  from  hemorrhage;  but 
most  people  are  aware  of  the  risk  in- 
curred in  over-riding  or  driving  them, 
and  for  this  reason  they  are  not  so  often 
subject  to  this  accident  (for  such  it  is 
rather  than  a  disease),  as  they  otherwise 
would  be.  It  is  unnecessary  to  describe 
its  symptoms,  as  the  gush  of  blood  ren- 
ders it  but  too  apparent,  and  the  only 
point  necessary  to  inquire  into  is,  whether 
the  lungs  or  the  nasal  cavities  are  the  seat 
of  the  rupture  of  the  vessel.  In  the 
former  case  the  blood  comes  from  both 
nostrils,  and  is  frothy;  while  in  the  latter 
it  generally  proceeds  from  one  only,  and 
is  perfectly  fluid.  The  treatment  should 
consist  in  cooling  the  horse  down  by  a 
dose  of  physic  and  a  somewhat  lower 
diet ;  but  if  the  bleeding  is  very  persist- 
ent, and  returns  again  and  again,  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  alum  in  water  may  be 
syringed  up  the  nostril  daily,  or,  if  this 
fails,  an  infusion  of  matico  may  be  tried, 
which  is  far  more  likely  to  succeed.  It 
is  made  by  pouring  half  a  pint  of  boiling 


water  on  a  drachm  of  matico-leaves,  and 
letting  it  stand  till  cool,  when  it  should  be 
strained,  and  is  fit  for  use. 

Hemorrrhage  from  the  lungs  is  a  far 
more  serious  affair,  and  its  control  re- 
quires active  remedies  if  they  are  to  be  of 
any  service.  It  may  arise  from  the  ex- 
istence of  an  abscess  in  the  lung  of  a 
phthisical  nature,  which  implicates  some 
considerable  vessel ;  or  it  may  be  caused 
by  the  bursting  of  an  aneurism,  which  is- 
a  dilatation  of  a  large  artery,  and  gener- 
ally occurs  near  the  heart.  The  treat- 
ment can  seldom  do  more  than  prolong 
the  life  of  the  patient  for  a  short  time, 
and  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  enter 
upon  it.  Bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein 
will  arrest  the  internal  hemorrhage,  and 
must  often  be  resorted  to  in  the  first  in- 
stance, and  there  are  internal  medicines 
which  will  assist  it,  such  as  digitalis  and 
matico;  but,  as  before  remarked,  this- 
only  postpones  the  fatal  termination. 

HORSE,  Abdominal  Viscera  and  their 
Appendages,  Diseases  of  the. —  Though 
not  often  producing  what  in  horse  deal- 
ing is  considered  unsoundness,  yet  dis- 
eases of  the  abdominal  viscera  constantly 
lead  to  death,  and  frequendy  to  such  a 
debilitated  state  of  the  body  that  the 
sufferer  is  rendered  useless.  Fortunately 
for  the  purchaser,  they  almost  always  give 
external  evidence  of  their  presence,  for 
there  is  not  only  emaciation,  but  also  a. 
staring  coat  and  a  flabby  state  of  the- 
muscles,  which  is  quite  the  reverse  of  ther 
wiry  feel  communicated  to  the  hand  in: 
those  instances  where  the  horse  is  "poor"' 
from  over-work  in  proportion  to  his  food.. 
In  the  latter  case,  time  and  good  living- 
only  are  required  to  restore  the  natural 
plumpness ;  but  in  the  former  the  wasting 
will  either  go  on  until  death  puts  an  end 
to  the  poor  diseased  animal,  or  he  will 
remain  in  a  debilitated  and  wasted  condi- 
tion, utterly  unfit  for  hard  work. 

HORSE,  Month  and  Throat,  Diseases 
of  the  in. — Several  parts  about  the  mouth 
are  liable  to  inflammation,  which  would 
be  of  little  consequence  in  itself,  but  that 
it  interferes  with  the  feeding,  and  this -for 
the  time  starves  the  horse,  and  renders, 
him  unfit  for  his  work,  causing  him  to» 
"quid"  or  return  his  food  into  the  man- 
ger without  swallowing  it.  Such  are 
lampas,  vives  or  enlarged  glands,  barbs 
or  paps,   gigs,  bladders  and    flaps — all 


38 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


which  are  names  given  to  the  enlarge- 
ments of  the  salivary  ducts — and  carious 
teeth,  or  inflammation  of  their  fangs.  Be- 
sides this,  the  horse  is  also  subject  to 
sore  throat,  and  strangles,  which  are  ac- 
companied by  constitutional  disturbance, 
and  not  only  occasion  "quidding,"  if  there 
is  any  slight  appetite,  but  they  are  also 
generally  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  that 
function. 

HORSE,  Sore  Throat.— When  the  throat 
inflames,  as  is  evidenced  by  fullness  and 
hardness  of  this  part,  and  there  is  diffi- 
culty of  swallowing,  the  skin  covering  it 
should  immediately  be  severely  sweated, 
or  the  larynx  will  be  involved  and  irre- 
parable injury  done.  The  tincture  of 
.cantharides  diluted  with  an  equal  part  of 
spirit  of  turpentine  and  a  little  oil,  may 
.be  rubbed  in  with  a  piece  of  sponge,  un- 
.til  it  produces  irritation  of  the  skin, 
which  in  a  few  hours  will  be  followed  by 
.  a  discharge  from  the  part.  Six  or  eight 
.drachms  of  nitre  may  also  be  dissolved 
,  in  the  water  which  the  horse  drinks,  with 
.  some  difficulty,  but  still  as  he  is  thirsty  he 
will  take  it.  Sometimes  eating  gives  less 
pain  than  drinking,  and  then  the  nitre 
may  be  given  with  a  bran  mash  instead 
of  the  water. 

HORSE,  Strangles.— Between  the  third 
and  fifth  year  of  the  colt's  life  he  is  gen- 
erally seized  with  an  acute  swelling  of 
the  soft  parts  between  the  branches  of  the 
lower  jaw,  accompanied  by  more  or  less 
sore  throat,  cough  and  feverishness.  These 
go  on  increasing  for  some  days,  and  soon 
an  abscess  shows  itself,  and  finally  bursts. 
The  salivary  glands  are  often  involved, 
ibut  the  matter  forms  in  the  cellular  mem- 
brane external  to  them.  The  treatment 
should  be  addressed  to  the  control  of 
constitutional  symptoms  by  the  mildest 
measures,  such  as  bran  mashes  with  nitre 
in  them,  abstraction  of  corn,  hay  tea, 
etc.  At  the  same  time  the  swelling 
should  be  poulticed  for  one  night,  or  thor- 
oughly fomented  two  or  three  times,  and 
then  blistered  with  the  tincture  of  can- 
tharides. As  soon  as  the  matter  can 
plainly  be  felt  it  may  be  let  out  with  the 
lancet;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
it  is  not  the  best  plan  to  permit  the  ab- 
iscess  to  break.  The  bowels  should  be 
gently  moved  by  giving  a  pint,  or  some- 
what less,  according  to  age,  of  castor  oil, 
.and  afterwards  two  or  three  drachms  of 


nitre,  with  half  a  drachm  of  tartar  emetic, 
may  be  mixed  with  the  mash  twice  a  day, 
on  which  food  alone  the  colt  should  be 
fed,  in  addition  to  gruel,  and  a  little  grass 
or  clover  if  these  are  to  be  had,  or  if  not, 
a  few  steamed  carrots.  The  disease  has 
a  tendency  to  get  well  naturally,  but  if  it 
is  not  kept  within  moderate  bounds  it  is 
very  apt  to  lay  the  foundation  of  roaring 
or  whistling.  Any  chronic  swelling  which 
is  left  behind  may  be  removed  by  rubbing 
in  a  weak  ointment  of  biniodide  of  mer- 
cury (half  drachm  to  the  ounce.) 

HORSE,  Colt,  Distemper.  (See  Horse, 
Strangles.) 

HORSE,  Lampas. — Lampas  is  an  active 
inflammation  of  the  ridges,  or  "  bars,"  in 
the  roof  of  the  mouth,  generally  oc- 
curring in  the  young  horse  while  he  is 
shedding  his  teeth,  or  putting  up  the 
tushes.  Sometimes,  however,  it  comes  on, 
independently  of  this  cause,  from  over- 
feeding with  corn  after  a  run  at  grass. 
The  mucous  membrane  of  the  roof  of 
the  mouth  swells  so  much  that  it  projects 
below  the  level  of  the  nippers,  and  is  so 
tender  that  all  hard  and  dry  food  is  re- 
fused. The  treatment  is  extre/nely  sim- 
ple, consisting  in  the  scarification  of  the 
part  with  a  sharp  knife  or  lancet,  after 
which  the  swelling  generally  subsides,  and 
is  gone  in  a  day  or  two ;  but  should  it 
obstinately  continue,  as  will  sometimes 
happen,  a  stick  of  lunar  caustic  must  be 
gently  rubbed  over  the  part  every  day 
until  a  cure  is  completed.  This  is  far 
better  than  the  red  hot  iron,  whic\  was 
formerly  so  constantly  used,  with  good  ef- 
fect, it  is  true,  and  not  accompanied  by 
any  cruelty,  as  the  mucous  membrane  is 
nearly  insensible,  but  the  caustic  is  more 
rapid  and  effectual  in  stimulating  the  ves- 
sels to  a  healthy  action,  and  on  that  score 
should  be  preferred.  If  the  lampas  is 
owing  to  the  cutting  of  a  grinder,  relief 
will  be  afforded  by  a  crucial  incision  across 
the  protruding  gum. 

HORSE,  Barbs,  Paps,  Etc. — The  swel- 
ling at  the  mouth  of  the  ducts  may  gen- 
erally be  relieved  by  a  dose  of  physic 
and  green  food,  but  should  it  continue,  a 
piece  of  lunar  caustic  may  be  held  for  a 
moment  against  the  opening  of  the  duct 
every  second  day,  and  after  two  are  three 
applications  the  thickening  will  certainly 
disappear. 

HORSE,  Vives. — Where  vives,  or  chron- 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


89 


ically  enlarged  submaxillary  glands,  are 
met  with,  the  application  of  the  ointment 
of  biniodide  of  mercury,  according  to  the 
directions  given  for  splints  (see  Horse 
Splints),  will  almost  certainly  cause  their 
reduction  to  a  natural  state. 

HORSE,  Gastritis. — Gastritis  (acute  in- 
flammation of  the  stomach)  is  extremely 
rare  in  the  horse  as  an  idiopathic  disease ; 
but  it  sometimes  occurs  from  eating  vege- 
table poisons  as  food,  or  from  the  wilful 
introduction  of  arsenic  into  this  organ,  or, 
lastly,  from  kicking  off  corrosive  external 
applications,  which  have  been  used  for 
mange.  The  symptoms  from  poisoning 
will  a  good  deal  depend  upon  the  article 
which  has  been  taken,  but  in  almost  all 
cases  in  which  vegetable  poisons  have 
been  swallowed  there  is  a  strange  sort  of 
drowsiness,  so  that  the  horse  does  not  lie 
down  and  go  to  sleep,  but  props  himself 
against  a  wall  or  tree  with  his  head  hang- 
ing almost  to  the  ground.  As  the  drow- 
siness increases  he  often  falls  down  in  his 
attempt  to  rest  himself  completely,  and 
when  on  the  ground  his  breathing  is  loud 
and  hard,  and  his  sleep  is  so  unnaturally 
sound  that  he  can  scarcely  be  roused  from 
it.  At  length  convulsions  occur  and  death 
soon  takes  place.  This  is  the  ordinary 
course  of  poisoning  with  yew,  which  is 
sometimes  picked  up  with  the  grass  after 
the  clippings  have  dried,  for  in  its  fresh 
state  the  taste  is  too  bitter  for  the  palate, 
and  the  horse  rejects  the  mouthful  of 
.grass  in  which  it  is  involved.  May-weed 
and  water  parsley  will  also  produce  nearly 
similar  symptoms.  The  treatment  in  each 
case  should  be  by  rousing  the  horse  me- 
chanically, and  at  the  same  time  giving 
him  six  or  eight  drachms  of  aromatic  spirit 
of  ammonia,  in  a  pint  or  two  of  good  ale, 
with  a  little  ginger  in  it.  This  may  be 
repeated  every  two  hours,  and  the  horse 
should  be  perpetually  walked  about  until 
the  narcotic  symptoms  are  completely  gone 
off,  when  a  sound  sleep  will  restore  him  to 
his  natural  state. 

Arsenic,  when  given  in  large  doses, 
with  an  intention  to  destroy  life,  produces 
intense  pain  and  thirst  —  the  former,  evi- 
denced by  an  eager  gaze  at  the  flanks, 
pawing  of  the  ground,  or  rolling;  and 
sometimes  by  each  of  these  in  succession. 
The  saliva  is  secreted  in  increased  quanti- 
ties, and  flows  from  the  mouth,  as  the 
throat  is  generally  too  sore  to  allow  of  its 


being  swallowed.  The  breath  soon  be- 
comes hot  and  fetid,  and  purging  then 
comes  on  of  a  bloody  mucus,  which 
soon  carries  of  the  patient  by  exhaustion, 
if  death  does  not  take  place  from  the  im- 
mediate effect  of  the  poison  on  the  stom- 
ach and  brain.  Treatment  is  seldom  of 
any  avail,  the  most  likely  remedies  being 
large  bleedings,  blisters  to  the  sides  of  the 
chest,  and  plenty  of  thin  gruel  to  sheathe 
the  inflamed  surface  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, which  is  deprived  of  its  epithelial 
scales. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  sometimes  employ- 
ed as  a  wash  in  mange,  or  to  destroy  lice, 
when  it  may  be  licked  off,  and  will  occa- 
sion nearly  the  same  symptoms  as  arsenic. 
The  treatment  consists  in  a  similar  use  of 
thin  starch  or  guel ;  or,  if  the  poison  has 
recently  been  given  wilfully,  of  large  quan- 
tities of  white  of  egg. 

HORSE,  Arsenic. — (See  Horse,  Gas- 

TRISIS.) 

HORSE,  Corrosive  Sublimate.  —  (See 
Horse,  Gastritis.) 

HORSE,  Poison.— (See  Horse,  Gas- 
tritis.) 

HORSE,  Staggers,  Stomach.— The  exact 
nature  of  this  disease  has  never  been 
clearly  made  out,  and  it  is  now  so  rare 
that  there  is  little  chance  of  its  being  satis- 
factorily explained.  The  symptoms  would 
chiefly  lead  one  to  suppose  the  brain  to 
be  implicated ;  but  there  is  so  close  a  sym- 
pathy between  that  organ  and  the  stomach, 
that  we  can  easily  account  in  that  way  for 
the  cerebral  manifestations.  A  theory  has 
been  propounded,  that  it  is  seated  in  the 
par  vagum,  or  pneumogastric  nerve ;  and 
as  all  the  parts  with  which  that  nerve  is 
connected  are  affected,  there  is  some 
ground  for  the  hypothesis ;  but  it  is  not 
supported  by  the  demonstration  of  anat- 
omy, simply,  perhaps,  because  of  the  dif- 
ficulty in  the  way  of  prosecuting  the  pa- 
thology of  the  nerves.  The  first  onset  of 
the  disease  is  marked  by  great  heaviness 
of  the  eyes,  soon  going  on  to  drowsiness ; 
the  head  dropping  into  the  manger,  even 
while  feeding  is  in  progress.  It  generally 
makes  its  appearance  after  a  long  fast; 
and  it  is  supposed  by  some  writers  to  be 
owing  to  the  demands  made  by  the  stom- 
ach on  the  brain,  when  in  an  exhausted 
condition  for  want  of  its  usual  supplies. 
This  theory  is  supported  by  the  fact  that, 
in  the  present  day,  when  every  horsemas- 


9o 


HORSE—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


ter  knows  the  danger  of  working  his  horses 
without  feeding  them  at  intervals  of  five,  or 
at  most  six  hours,  the  stomach  staggers  are 
almost  unknown.  Even  when  the  disease 
shows  itself  at  grass  it  is  almost  always 
manifested  directly  after  the  horse  is  first 
turned  out,  when  he  gorges  himself  with 
much-coveted  food,  which  has  long  been 
withheld,  and  his  brain  is  affected  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  which  follows  a 
long  fast  from  every  kind  of  food.  In  a 
short  time,  if  the  affection  of  the  brain  is 
not  relieved,  that  organ  becomes  still  more 
severely  implicated,  and  convulsions  or 
paralysis  put  an  end  to  the  attack.  Dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  disease  the  breath- 
ing is  affected,  and  there  is  generally  an 
almost  total  cessation  of  the  secretions  of 
bile  and  urine,  which  may  either  be  the 
cause  or  the  effect  of  the  condition  of  the 
brain.  With  this  state  of  uncertainty  as 
to  the  essence  of  the  disease,  it  is  some- 
what empirical  to  lay  down  any  rules  for 
its  treatment;  and,  as  we  before  remark- 
ed, it  is  now  so  rare  that  they  are  scarce- 
ly necessary.  If  care  be  taken  to  feed 
the  horse  properly,  he  will  never  suffer 
from  stomach  staggers  in  the  stable;  and 
at  grass,  the  attack  is  seldom  observed 
until  he  is  beyond  the  reach  of  any  reme- 
dies. Still,  it  may  be  as  well  to  observe, 
that  the  usual  plan  of  proceeding  has 
been  to  take  away  blood,  so  as  to  relieve 
the  brain,  and  to  stimulate  the  stomach  to 
get  rid  of  its  load,  by  the  use  of  warm 
aperients,  such  as  the  following  : 

Take  of  Barbadoes  Aloes      -    -    4  to  6  drachms. 
Tincture  of  Ginger      -    3  drachms. 
Dissolve  the  aloes  in  a  pint  of  hot  water,  then 
add  the  tincture,  and  when  nearly  cool  give  as  a 
drench. 

HORSE,  Dyspepsia. — Every  domestic 
animal  suffers  in  health  if  he  is  constantly 
fed  on  the  same  articles,  and  man  himself, 
perhaps,  more  than  they  do.  Partridges 
are  relished  by  him  early  in  September, 
but  toujours  perdrix  would  disgust  the 
most  inveterate  lover  of  that  article  of 
food.  Dogs  are  too  often  made  to  suffer 
from  being  fed  on  the  same  meal,  flavor- 
ed with  similar  flesh  or  broth,  from  one 
month  to  another.  It  is  well  known  that 
cattle  and  sheep  must  change  their  pas- 
ture, or  they  soon  lose  condition;  and 
yet  horses  are  expected  to  go  on  eating 
oats  and  hay  for  years  together  without 
injury  to  health;  and  at  the  same  time 


are  often  exposed  to  the  close  air  of  a 
confined  stable,  and  to  an  irregular 
amount  of  exercise.  We  cannot,  there- 
fore, wonder  that  the  master  is  often  told 
that  some  one  or  other  of  his  horses  is 
"  a  little  off  his  feed ;"  nor  should  we  be 
surprised  that  the  constant  repetition  of 
the  panacea  for  this,  "  a  dose  of  physic," 
should  at  length  permanently  establish 
the  condition  which  at  first  it  would 
always  alleviate.  It  is  a  source  of  won- 
der that  the  appetite  continues  so  good 
as  it  does,  in  the  majority  of  horses, 
which  are  kept  in  the  stable  on  the  same 
kind  of  food,  always  from  July  to  May, 
and  often  through  the  other  months, 
also.  The  use  of  a  few  small  bundles  of 
vetches,  lucerne,  or  clover  in  the  spring 
is  supposed  to  be  quite  sufficient  to  re- 
store tone  to  the  stomach,  and  undoubt- 
edly they  are  better  than  no  change  at 
all;  but  at  other  seasons  of  the  year 
something  may  be  done  towards  the  pre- 
vention of  dyspepsia  by  varying  the 
quality  of  the  hay,  and  by  the  use  of  a 
few  carrots  once  or  twice  a  week.  In 
many  stables,  one  rick  of  hay  is  made  to 
serve  throughout  the  whole  or  a  great 
part  of  the  year,  which  is  a  very  bad 
plan,  as  a  change  in  this  important  article 
of  food  is  as  much  required  as  a  change 
of  pasturage  when  the  animal  is  at  grass. 
When  attention  is  paid  to  this  circum- 
stance, the  appetite  will  seldom  fail  in 
horses  of  a  good  constitution,  if  they  are 
regularly  worked;  but  without  it,  resort 
must  occasionally  be  had  to  a  dose  of 
physic.  It  is  from  a  neglect  of  this  pre- 
caution that  so  many  horses  take  to  eat 
their  litter,  in  preference  to  their  hay ;  for 
if  the  same  animal  was  placed  in  a  straw- 
yard  for  a  month,  without  hay,  and  then 
allowed  access  to  both,  there  would  be 
little  doubt  that  he  would  prefer  the  lat- 
ter. Some  horses  are  naturally  so  vora- 
cious that  they  are  always  obliged  to  be 
supplied  with  less  than  they  desire,  and 
they  seldom  suffer  from  loss  of  appetite ; 
but  delicate  feeders  require  the  greatest 
care  in  their  management.  When  the 
stomach  suffers  in  this  way  it  is  always 
desirable  to  try  what  a  complete  change 
of  food  will  do  before  resorting  to  medi- 
cine; and,  if  it  can  be  obtained,  green 
food  of  some  kind  should  be  chosen,  or 
if  not,  carroty  or  even  steamed  potatoes. 
In  place  of  hay,  sound  wheat  or  barley 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


9* 


straw  may  be  cut  into  chaff,  and  mixed 
with  the  carrots  and  corn ;  and  to  this  a 
little  malt-dust  may  be  added,  once  or 
twice  a  week,  so  as  to  alter  the  flavor. 
By  continually  changing  the  food  in  this 
way,  the  most  dyspeptic  stomach  may 
often  be  restored  to  its  proper  tone, 
without  doing  harm  with  one  hand  while 
the  other  is  doing  good,  as  is  too  often 
the  case  with  medicine.  The  use  of  the 
fashionable  "  horse-feeds  "  of  the  present 
day  will  serve  the  same  purpose ;  and  if 
the  slight  changes  I  have  mentioned  do 
not  answer,  Thorley's  or  Henri's  food 
may  be  tried  with  great  probability  of 
success. 

HORSE,  Bots.— The  larvae  of  the  cts- 
trus  equi,  a  species  of  gadfly,  are  often 
found  in  large  numbers,  attached  by  a 
pair  of  hooks  with  which  they  are  pro- 
vided, to  the  cardiac  extremity  of  the 
stomach ;  they  are  very  rarely  met  with 
in  the  true  digestive  portion  of  this  or- 
gan, but  sometimes  in  the  duodenum  or 
jejunum  in  small  numbers.  A  group  of 
these  larva;,  which  are  popularly  called 
bots,  are  truly  represented  below,  but 
sometimes  nearly  all  the  cardiac  ex- 
tremity of  the  stomach  is  occupied  with 
them,  the  interstices  being  occupied  by 
little  projections,  which  are  caused  by 
those  that   have  let  go  their  hold,  and 


fig.  25. 


GROUP  OF  BOTS    ATTACHED    TO   THE 
STOMACH. 


have  been  expelled  with  the  food.  Sev- 
eral of  these  papillae  are  shown  on  the 
engraving,  which  delineates  also*  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  bots  themselves,  so  that 
no  one  can  fail  to  recognize  them  when 
he  sees  them.  This  is  important,  for  it 
often  happens  that  a  meddlesome  groom 


when  he  sees  them  expelled  from  or 
hanging  to  the  verge  of  the  anus,  as  they 
often  do  for  a  short  time,  thinks  it  neces- 
sary to  use  strong  medicine;  whereas,  in 
the  first  place  he  does  no  good,  for  none 
is  known  which  will  kill  the  larvae  without, 
danger  to  the  horse;  and  in  the  second,, 
if  he  will  only  have  a  little  patience,, 
every  bot  will  come  away  in  the  natural 
course  of  things;  and  until  the  horse  is, 
turned  out  to  grass,  during  the  season 
when  the  oestrus  deposits  its  eggs,  he  will 
never  have  another  in  his  stomach. 

The  oestrus  equi  comes  out  from  the 
pupa  state  in  the  middle  and  latter  part 
of  summer,  varying  according  to  the  sea- 
son, and  the  female  soon  finds  the  proper 
nidus  for  her  eggs  in  the  hair  of  the  near- 
est horse  turned  out  to  grass.  She  man- 
ages to  glue  them  to  the  sides  of  the  hair 
so  firmly  that  no  ordinary  friction  will  get 
rid  of  them,  and  her  instinct  teaches  her 
to  select  those  parts  within  reach  of  the 
horse's  tongue,  such  the  hair  of  the  fore 
legs  and  sides.  Here  they  remain  until 
the  heat  of  the  sun  hatches  them,  when,, 
being  no  larger  in  diameter  than  a  small 
pin,  each  larva  is  licked  off  and  carried 
down  the  gullet  to  the  stomach,  to  the 
thick  epithelium,  to  which  it  soon  attaches, 
itself  by  its  hooks.  Here  it  remains  until 
the  next  spring,  having  attained  the  size 
which  is  represented  in  the  engraving 
during  the  course  of  the  first  two  months 
of  its  life,  and  then  it  fulfills  its  allotted 
career,  by  letting  go  and  being  carried 
out  with  the  dung.  On  reaching  the 
outer  air  it  soon  assumes  the  chrysalis 
condition,  and  in  three  or  four  weeks 
bursts  its  covering  to  become  the  perfect 
insect. 

From  this  history  it  will  be  evident  that 
no  preventive  measures  will  keep  off  the 
attacks  of  the  fly  when  the  horse  is  at 
grass,  and,  indeed,  in  those  districts  where 
they  abound,  they  will  deposit  their  ova 
in  the  hair  of  the  stabled  horse  if  he  is. 
allowed  to  stand  still  for  a  few  minutes. 
The  eggs  are,  however,  easily  recognized 
in  any  horse  but  a  chestnut,  to  which 
color  they  closely  assimilate,  and  as  they 
are  never  deposited  in  large  numbers  on 
the  stabled  horse,  they  may  readily  be 
removed  by  the  groom.  Unlike  other 
parasites,  they  seem  to  do  little  or  no- 
harm,  on  account  of  the  insensible  nature 
of  the  part  of  the  stomach  to  which  they 


'92 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


are  attached,  and  moreover,  their  presence 
is  seldom  discovered  until  the  season  of 
their  migration,  when  interference  is  un- 
called for.  On  all  accounts,  therefore,  it 
is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  the  question, 
whether  it  is  possible  to  expel  them  ;  and 
even  if  by  chance  one  comes  away  pre- 
maturely it  will  be  wise  to  avoid  interfer- 
ing by  attempting  to  cause  the  expulsion 
-of  those  left  behind. 

HORSE,  Bowels,  Inflammation  of  the. 
— There  are  two  divisions  of  the  abdom- 
inal serous  sac,  one  of  which  lines  the 
walls  of  the  cavity,  and  the  other  covers 
the  viscera  which  lie  in  it.  In  human 
medicine,  when  the  former  is  inflamed, 
the  disease  is  termed  peritonitis,  and  when 
the  latter  is  the  subject  of  inflammatory 
action  it  is  called  enteritis.  But  though 
in  theory  this  distinction  is  made,  in  prac- 
tice it  is  found  that  the  one  seldom  exists 
without  the  other  being  developed  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  Veterinary  writers 
have  generally  taken  the  nomenclature 
adopted  in  human  anatomy  and  pathol- 
ogy, but  in  regard  to  the  inflammations  of 
the  bowels,  they  define  peritonitis  as  inflam- 
mation of  the  peritoneal  or  serous  coat, 
and  enteritis  as  inflammation  of  the  mus- 
cular coat.  Our  own  belief  is,  that  dur- 
ing life  it  is  impossible  by  any  known 
symptoms  to  distinguish  the  exact  locale 
of  any  inflammation  of  the  bowels  but 
that  of  their  mucous  lining,  which  will 
presently  be  described,  and  that  wherever 
the  actual  serous  covering  of  the  bowels 
as  involved  the  muscular  fibres  beneath  it 
will  be  implicated,  but  the  serious  and 
fatal  symptoms  manifested  in  such  cases 
are  not  dependent  upon  the  latter,  but  are 
due  entirely  to  the  lesions  of  the  serous 

•  coat.  We  have  examined  numberless 
fatal  cases  of  supposed  enteritis,  and  have 
uniformly  found  signs  of  inflammation  of 
the  serous  investment,  sometimes  impli- 
cating the  musclar  fibres  beneath,  and 
often  extending  to  the  peritoneal  lining 
of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  but  we  have 
never  yet  seen  marks  of  inflammation  in 
the  muscular  tissue  without   the   serous 

•  covering  being  affected  to  a  much  greater 
extent.  We  believe,  therefore,  that  the 
distinction  is  erroneously  founded,  and 
that,  theoretically,  the  same  definition 
should  be  made  of  the  two  diseases  as  is 
in  use  by  human  pathologists,  though 
^practically  this  is   of  little    importance. 


There  is  no  well  made  out  inflammation 
of  muscular  tissue  (except  that  of  the 
heart)  in  which  the  symptoms  are  so  ur- 
gent and  so  rapidly  followed  by  a  fatal 
issue  as  in  the  latter  stages  of  the  disease 
described  by  Mr.  Percivall  under  the 
head  enteritis,  as  follows :  "  The  next 
stage  borders  on  delirium.  The  eye  ac- 
quires a  wild,  haggard,  and  unnatural 
stare — the  pupil  dilates — his  heedless  and 
dreadful  throes  render  approach  to  him 
quite  perilous,  he  is  an  object  not  only  of 
compassion  but  of  apprehension,  and 
seems  fast  hurrying  to  his  end — when  all 
at  once,  in  the  midst  of  his  agonizing 
torments,  he  stands  quiet,  as  though  every 
pain  had  left  him  and  he  were  going  to 
recover.  His  breathing  becomes  tran- 
quillized— his  pulse  sunk  beyond  all  per- 
ception— his  body  bedewed  with  a  cold, 
clammy  sweat — he  is  in  a  tremor  from 
head  to  foot,  and  about  the  legs  and  ears 
has  even  a  dead-like  feel.  The  mouth 
feels  deadly  chill — the  lip  drops  pendu- 
lous, and  the  eye  seems  unconscious  of 
objects.  In  fine,  death,  not  recovery,  is 
at  hand.  Mortification  has  seized  the 
inflamed  bowel — pain  can  no  longer  be 
felt  in  that  which  a  few  minutes  ago  was 
the  seat  of  most  exquisite  suffering.  He 
again  becomes  convulsed,  and  in  a  few 
more  struggles  less  violent  than  the  former 
he  expires."  Analogy  would  lead  any 
careful  pathologist  to  suppose  that  such 
symptoms  as  these  are  due  to  some  lesion 
of  a  serous  and  not  a  muscular  tissue, 
and,  as  we  before  remarked,  we  have 
satisfied  ourselves  that  such  is  really  the 
case.  We  have  seen  lymph,  pus,  and 
serum  effused  in  some  cases  of  enteritis, 
and  mortification  extending  to  a  large 
surface  of  the  peritoneal  coat  in  others, 
but  we  have  never  examined  a  single  case 
without  one  or  the  other  of  these  morbid 
results.  It  may  be  said  that  so  long  as 
the  symptoms  are  correctly  described 
their  exact  seat  is  of  no  consequence; 
but  in  this  instance  it  is  probable  that  the 
ordinary  definition  of  enteritis  as  an  in- 
flammation of  the  muscular  coat  may 
lead  to  a  timid  practice  in  its  treatment, 
which  would  be  attended  with  worse  re- 
sults. We  have  no  fault  to  find  with  the 
usual  descriptions  of  the  two  diseases,  or 
with  their  ordinary  treatment,  but  we  pro- 
test against  the  definition  which  is  given 
of  them. 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


93 


An  examination  of  the  cause  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  bowels  is  the  only  means 
by  which  the  one  form  can  be  distin- 
guished from  the  other.  If  it  has  been 
brought  about  from  exposure  to  cold,  or 
from  over-stimulating  medicines  given 
for  colic,  the  probability  is  that  the  serous 
covering  of  the  intestines  themselves  is 
chiefly  involved ;  while  if  it  has  followed 
castration  it  may  generally  be  conclud- 
ed that  the  peritoneal  lining  of  the 
abdominal  muscles  has  taken  on  in- 
flammatory action  by  immediate  exten- 
sion from  the  serous  lining  of  the  inguinal 
canal,  which  is  continuous  with  it.  In 
each  case,  however,  the  symptons  are  as 
nearly  as  may  be  the  same,  and  without 
knowing  the  previous  history,  we  believe 
no  one  could  distinguish  the  one  disease 
from  the  other — nor  should  the  treatment 
vary  in  any  respect. 

The  symptoms  of  peritoneal  inflamma- 
tion vary  in  intensity,  and  in  the  rapidity 
of  their  development,  but  they  usually 
show  themselves  in  the  following  order : 
At  first  there  is  simple  loss  of  appetite, 
dulness  of  eye,  and  a  general  uneasiness, 
which  are  soon  followed  by  a  slight  rigor 
or  shivering.  The  pulse  becomes  rapid, 
but  small  and  wiry,  and  the  horse  be- 
comes very  restless,  pawing  his  litter,  and 
looking  back  at  his  sides  in  a  wistful 
and  anxious  manner.  In  the  next 
stage  all  these  signs  are  aggravated ;  th  e 
hind  legs  are  used  to  strike  at  but  not 
touch  the  belly ;  and  the  horse  lies  down, 
rolls  on  his  back  and  struggles  violendy. 
The  pulse  becomes  quicker  and  harder, 
but  it  is  small.  The  belly  is  acutely  ten- 
der and  hard  to  the  touch,  the  bowels  are 
costive,  and  the  horse  is  constantly  turn- 
ing round,  moaning,  and  regarding  his 
flanks  with  the  most  anxious  expression 
of  countenance.  Next  comes  on  the 
stage  so  graphically  described  by  Mr. 
Percivall  in  the  passage  which  we  have 
quoted,  the  whole  duration  of  the  attack 
being  from  twelve  to  forty-eight  hours  in 
acute  cases,  and  extending  to  three  or 
four  days  in  those  which  are  denominated 
sub-acute. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  disease,  as  in 
all  those  implicating  serous  membranes, 
blood  must  be  taken  largely,  and  in  a  full 
stream,  the  quantity  usually  required  to 
make  a  suitable  impression  being  from 
six  to  eight  quarts.    The  belly  should  be 


fomented  with  very  hot  water,  by  two 
men  holding  against  it  a  doubled  blanket 
dipped  in  that  fluid,  which  should  be- 
constantly  changed,  to  keep  up  the  tem- 
perature. The  bowels  should  be  back- 
raked,  and  the  following  drench  should 
be  given  every  six  hours  till  it  operates, 
which  should  be  hastened  by  injections 
of  warm  water. 


Take  of  Linseed  Oil 
Laudanum 


-     I  pint. 
•    2  ounces. 


If  the  first  bleeding  does  not  give  re- 
lief in  six  or  eight  hours,  it  must  be  re- 
peated to  the  extent  of  three  or  four 
quarts,  and  at  the  same  time  some  liquid 
blister  may  be  rubbed  into  the  skin  of  the 
abdomen,  continuing  the  fomentations,  at 
short  intervals,  under  that  part,  which  will 
hasten  its  operation.  The  diet  should  be 
confined  to  thin  gruel,  or  bran  mashes, 
and  no  hay  should  be  allowed  until  the 
severity  of  the  attack  has  abated. 

To  distinguish  this  disease  from  colic  is 
of  the  highest  importance,  and  for  this 
purpose  it  will  be  necessary  to  describe 
the  symptoms  of  the  latter  disease,  so  as 
to  compare  the  two  together. 
HORSE,  Peritonitis.— (See  Horse,  Bow- 
els, Inflammation  of.) 

HORSE,  Enteritis.— (See  Horse,  Bow- 
els, Inflammation  of.) 

HORSE,  Colic. — In  this  disease  there 
is  spasm  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  in- 
testines, generally  confined  to  the  caecum 
and  colon.  Various  names  have  been 
given  to  its  different  forms,  such  as  the 
fret,  the  gripes,  spasmodic  colic,  etc.,  but 
they  all  display  the  above  feature,  and  are 
only  modifications  of  it,  depending  upon 
the  cause  which  has  produced  it.  In  spas- 
modic colic  the  bowels  are  not  unnatu- 
rally distended,  but  in  flatulent  colic  their 
distension  by  gas  brings  on  the  spasm, 
the  muscular  fibres  being  stretched  to  so 
great  an  extent  as  to  cause  them  to  con- 
tract irregularly  and  with  a  morbid  ac- 
tion. Sometimes,  when  the  bowels  are 
very  costive,  irritation  is  established  as  an 
effort  of  nature  to  procure  the  dislodge- 
ment  of  the  impacted  faecal  matters,  and 
thus  a  third  cause  of  the  disease  is  dis- 
covered. The  exact  nature  and  cause 
are  always  to  be  ascertained  from  the  his- 
tory of  the  case,  and  its  symptoms,  and 
as  the  treatment  will  especially  be  con- 
ducted with  a  view  to  a  removal  of  the 
cause,  they  are  of  the  highest  impor- 


9+ 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


tance.  The  symptoms  in  all  cases  of 
colic,  by  which  it  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  last  described  disease,  are  as  fol- 
lows. In  both  acute  pain  is  manifested 
by  stamping,  looking  at  the  flanks,  and 
rolling;  but  in  enteritis  the  pain  is  con- 
stant, while  in  colic  there  are  intervals  of 
rest,  when  the  horse  seems  quite  easy,  and 
often  begins  to  feed.  In  both  the  poor 
(animal  strikes  at  his  belly;  but  in  the 
former  he  takes  great  care  not  to  touch 
the  skin,  while  in  the  latter  (colic)  he  will 
often  bring  the  blood  by  his  desperate  ef- 
forts to  get  rid  of  his  annoyance.  In  en- 
teritis the  belly  is  hot  and  exquisitely 
tender  to  the  touch,  but  in  colic  it  is  not 
unnaturally  warm,  and  gradual  pressure 
with  a  broad  surface,  such  as  the  whole 
hand,  always  is  readily  borne,  and  gener- 
ally affords  relief.  The  pulse  also  is  little 
affected  in  colic ;  and  lastly,  the  attack  is 
very  much  more  sudden  than  in  perito- 
neal inflammation. 

Sure  are  the  general  signs  by  which  a 
case  of  colic  may  be  distinguished  from 
inflammation  of  the  bowels,  but  beyond 
this  it  is  necessary  to  investigate  whether 
it  is  pure  spasmodic  colic  or  produced  by 
flatulence,  or  by  an  obstruction  in  the 
bowels. 

In  spasmodic  colic  all  the  above  symp- 
toms are  displayed,  without  any  great 
distension  of  the  abdomen ;  and  if  the 
history  of  the  case  is  gone  into,  it  will  be 
found  that  after  coming  in  heated,  the 
horse  has  been  allowed  to  drink  cold 
water,  or  has  been  exposed  in  an  exhaust- 
ed state  to  a  draught  of  air. 

In  flatulent  colic  the  abdomen  is  enor- 
mously distended;  the  attack  is  not  so 
sudden,  and  the  pain  is  not  so  intense, 
being  rather  to  be  considered,  in  the  av- 
erage of  cases,  as  a  high  degree  of  un- 
easiness, occasionally  amounting  to  a 
sharp  pang,  than  giving  the  idea  of  ago- 
ny. In  aggravated  attacks  the  distension 
is  so  enormous  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of 
the  nature  of  the  exciting  cause.  Here 
also  the  spasms  are  often  brought  on  by 
drinking  cold  water  while  the  horse  is  in 
a  heated  and  exhausted  state. 

Where  there  is  a  stoppage  in  the  bow- 
els to  cause  the  spasm,  on  questioning  the 
groom,  it  will  be  found  that  the  dung  for 
some  days  has  been  hard  and  in  small 
lumps,  with  occasional  patches  of  mucus 


upon  it.  In  other  respects  there  is  little 
to  distinguish  this  variety  from  the  last. 

The  treatment  must  in  all  cases  be  con- 
ducted on  a  totally  different  plan  to  that 
necessary  when  inflammation  is  present. 
Bleeding  will  be  of  no  avail,  at  all  events 
in  the  early  stages,  and  before  the  disease 
has  gone  on,  as  it  sometimes  will,  into  an 
inflammatory  condition.  On  the  other 
hand,  stimulating  drugs,  which  would  be 
fatal  in  enteritis,  will  here  generally  suc- 
ceed in  causing  a  return  of  healthy  mus- 
cular action.  The  disease  is  indeed  simi- 
lar in  its  essential  features  to  cramp  in  the 
muscles  of  the  human  leg  or  arm,  the 
only  difference  being  that  it  does  not  as 
speedily  disappear,  because  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  get  at  the  muscular  coat  of  the  in- 
testimes,  and  apply  the  stimulus  of  fric- 
tion. 

As  soon  as  a  case  is  clearly  made  out 
to  be  of  a  spasmodic  nature,  one  or  other 
of  the  following  drenches  should  be  given, 
the  choice  being  made  in  proportion  to 
the  intensity  of  the  symptoms : 

i.  Sulphuric  Ether i  ounce. 

Laudanum 2       " 

Compound  decoction  of  Aloes  *    *  5      " 
Mix  and  give  every  half  hour  until  relief  is  af- 
forded. 

2.  Spirit  of  Turpentine 4  ounces. 

Linseed  oil    -     -     •    -     •     -    .     12       " 
Laudanum    -.---...    iy£  " 

Mix  and  give  every  hour  until  the  pain  ceases. 

3.  Aromatic  Spirit  of  Ammonia  -    -   1%  ounces. 

Laudanum 2  " 

Tincture  of  Ginger     ....     \*£      •< 
Hot  Ale 1  quart. 

Mix  and  giv   every  hour. 

Hot  water  should  also  be  applied  to 
the  abdomen,  as  described  under  the 
head  of  Enteritis,  and  if  an  enema  pump 
is  at  hand,  large  quantities  of  water,  at  a 
temperature  of  100  9  Fahrenheit,  should 
be  injected  per  anum,  until  in  fact  the 
bowel  will  hold  no  more  without  a  dan- 
gerous amount  of  force. 

In  flatulent  colic  the  same  remedies 
may  be  employed,  but  the  turpentine 
mixture  is  here  especially  beneficial.  The 
use  of  warm  water  injections  will  often 
bring  away  large  volumes  of  wind,  which 
at  once  affords  relief,  and  the  attack  is 
cured.  Sometimes,  however,  the  disten- 
sion goes  on  increasing,  and  the  only 
chance  of  recovery  consists  in  a  puncture 
of  the  caeum,  as  it  lies  high  in  the  right 
flank,  where,  according  to  French  veteri- 
nary writers,  it  may  often  be    opened 


HORSE—CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


95 


when  greatly  distended,  without  dividing 
the  serous  covering.  The  operation,  how- 
ever, should  only  be  performed  by  an  ex- 
perienced hand,  as  it  is  one  of  great  dan- 
ger, and  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  parts  concerned  is  required  to  select 
the  most  available  situation. 

The  treatment  of  impaction  must  be 
completely  a  posteriori,  for  all  anterior 
proceedings  with  aperient  medicines  will 
only  aggravate  the  spasms.  Injection  of 
gallons  of  warm  water,  or  of  gruel  con- 
taining a  quart  of  castor  oil  and  half  a 
pint  of  spirit  of  turpentine,  will  some- 
times succeed  in  producing  a  passage, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  spasm  may  be 
relieved  by  the  exhibition  at  the  mouth 
of  one  ounce  of  laudanum  and  the  same 
quantity  of  sulphuric  ether.  If  there  is 
any  tenderness  of  the  abdomen,  or  the 
pulse  has  a  tendency  to  quicken,  it  will 
be  better  to  resort  to  bleeding,  which 
alone  will  sometimes  cause  the  peristaltic 
action  to  be  restored  in  a  healthy  man- 
ner. The  case,  however,  requires  great 
patience  and  judgment,  and  as  no  great 
good  can  often  be  effected,  it  is  highly 
necessary  to  avoid  doing  harm,  which 
•can  hardly  be  avoided  if  the  remedies 
employed  are  not  at  once  successful. 

When  the  urgent  symptoms  of  colic  in 
any  of  its  forms  are  relieved,  great  care 
must  be  exercised  that  a  relapse  does  not 
take  place  from  the  use  of  improper  food. 
The  water  should  be  carefully  chilled, 
and  a  warm  bran  mash  should  be  given, 
containing  in  it  half  a  feed  of  bruised 
oats.  Nothing  but  these  at  moderate  in- 
tervals, in  the  shape  of  food  or  drink, 
should  be  allowed  for  a  day  or  two,  and 
then  the  horse  may  gradually  return  to 
his  customary  treatment,  avoiding,  of 
course,  everything  which  may  appear  to 
have  contributed  to  the  development  of 
colic. 

HORSE,  Diarrhoea  and  Dysentery. — A 
distinction  is  attempted  to  be  made  be- 
tween these  two  diseases — the  former 
name  being  confined  to  an  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  small 
intestines,  while  the  latter  is  said  to  reside 
in  the  large.  It  is  very  difficult,  however, 
if  not  impossible,  to  distinguish  the  one 
from  the  other  by  the  symptoms  during 
life,  and  in  ordinary  practice  they  may  be 
considered  as  one  disease,  the  treatment 
•depending  in  great  measure  on  the  ex- 


citing cause.  This  in  most  cases  is  to  be 
found  in  the  use  of  too  violent  "  physic," 
or  in  not  resting  the  horse  after  it  has  be- 
gun to  act  until  some  hours  after  it  has 
completely  "  set."  Sometimes  it  depends 
upon  the  cells  of  the  colon  having  long 
been  loaded  with  faeces,  which  causes,  at 
length,  their  mucous  lining  to  inflame,  the 
consequent  secretion  having  a  tendency 
to  loosen  them  and  procure  their  dismis- 
sal, either  by  solution  or  by  the  forcible 
contraction  of  the  muscular  coat.  This 
last  disease  is  known  by  the  name  of 
"  molten  grease  "  to  old-fashioned  farriers, 
the  clear  mucus  which  envelopes  the 
lumps  of  faeces  being  supposed  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  internal  fat  that  is  gen- 
erally plentifully  developed  in  the  highly 
fed  horses  that  are  especially  subject  to 
the  attack.  For  practical  purposes, 
therefore,  we  may  consider  the  different 
forms  under  the  head  of  superpurgation, 
diarrhoea,  and  dysentery,  meaning  by  the 
last  name  that  condition  which  is  brought 
about  by  and  attended  with  a  discharge 
of  lumps  of  hard  faecal  matter  enveloped 
in  mucus. 

Superpurgation  is  sometimes  so  severe 
as  to  place  a  delicate  horse  in  great  dan- 
ger. When  the  action  of  the  bowels  has 
gone  on  for  three  or  four  days  consecu- 
tively, and  there  is  no  disposition  to 
"set,"  the  eyes  become  staring  and  glassy, 
the  pulse  is  feeble,  and  the  heart  flutters 
in  the  most  distressing  manner,  the 
mouth  has  a  peculiarly  offensive  smell, 
the  tongue  being  pale  and  covered  with  a 
white  fur  having  a  brown  centre.  The 
abdomen  is  generally  tucked  tightly  up, 
but  in  the  later  stages  large  volumes  of 
gas  are  evolved,  and  it  becomes  tumid. 

The  treatment  should  consist  in  the 
exhibition  of  rice,  boiled  till  quite  soft, 
and  if  not  taken  voluntarily,  it  should  be 
given  as  a  drench,  mixed  into  a  thin 
liquid  form  with  warm  water.  If  the 
case  is  severe,  one  or  two  ounces  of  lau- 
danum may  be  added  to  a  quart  of  rice 
milk,  and  given  every  time  the  bowels 
act  with  violence.  Or  a  thin  gruel  may 
be  made  with  wheat  meal,  and  the  lauda- 
num be  mixed  with  that  instead  of  the 
rice.  A  perseverance  in  these  remedies 
will  almost  invariably  produce  the  desired 
effect  if  they  have  not  been  deferred 
until  the  horse  is  very  much  exhausted, 
when  a  pint  of  port  wine  may  be  sub- 


96 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


stituted  for  the  laudanum  with  advant- 
age. 

In  diarrhoea  resulting  from  cold,  or 
over-exertion,  the  treatment  should  be 
exactly  like  that  prescribed  for  superpur- 
gation,  but  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary 
to  give  chalk  in  addition  to  the  remedies 
there  alluded  to.  The  rice  or  flour-milk 
may  be  administered  as  food,  and  the 
following  drench  given  by  itself  every 
time  there  is  a  discharge  of  liquid  faeces : 

Take  of  Powdered  Opium     -  -  -  i  drachm. 

Tincture  of  Catechu  -  •  %  ounce. 

Chalk  Mixture    -    -  -  -  I  pint. 
Mix  and  give  as  a  drench. 

During  the  action  of  these  remedies 
the  body  must  be  kept  warm  by  proper 
clothing,  and  the  legs  should  be  encased 
in  flannel  bandages,  previously  made  hot 
at  the  fire,  and  renewed  as  they  become 
cold. 

In  dysentery  (or  molten  grease)  it  is 
often  necessary  to  take  a  little  blood  away, 
if  there  is  evidence  of  great  inflammation 
in  the  amount  of  mucus  surrounding  the 
faeces,  and  when  aperient  medicine  does 
not  at  once  put  a  stop  to  the  cause  of 
irritation  by  bringing  the  lumps  away 
from  the  cells  of  the  colon.  Back-raking, 
and  injection  of  two  ounces  of  laudanum 
and  a  pint  of  castor  oil  with  gruel,  should 
be  adopted  in  the  first  instance,  but  they 
will  seldom  be  fully  efficient  without  the 
aid  of  linseed  oil  given  by  the  mouth.  A 
pint  of  this,  with  half  a  pint  of  good  cas- 
tor oil,  will  generally  produce  a  copious 
discharge  of  lumps,  and  then  the  irrita- 
tion ceases  without  requiring  any  further 
interference. 

Whenever  there  is  diarrhea  or  dysen- 
tery present  to  any  extent,  rice-water 
should  be  the  sole  drink. 

HORSE  Strangulation  and  Rupture. — 
Mechanical  violence  is  done  to  the  stom- 
ach and  bowels  in  various  ways,  but  in 
every  case  the  symptoms  will  be  those  of 
severe  inflammation  of  the  serous  coat, 
speedily  followed  by  death,  if  not  relieved 
when  relief  is  possible.  Sometimes  the 
stomach  is  ruptured  from  over-distension 
— at  others  the  small  intestines  have  been 
known  to  share  the  same  fate,  but  the 
majority  of  cases  are  due  to  strangulation 
of  a  particular  portion  of  the  bowels,  by 
being  tied  or  pressed  upon  by  some  sur- 
rounding band.  This  may  happen  either 
from  a  loop  of  bowel  being  forced  through 


an  opening  in  the  mesentery  or  meso- 
colon, or  from  a  band  of  organized  lymph, 
the  result  of  previous  inflammation — or 
from  one  portion  of  the  bowels  forcing 
itself  into  another,  like  the  inverted  finger 
of  a  glove,  and  the  included  portion  be- 
ing firmly  contracted  upon  by  the  exter- 
ior bowel,  so  as  to  produce  dangerous 
pressure  (intussusception),  or,  lastly,  from 
a  portion  or  knuckle  of  intestine  forcing 
its  way  through  an  opening  in  the  walls 
of  the  abdomen,  and  then  called  hernia  or 
rupture,  which  being  pressed  upon  by  the 
edges  of  the  opening  becomes  strangu- 
lated, and  if  not  relieved  inflames,  and 
then  mortifies.  None  of  these  cases  are 
amenable  to  treatment  (and  indeed  they 
cannot  often  be  discovered  with  certainty 
during  life,  the  symptoms  resembling  those 
of  enteritis),  except  strangulated  hernia, 
which  should  be  reduced  either  by  the 
pressure  of  the  hands,  or  by  the  aid  of 
an  operation  with  the  knife — which  will 
be  described  under  the  chapter  which 
treats  of  the  several  operations.  When- 
ever inflammation  of  the  bowels  is  attend- 
ed with  obstinate  constipation,  the  walls 
of  the  abdomen  should  be  carefully  ex- 
amined, and  especially  the  inguinal  canal, 
scrotum,  and  navel,  at  which  points  in 
most  cases  the  hernia  makes  it  appear- 
ance. A  swelling  at  any  other  part  may, 
however,  contain  a  knuckle  of  intestine, 
which  has  found  its  way  through  the  ab- 
dominal parietes  in  consequence  of  a 
natural  opening  existing  there,  or  of  one 
having  been  made  by  some  accidental 
puncture  with  a  spike  of  wood  or  iron. 
The  swelling  is  generally  round,  or  nearly 
so,  and  gives  a  drum-like  sound  on  being 
tapped  with  the  fingers.  It  feels  hard  to 
the  touch  in  consequence  of  the  contents 
being  constricted,  but  it  gives  no  sensation 
of  solidity,  and  may  be  generally  detected 
by  these  signs.  None  but  an  educated 
hand  can,  however,  be  relied  on  to  dis- 
tinguish a  ventral  hernia  from  any  other 
tumor.  When  it  occurs  at  the  scrotum  or 
navel  the  case  is  clear  enough. 

HORSE,  Worms. — Intestinal  worms  in 
the  horse  are  chiefly  of  two  species,  both 
belonging  to  the  genus  ascaris.  Bots,  as 
inhabiting  the  stomach,  have  already  been 
described  with  that  organ;  and,  moreover, 
they  should  never  be  confounded  with 
what  are  called  properly  and  scientifical- 
ly, "  worms."     Of  these,  the  larger  spe- 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


97 


cies  resembles  the  common  earthworm  in 
s.11  respects  but  color,  which  is  a  pinkish 
white.  It  inhabits  the  small  intestines, 
though  it  is  sometimes,  but  very  rarely, 
found  in  the  stomach.  The  symptoms  are 
a  rough,  staring,  hollow  coat — a  craving 
appetite — more  or  less  emaciation — the 
passage  of  mucus  with  the  foeces,  and 
very  often  a  small  portion  of  this  remains 
outside  the  anus,  and  dries  there.  That 
part  generally  itches,  and  in  the  attempt 
to  rub  it  the  tail  is  denuded  of  hair ;  but 
this  may  arise  from  vermin  in  it,  or 
from  mere  irritation  of  the  anus  from 
other  causes.  When  these  several  symp- 
toms are  combined,  it  may  with  some  de- 
gree of  certainty  be  supposed  that  there 
are  worms  in  the  intestines,  but  before 
proceeding  to  dislodge  them,  it  is  always 
the  wisest  plan  to  obtain  proof  positive  of 
their  existence,  by  giving  an  ordinary 
dose  of  physic,  when,  on  watching  the 
evacuations,  one  or  more  worms  may  gen- 
erally be  discovered  if  they  are  present. 
When  the  case  is  clearly  made  out  the 
plan  of  treatment  is  as  follows : 

Take  of  Tartar  Emetic  I  drachm. 

Powdered  Ginger        -        ~    %       " 
Linseed   Meal  sufficient  to  make  into  a 
ball  with  boiling  water. 

One  should  be  given  every  morning  for 
a  week,  then  a  dose  of  physic,  linseed 
oil  being  the  most  proper.  Let  the  stom- 
ach rest  a  week ;  give  another  course  of 
balls  and  dose  of  physic,  after  which  let 
the  horse  have  a  drachm  of  sulphate  of 
iron  (powdered)  twice  a  day  with  his  feed 
of  corn. 

There  is  no  medicine  which  is  so  effect- 
ual for  moving  worms  in  the  horse  as  tartar 
emetic,  and  none  which  is  so  entirely  in- 
nocuous to  the  stomach.  Calomel  and 
spirit  of  turpentine  Were  formerly  in  use 
as  vermifuges,  but  they  are  both  danger- 
ous drugs;  the  former,  if  given  for  any 
length  of  time,  causing  great  derange- 
ment of  the  stomach  and  liver;  and  the 
latter  often  producing  considerable  in- 
flammation after  a  single  dose,  if  suffi- 
ciently large  to  cause  the  expulsion  of  the 
worms.  Linseed  oil  given  in  half-pint 
doses  every  morning  is  also  an  excellent 
vermifuge,  but  not  equal  to  the  tartar 
emetic.  If  this  quantity  does  not  relax  the 
bowels,  it  may  be  increased  until  they  aae 
rendered  slightly  more  loose  than  usual, 
but  avoiding  anything  like  purgation. 


The  smaller  species  of  intestinal  worm 
chiefly  inhabits  the  rectum,  but  is  oc- 
casionally found  in  the  colon  and  caecum. 
It  produces  great  irritation  and  uneasiness, 
but  has  not  the  same  prejudicial  effect  on 
the  health  as  the  larger  parasite.  It  is 
about  one  to  two  inches  in  length,  and 
somewhat  smaller  in  diameter  than  a  crow 
quill.  These  worms  are  commonly  dis- 
tinguished as  ascarides,  but  both  this  spe- 
cies and  the  round  worm  belong  to  the 
genus  ascaris.  The  term  thread  worm  is 
more  correctly  applied,  as  they  are  not 
unlike  sections  of  stout  threat  or  cotton. 
The  only  symptom  by  which  their  pres- 
ence can  be  made  out  is  the  rubbing,  of 
the  tail,  when  if,  on  examination,  no  ver- 
min or  eruption,  is  found  in  the  dock,  it 
may  be  presumed  that  worms  exist  in  the 
rectum.  The  remedy  for  these  worms  is 
by  the  injection  every  morning  for  a  week 
of  a  pint  of  linseed  oil,  containing  two 
drachms  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  This  will 
either  kill  or  bring  away  the  worms,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  which  are  driven 
by  it  higher  up  into  the  colon,  but  by 
waiting  a  week  or  ten  days  (during  which 
time  they  will  have  re-entered  the  rectum)- 
and  then  repeating  the  process,  they  may 
generally  be  entirely  expelled.  The  sul- 
phate of  iron  must  be  given  here,  as 
before  described. 

HORSE,  Liver,  Diseases  of  the.— The 
liver  or  the  horse  is  less  liable  to  disease 
than  that  of  any  other  domestic  animal, 
and  the  symptoms  of  its  occurrence  are 
so  obscure  that  it  is  seldom  until  a  post- 
mortem examination  that  a  discovery  is 
made  of  its  existence.  This  unerring 
guide,  however,  informs  us  that  the  liver 
is  sometimes  unnaturally  enlarged  and 
hard,  at  others  softened,  and  in  others 
again  the  subject  of  cancerous  deposits. 
It  is  also  attacked  by  inflammation,  of 
which  the  symptoms  are  feverish ;  rapid 
pulse,  not  hard,  and  generally  fuller  than 
usual ;  appetite  bad ;  restlessness,  and  the' 
patient  often  looking  round  to  his  right 
side  with  an  anxious  expression,  not  in- 
dicative of  severe  pain;  slight  tenderness 
of  the  right  side;  but  this  not  easily  made 
out  satisfactorily.  Bowels  generally  con- 
fined, but  there  is  sometimes  diarrhoea. 
Very  frequently  the  whites  of  the  eyes 
show  a  tinge  of  yellow,  but  anything 
like   jaundice  is  unknown.      The  treat- 


98 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


ment  must  consist  in  the  use  of  calomel 
and  opium,  with  mild  purging,  thus : 
Take  of  Calomel, 

Powdered  Opium,  of  each  one  drachm. 
Linseed  Meal  and  boiling  water  enough 
to  make  into  a  ball,  which  should  be 
given  night  and  morning.  Every  other 
day  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  should  be  ad- 
ministered. 

The  diet  should  if  possible  be  confined 
to  green  food,  which  will  do  more  good 
than  medicine;  indeed,  in  fine  weather,  a 
run  at  grass  during  the  day  should  be  pre- 
ferred to  all  other  remedies,  taking  care  to 
shelter  the  horse  at  night  in  an  airy,  loose 
box. 

HORSE,  Kidneys,  Diseases  of  the.— 
These  organs  are  particularly  prone  to 
disease,  and  are  subject  to  inflammation; 
to  diabetes,  or  profuse  staling ;  to  hema- 
turia, or  a  discharge  of  blood,  and  to  tor- 
.  pidity,  or  inaction. 

Inflammation  of  the  kidneys  {nephritis) 
is  generally  produced  by  an  exposure  of 
the  loins  to  wet  and  cold,  as  in  carriage- 
horses  standing  about  in  the  rain  during 
the  winter  season.  Sometimes  it  follows 
violent  muscular  exertion,  and  is  then  said 
to  be  caused  by  a  strain  in  the  back,  but 
in  these  cases  there  is  probably  an  expo- 
sure to  cold  in  a  state  of  exhaustion,  or 
by  the  rupture  of  a  branch  of  the  renal 
.artery  or  vein,  as  the  inflammation  of  one 
organ  can  scarcely  be  produced  by  the 
strain  of  another.  The  symptoms  are  a 
constant  desire  to  void  the  urine,  which  is 
■  of  a  very  dark  color— often  almost  black. 
Great  pain,  as  evidenced  by  the  expres- 
sion of  countenance  and  by  groans,  as 
well  as  by  frequent  wistful  looks  at  the 
loins.  On  pressing  these  parts  there  is 
some  tenderness,  but  not  excessive,  as  in 
rheumatism.  The  pulse  is  quick,  hard 
and  full.  The  attitude  of  the 
hind  quarters  is  peculiar,  the  horse 
standing  in  a  straddling  position  with  his 
back  arched,  and  refusing  to  move  with- 
out absolute  compulsion.  It  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  distinguish  nephritis  from  in- 
flammation of  the  neck  of  the  bladder, 
but  by  attending  to  the  state  of  the  urine, 
'-which  is  dark  brown  or  black  in  the  former 
•case,  and  nearly  of  a  natural  color  in  the 
latter,  the  one  may  be  diagnosed  from 
the  other.  To  make  matters  still  more 
clear,  the  oiled  hand  may  be  passed  into 
the  rectum,  when  in  nephritis  the  bladder 
will  be  found  contracted  and*  empty  (the 


urine  being  so  pungent  as  to  irritate  that 
organ),  while  in  inflammation  or  spasm 
of  its  neck,  it  will  be  distended,  often  to 
a  large  size.  The  treatment  to  be  adopt- 
ed must  be  active,  as  the  disease  runs  a 
very  rapid  course,  and  speedily  ends  in 
death  if  neglected.  A.large  quantity  of 
blood  must  at  once  be  taken.  The  skin 
must  be  acted  on  energetically,  so  as  to 
draw  the  blood  to  its  surface.  The  ap- 
plication of  hot  water,  as  recommended  in 
Pneumonia  (See  Horse,  Pneumonia), 
may  be  tried,  and  in  many  cases  it  has 
acted  like  a  charm.  Failing  the  means 
for  carrying  out  either  of  these  remedies, 
the  loins  should  be  rubbed  with  an  em- 
brocation consisting  of  olive  oil,  liquor 
ammonia  and  laudanum  in  equal  parts, 
but  cantharides  and  turpentine  must  be 
carefully  avoided,  as  likely  to  be  absorbed, 
when  they  would  add  fuel  to  the  fire.  A 
fresh  sheepskin  should  be  warmed  with 
hot  (not  boiling)  water,  and  applied  over 
the  back,  and  the  liniment  should  be 
rubbed  in  profusely  every  hour,  restoring 
the  skin  to  its  place  immediately  after- 
wards. Mustard  is  sometimes  used  in- 
stead of  ammonia,  and  as  it  is  always  at 
hand,  it  may  form  a  good  substitute,  but 
it  is  not  nearly  so  powerful  an  irritant  to 
the  skin  as  the  latter,  especially  when 
evaporation  is  prevented  by  the  sheepskin, 
or  by  a  piece  of  any  waterproof  article. 
A  mild  aperient  may  be  given,  linseed  oil 
being  the  best  form,  but  if  the  bowels 
continue  obstinate,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
repeat  it,  eight  or  ten  drops  of  croton  oil 
may  be  added  to  a  pint  of  the  oil,  great 
care  being  taken  to  assist  its  action  by 
raking  and  injection,  the  latter  being  also 
useful  as  a  fomentation  to  the  kidneys. 
The  diet  should  consist  of  scalded  linseed 
and  bran  mashes,  no  water  being  allowed 
without  containing  sufficient  linseed  tea 
to  make  it  slightly  glutinous,  but  not  so 
much  so  as  to  nauseate  the  patient.  If 
the  symptoms  are  not  greatly  abated  in 
six  or  eight  hours,  the  bleeding  must  be 
repeated,  for  upon  this  remedy  the  chief 
dependence  must  be  placed.  A  mild  and 
soothing  drench,  composed  of  half  an 
ounce  of  carbonate  of  soda,  dissolved  in 
six  ounces  of  linseed  tea,  may  be  given 
every  six  hours,  but  little  reliance  can  be 
placed  upon  it.  The  inflammation  either 
abates  after  the  bleeding,  or  the  horse 
dies  in  a  few  hours. 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


99 


HORSE,  Diabetes.  —  Diabetes  of  late 
years  has  been  much  more  frequent  than 
was  formerly  the  case,  and  especially 
among  race-horses  and  hunters,  probably 
owing  to  the  enormous  quantities  of  corn 
which  they  are  allowed  in  the  present  day. 
But  whatever  may  be  the  cause,  the  symp- 
toms are  clear  enough,  the  horse  con- 
stantly staling  and  passing  large  quanti- 
ties of*  urine  each  time.  The  treatment 
should  be  conducted  on  the  principle  that 
the  cause  should  if  possible  be  ascertain- 
ed and  removed.  Mowburnt  hay  will 
often  bring  on  diabetes,  and  new  oats 
have  a  similar  tendency  in  delicate  horses. 
In  any  case  it  is  wise  to  make  a  total  change 
in  the  food  as  far  as  it  can  possibly  be 
done.  Green  meat  will  often  check  it  at 
once,  and  a  bran  mash  containing  a  few 
carrots  have  a  similar  chance  of  doing 
good.  With  these  alterations  in  the 
■quality  of  the  food,  attention  should  also 
be  paid  to  the  quantity  of  the  corn, 
which  should  be  reduced  if  more  than  a 
peck  a  day  has  been  given,  and  beans 
should  be  substituted  for  a  part  of  the 
oats.  Half  a  drachm  of  the  sulphate  of 
iron  (powdered)  should  be  mixed  with 
each  feed  (that  is,  four  times  a  day),  and 
the  horse  should  be  well  clothed  and  his 
legs  warmly  bandaged  in  a  cool  and  airy 
(but  not  cold  and  draughty)  loose  box. 
By  attention  to  these  directions  the  attack 
may  generally  be  subdued  in  a  few  days, 
but  there  is  always  a  great  tendency  to 
its  return.  Should  it  persist  in  spite  of 
the  adoption  of  the  measures  already  re- 
commended, the  following  ball  may  be 
tried: 

Take  of  Gallic  Acid     -    -     -    %  drachm. 
Opium      -     -     -    -       I  drachm. 
Treacle  and  Linseed  Meal  enough  to  make  a 
ball,  which  should  be  given  twice  a  day. 

HORSE,  Haematuria.  —  Hematuria. 
like  diabetes,  is  easily  recognized  by  the 
presence  of  blood  in  greater  or  less  quan- 
tities passed  with  the  urine.  It  is  not, 
however,  of  the  bright  red  color  natural 
to  pure  blood,  but  it  is  more  or  less  dingy, 
and  sometimes  of  a  smoky  brown  color, 
as  occurs  in  inflammation.  Bloody  urine, 
however,  may  often  be  passed  without 
any  sign  of  that  condition,  and  therefore 
unaccompanied  by  pain,  or  any  other  ur- 
gent symptom.  The  causes  are  exceed- 
ingly various.  Sometimes  a  parasitic 
"worm  {Strongylus  gigas)  has  been  discov- 


ered, after  death  from  haematuria,  in  the 
kidney,  and  was  apparently  the  cause  of 
the  mischief.  At  others,  this  organ  has 
been  found  disorganized  by  cancer  or 
melanosis — and  again  a  sharp  calculus 
has  been  known  to  bring  on  consider- 
able bleeding,  and  this  last  cause  is  by  no 
means  infrequent  The  symptoms  are 
the  existence  of  bloody  urine,  unaccom- 
panied by  pain  or  irritation,  marking  the 
absence  of  nephritis.  As  to  treatment, 
little  can  be  done  in  severe  cases,  and 
mild  ones  only  require  rest,  a  dose  of 
physic,  and  perhaps  the  abstraction  of 
three  or  four  quarts  of  blood.  Green 
food  should  be  given,  and  the  diet  should 
be  attended  to  as  for  diabetes.  If  the 
urine  is  scanty,  yet  evidently  there  is  no 
inflammation,  two  or  three  drachms  of 
nitre  may  be  given  with  the  mash  at 
night,  but  this  remedy  should  be  em- 
ployed with  great  caution. 

HORSE,  Kidneys,  Inaction  of. — Inac- 
tion of  the  kidneys  is  so  common  in  every 
stable  that  the  groom  seldom  thinks  it 
necessary  even  to  inform  his  master  of  its 
occurrence.  An  ounce  of  nitre  is  mixed 
and  given  with  a  bran  mash  as  a  matter 
of  course,  and-  sometimes  more  violent 
diuretics  are  resorted  to,  such  as  powder- 
ed resin  and  turpentine.  Very  often  the 
kindeys  are  only  inactive  because  the  horse 
has  not  been  regurlarly  watered,  and  in 
those  stables  where  an  unlimited  supply 
is  allowed  this  condition  is  comparatively 
rare.  There  is  no  harm  in  resorting  to 
nitre  occasionally,  but  if  it  is  often  found 
necessary  to  employ  this  drug,  the 
health  is  sure  to  suffer,  and  an  altera- 
tion in  the  diet  should  be  tried  in  prefer- 
ence. At  all  events,  if  it  is  given,  the 
horse  should  be  allowed  to  drink  as  much 
and  as  often  as  he  likes,  without  which 
the  stimulus  to  the  kidneys  will  be  doubly 
prejudicial,  from  being  in  too  concentrat- 
ed a  form. 

HORSE,  Bladder,  Diseases  of  the.— The 
bladder  is  subject  to  inflammation  of  its 
coats  or  neck — to  spasm — and  to  the  for- 
mation of  calculi. 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder  (cystitis) 
is  not  very  common,  excepting  when  it  is 
produced  by  irritants  of  a  mechanical  or 
chemical  nature.  Thus,  when  the  kidneys 
secrete  a  highly  irritating  urine,  the  blad- 
der suffers  in  its  passage,  and  we  have  the 
two   organs  inflamed  at  the  same  time. 


IOO 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


Again,  when  cantharides  have  been  given 
with  a  view  to  stimulate  exhausted  nature, 
or  when  they  are  absorbed  from  the  surface 
of  the  skin,  as  sometimes  happens  in 
blistering,  the  bladder  is  liable  to  become 
inflamed.  The  symptoms  are — a  quick 
pulse — pain  in  the  hind  quarter,  evinced 
by  the  looks  of  the  animal  in  that  direc- 
tion— and  constant  straining  to  pass  the 
urine,  which  is  thick  and  mixed  with  mu- 
cus, or  in  aggravated  cases  with  purulent 
matter.  The  treatment  to  be  adopted  if 
the  case  is  severe  will  consist  in  venesec- 
tion, back-raking,  and  purgation  with  lin- 
seed or  castor  oil,  avoiding  aloes,  which 
have  a  tendeney  to  irritate  the  bladder. 
Linseed  tea  should  be  given  as  the  sole 
drink,  and  scalded  linseed  mixed  with  a 
bran  mash  as  food.  The  following  ball 
may  also  be  given,  and  repeated  if  ne- 
cessary : 

Take  of  Powdered  Opium     -        -     I      drachm. 
Tarter  Emetic  -         -      1*4  drachm. 

To  be  made  up  into  a  ball  with  Linseed  Meal  and 
boiling  water,  and  given  every  six  hours. 

Retention  of  urine  may  be  due  either 
to  inflammation  of  the  neck  of  the  blad- 
der, occasioning  a  spasmodic  closure  of 
that  part,  or  there  may  be  spasm  unat- 
tended by  inflammation  and  solely  due  to 
the  irritation  of  some  offending  substance, 
such  as  a  calculus,  or  a  small  dose  of 
cantharides.  The  treatment  in  either 
case  must  be  directed  to  the  spasmodic 
constriction,  which  is  generally  under  the 
control  of  large  doses  of  opium  and 
camphor,  that  is,  from  one  drachm  to 
two  drachms  of  each,  repeated  every  five 
or  six  hours.  If  the  symptoms  are  ur- 
gent, bleeding  may  also  be  resorted  to, 
and  when  the  bladder  is  felt  to  be  greatly 
distended,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  evac- 
uating it  by  means  of  the  catheter,  which 
operation,  however,  should  only  be  en- 
trusted to  a  regular  practitioner  accus- 
tomed to  its  use. 

Calculi  in  the  bladder  are  formed  of 
several  earthy  salts,  and  present  various 
forms  and  appearances,  which  may  be 
comprised  under  four  divisions :  ist.  The 
mulberry  calculus,  so  named  from  its  re- 
semblance to  a  mulberry,  possessing  gen- 
erally a  nucleus.  2d.  A  very  soft  kind 
resembling  fullers'  earth  in  appearance, 
and  being  chiefly  composed  of  phosphate 
of  lime  and  mucus.  3d.  Calculi  of  a 
white  or  yellowish  color,  rough  externally 


and  easily  friable.  And  4th.  Those 
which  are  composed  of  regular  layers, 
and  which  are  harder  than  the  second 
and  third  varieties. 

The  mulberry  calculus,  from  its  ex- 
tremely rough  surface,  occasions  more 
irritation  than  other  forms,  but  during 
life  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  exact 
chemical  nature  of  the  calculus  which 
may  be  ascertained  to  exist.  These  cal- 
culi sometimes  attain  an  immense  size, 
weighing  several  pounds.  The  symp- 
toms are  a  difficulty  of  voiding  the  urine, 
which  generally  comes  away  in  jerks 
after  great  straining  and  groaning.  The 
horse  remains  with  his  legs  extended  for 
some  time  afterwards,  and  evidently  indi- 
cates that  he  feels  as  if  his  bladder  was 
not  relieved.  Often  there  is  muco-puru- 
lent  matter  mixed  with  the  urine,  which 
is  rendered  thick  and  glutinous  thereby, 
but  this  only  happens  in  cases  of  long 
standing.  The  treatment  must  be  either 
palliative  or  curative.  If  the  former,  it 
should  consist  in  the  adoption  of  the. 
means  employed  for  subduing  irritation: 
and  inflammation  of  the  bladder  which 
have  been  already  described.  The  cure 
can  only  be  effected  by  removing  the. 
stone.  This  requires  the  performance  of 
a  difficult  and  dangerous  operation 
(lithotomy),  the  details  of  which  can  be- 
only  useful  to  the  professed  veterinary 
surgeon,  and  we  shall  therefore  omit  them, 
here. 

HORSE,  Generative  Organs,  Diseases, 
of  the. — Balanitis,  or  inflammation  of  the- 
glans  penis,  ((3a/iavog,  glans,)  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  horse,  being  brought  on  by 
the  decomposition  of  the  natural  secre- 
tions, when  they  have  been  allowed  to* 
collect  for  any  length  of  time.     At  first 
there  is  merely  a  slight  discharge  of  pus,, 
but  in  process  of  time  foul  sores  break 
out,  and  very  often  fungus  growths  spring, 
from  them,  which  block  up  the  passage 
through  the  opening  of  the  sheath,  and 
cause  considerable  swelling  and  incon- 
venience.    These  are  quite  distinct  from 
warts,  which   occur  in  this  part  just  as. 
they  do  in  other  situations.     The  treat- 
ment requires  some  skill  and  experience, 
because  mild  remedies  are  of  no  use,  and. 
severe  ones  are  not  unattended  with  dan- 
ger.    The  parts  must  first  of  all  be  well 
cleansed  by  syringing,  or  if  the  end  of 
the  penis  can  be  laid  hold  of,  by  washing. 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


ior 


•with  a  sponge.  The  following  wash  may 
then  be  applied,  and  it  should  be  repeat- 
■ed  every  day: 

Take  of  Solution  of  Chloride  of  Zinc  2  drachms. 
Water  .     i  pint.  Mix. 

If  the  morbid  growths  are  very  exten- 
sive, nothing  but  amputation  of  the  penis 
or  the  use  of  corrosive  sublimate  will  re- 
move them.  Severe  hemorrhage  some- 
times follows  both  of  these  measures,  but 
it  seldom  goes  on  to  a  dangerous  extent. 
Still  it  is  scarcely  advisable  for  any  one 
but  a  professional  man  to  undertake  the 
operation. 

In  the  mare  the  vagina  is  sometimes  in- 
flamed, attended  with  a  copious  yellow 
discharge.  An  injection  of  the  wash 
mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph  will  gen- 
erally soon  set  the  matter  right.  At  first 
it  should  be  used  only  of  half  the  strength, 
gradually  increasing  it,  until  the  full  quan- 
tity of  chloride  of  zinc  is  employed. 

Inversion  of  the  uterus  sometimes  fol- 
lows parturition,  but  it  is  very  rare  in  the 
mare.  The  uterus  should  be  at  once  re- 
placed, using  as  little  force  as  possible, 
and  taking  care  before  the  hand  is  with- 
drawn that  it  really  is  turned  back  again 
from  its  inverted  position. 

Nymphomania  occurs  sometimes  in 
mares  at  the  time  of  being  "  in  use,"  and 
goes  on  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render 
them  absolutely  regardless  of  pain,  for  the 
time  being,  though  not  to  make  them 
lose  their  consciousness.  They  will  kick 
and  squeal  till  they  become  white  with 
sweat,  and  no  restraint  will  prevent  them 
from  trying  to  continue  their  violent  at- 
tempts to  destroy  everything  behind  them. 
These  symptoms  are  especially  developed 
in  presence  of  other  animus  of  the  same 
species,  whether  mares  or  geldings;  but 
the  near  proximity  of  an  entire  horse  will 
be  still  worse.  If  placed  in  a  loose  box, 
without  any  restaint  whatever,  they  gen- 
erally become  more  calm,  and  when  the 
state  is  developed,  such  a  plan  should  al- 
ways be  adopted.  It  is  chiefly  among 
highly-fed  and  lightly-worked  mares  that 
the  disease  is  manifested;  and  a  dose  of 
physic,  with  starvation  in  a  loose  box, 
away  from  any  other  horse,  will  very  soon 
put  an  end  to  it  in  almost  every  instance. 

HORSE,  Phrenitis,  or  Mad  Staggers.— 
Phrenitis  seldom  occurs,  except  in  over- 
fed and  lightly-worked  horses,  nor  among 
them  is  it  by  any  means  a  common  dis- 


ease. The  early  symptoms  are  generally 
those  of  an  ordinary  cold ;  there  is  heavi- 
ness of  the  eyes,  with  a  redness  of  the 
conjunctiva,  and  want  of  appetite.  After 
a  day  or  two  occupied  by  these  premoni- 
tory signs,  which  will  seldom  serve  to  put 
even  the  most  experienced  observer  on  his 
guard,  the  horse  becomes  suddenly  deliri- 
ous, attempting  to  bite  and  strike  every 
one  who  comes  near  him,  regardless  of 
the  ordinary  influences  of  love  and  fear. 
He  plunges  in  his  stall,  attempts  to  get  free 
from  his  halter  rein,  and  very  often  suc- 
ceeds in  doing  so,  when  he  will  stop  at 
nothing  to  gain  still  further  liberty.  If 
unchecked,  he  soon  dashes  himself  to 
pieces,  and  death  puts  an  end  to  his  strug- 
gles. The  only  treatment  which  is  of  the 
slightest  use  is  bleeding  till  the  horse  ab- 
solutely falls,  or  till  he  becomes  quite 
quiet  and  tractable,  if  the  case  is  only  a 
mild  one.  Immediately  afterwards  a  large 
dose  of  tartar  emetic  (two  or  three 
drachms)  should  be  given,  followed  in  an 
hour  or  two  by  a  strong  physic  ball ;  or, 
if  the  case  is  a  very  bad  one,  by  a  drench, 
containing  half  a  pint  of  castor  oil  and 
six  or  eight  drops  of  croton  oil.  Clysters 
and  back-raking  will  of  course  be  requir- 
ed, to  obviate  the  risk  of  hard  accumula- 
tions in  the  bowels,  but  where  there  is 
great  violence,  they  cannot  always  be  em- 
ployed, and  the  case  must  take  its  chance 
in  these  respects.  The  diet  should  be 
confined  to  a  few  mouthfuls  of  hay  or 
grass,  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  water. 

HORSE,  Epilepsy  and  Convulsions. — 
These  diseases,  or  symptoms,  are  not  often 
met  with  in  the  adult,  but  in  the  foal  they 
sometimes  occur,  and  are  not  unattended 
with  danger.  The  young  thing  will  per- 
haps gallop  after  its  dam  round  and  round 
its  paddock,  and  then  all  at  once  stop, 
stagger,  and  fall  to  the  ground,  where  it 
lies,  struggling  with  more  or  less  violence, 
for  a  few  minutes  or  longer,  and  then  raises 
its  head,  stares  about,  gets  up,  and  is  ap- 
parently as  well  as  ever.  It  is  generally 
in  the  hot  days  of  summer  that  these  at- 
tacks occur,  and  it  appears  highly  prob- 
able that  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  play- 
ing on  the  head  have  something  to  do 
with  it.  Death  seldom  takes  place  during 
the  first  attack,  but  sometimes  after  two 
or  three  repetitions,  the  convulsions  go  on 
increasing,  and  the  foal  becomes  comatose 
and  dies.   A  mild  dose  of  linseed  oil  is  the 


102 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


only  remedy  which  can  be  safely  resorted 
to,  and  as  it  is  supposed  that  worms  will 
sometimes  produce  these  convulsive  at- 
tacks, it  is  on  that  account  to  be  selected. 
Epilepsy  is  so  very  rarely  met  with  in  the 
adult,  and  of  its  causes  and  treatment  so 
little  is  known,  that  we  shall  not  trouble 
our  readers  with  any  account  of  them. 

HORSE,  Megrims. — This  term  is  used 
to  conceal  our  ignorance  of  the  exact 
nature  of  several  disordered  conditions  of 
the  brain  and  heart.  In  fact,  any  kind 
of  fit,  not  attended  with  convulsions,  and 
only  lasting  a  short  time,  is  called  by  this 
name.  The  cause  may  be  fatty  condition 
of  the  heart,  by  which  sudden  faintness 
and  sometimes  death  are  produced,  or  it 
may  consist  in  congestion  of  the  vessels 
of  the  brain,  arising  from  over-work  on  a 
hot  day,  or  from  the  pressure  of  the  col- 
lar, or  from  disease  of  the  valves  of  the 
heart.  Attacks  reputed  to  be  megrims 
have  been  traced  to  each  of  these  causes, 
and  as  in  every  case  the  horse,  while  ap- 
parently in  good  health,  staggers  and  falls, 
and  after  lying  still  for  a  few  minutes 
(during  which  there  is  seldom  an  oppor- 
tunity of  examining  the  state  of  the  cir- 
culation) rises  as  well  as  before,  there  is 
no  chance  of  distinguishing  the  one  from 
the  other.  The  most  usual  symptoms  are 
the  following :  The  horse  is  perhaps  trot- 
ting along,  when  all  at  once  he  begins 
shaking  his  head  as  if  the  bridle  chaf- 
ed his  ears,  which  are  drawn  back 
close  to  the  poll.  The  driver  gets  down 
to  examine  these  facts,  and  observes  the 
eyelids  quivering,  and  the  nostrils  affected 
with  a  trembling  kind  ot  spasm.  Some- 
times the  rest  will  allow  of  the  attack  go- 
ing off,  but  most  frequently  the  head  is 
drawn  to  one  side,  the  legs,  of  that  half 
of  the  body  seem  to  be  paralyzed,  and 
the  horse  making  a  segment  of  a  circle 
goes  down,  lies  a  few  minutes  on  the 
ground,  and  then  rises  as  if  nothing  had 
happened  beyond  a  slight  sweating,  and 
disturbance  of  the  respiration.  Treat- 
ment can  be  of  little  avail,  however,  un- 
less a  correct  diagnosis  is  made,  for  rem- 
edies which  would  be  suited  to  congestion 
would  be  prejudicial  to  a  diseased  heart. 
If  the  attack  has  happened  while  in  har- 
ness, the  collar  should  always  be  carefully 
inspected,  and  if  at  all  tight  it  should  be 
replaced  by  a  deeper  one.  A  diseased 
state  of  the  valves  of  the  heart  .ought  lo 


be  discoverable  by  auscultation,  but  it  re- 
quires a  practised  ear  to  do  this,  and  the 
directions  for  ascertaining  its  presence 
are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book.  The 
only  plan  which  can  safely  be  adopted,  is 
to  take  the  subject  of  megrims  quietly 
home  to  his  stable,  and  carefully  examine 
into  the  condition  of  all  his  functions, 
with  a  view  to  improve  the  action  of  any 
organ  which  appears  to  be  out  of  order, 
whatever  it  may  be.  If  all  seems  to  be 
going  on  well — if  the  appetite  is  good, 
and  the  heart  acts  with  regularity  and 
with  due  force,  while  the  brain  seems 
clear,  and  the  eye  is  not  either  dull  or 
suffused  with  blood — nothing  should  be 
attempted;  but  the  horse  being  subject  tc* 
a  second  attack,  as  proved  by  manifold 
experience,  should  be  put  to  work  in 
which  no  great  danger  can  be  appre- 
hended from  them.  He  is  not  safe  in  any 
kind  of  carriage,  for  it  can  never  be 
known  where  the  fall  will  take  place; 
and  as  a  saddle-horse  he  is  still  more  ob- 
jectionable, and  should  therefore  be  put 
to  some  commercial  purpose,  in  executing 
which,  if  he  falls,  the  only  injury  he  can 
effect  is  to  property,  and  not  to  human 
life. 

HORSE,  Rabies,  Hydrophobia  or  Mad- 
ness.— One  reason  only  can  be  given  for 
describing  this  disease,  which  is  wholly 
beyond  the  reach  of  art;  but  as  the  horse 
attacked  by  it  is  most  dangerous,  the 
sooner  he  is  destroyed  the  better ;  and 
for  this  reason,  every  person  who  is  likely 
to  have  any  control  over  him  should  be 
aware  of  the  symptoms.  As  far  as  is- 
known  at  present,  Rabies  is  not  idiopath- 
ically  developed  in  the  horse,  but  must 
follow  the  bite  of  a  rabid  individual  be- 
longing to  one  or  other  of  the  genera. 
canis  and  felis.  The  dog,  being  con- 
stantly about"  our  stables,  is  the  usual 
cause  of  the  development  of  the  disease,, 
and  it  may  supervene  upon  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  salivary  virus  without  any 
malicious  bite,  as  has  happened  accord- 
ing to  more  than  one  carefully  recorded 
case.  The  lips  of  the  horse  are  liable  to 
be  ulcerated  from  the  action  of  the  bit, 
and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  the 
early  stages  of  rabies,  these  parts  have 
been  licked  by  a  dog,  the  saliva  has  been 
absorbed,  and  the  inoculation  has  taken 
place  just  as  it  would  do  from  any  other 
wound.     It  is  difficult  to  prove  that  this. 


HORSE— CARE  AND    MANAGEMENT. 


105 


is  the  true  explanation  of  those  cases 
where  no  bite  has  been  known  to  have 
occurred,  but  as  the  mouth  has  in  each 
instance  been  shown  to  have  been  abrad- 
ed, there  is  some  reason  for  accepting  it 
as  such.  To  proceed,  however,  to  the 
symptoms :  Mr.  Youatt,  who  has  had 
great  opportunities  for  examining  rabies, 
both  in  the  dog  and  horse,  describes  the 
earliest  as  consisting  in  "a  spasmodic 
movement  of  the  upper  lip,  particularly 
of  the  angles  of  the  lip.  Close  following 
on  this,  or  contemporaneous  with  it,  are 
the  depressed  and  anxious  countenance, 
and  inquiring  gaze,  suddenly,  however, 
lighted  up,  and  becoming  fierce  and  men- 
acing from  some  unknown  cause,  or  at 
the  approach  of  a  stranger.  From  time 
to  time  different  parts  of  the  frame,  the 
eyes,  the  jaws,  particular  limbs,  will  be 
convulsed.  The  eye  will  occasionally 
wander  after  some  imaginary  object,  and 
the  horse  will  snap  again  and  again  at 
that  which  has  no  real  existence.  Then 
will  come  the  irrepressible  desire  to  bite 
the  attendants  or  the  animals  within 
its  reach.  To  this  will  succeed  the  de- 
molition of  the  rack,  the  manger,  and  the 
whole  furniture  of  the  stable,  accompa- 
nied by  the  peculiar  dread  of  water, 
which  has  already  been  described.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  disease  there  is 
generally  paralysis,  usually  confined  to 
the  loins  and  the  hinder  extremities,  or 
involving  those  organs  which  derive  their 
nervous  influence  from  this  portion  of  the 
spinal  cord;  hence  the  distressing  tenes- 
mus which  is  occasionally  seen."  How 
paralysis  can  produce  tenesmus  is  not 
very  clear,  but  of  the  very  general  exist- 
ence of  this  symptom  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  The  dread  of  water,  as  well  as  of 
draughts  of  cold  air,  is  also  clearly  made 
out  to  exist  in  this  disease  (as  in  human 
rabies),  and  the  term  hydrophobia  will 
serve  to  distinguish  it  better  than  in  the 
dog,  where  it  is  as  clearly  absent.  When- 
ever, therefore,  these  symptoms  follow 
upon  the  bite  of  a  dog,  unless  the  latter 
is  unquestionably  in  good  health,  rabies 
may  be  suspected,  and  the  bare  suspicion 
ought  always  to  lead  to  the  use  of  the 
bullet,  which  is  the  safest  way  of  killing 
a  violent  horse.  There  is  only  one  dis- 
ease (phre?iitis)  with  which  it  can  be  con- 
founded, and  in  that  the  absence  of  all 
consciousness   and,  in   milder  cases,   of 


fear,  so  that  no  moral  control  whatever 
can  be  exercised,  marks  its  nature,  and 
clearly  distinguishes  it  from  rabies,  the 
victim  to  which  is  conscious  to  the  lastr 
and  though  savage  and  violent  in  the  ex- 
treme, is  aware  of  the  power  of  man,  and 
to  some  extent  under  his  influence. 

HORSE,  Tetanus,  Lock  Jaw Tetanus, 

one  form  of  which  is  known  as  lock  jaw, 
has  its  seat  apparently  in  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, but,  like  many  other  diseases  of  the 
same  class,  the  traces  it  leaves  behind  are 
extremely  uncertain,  and  are  displayed 
more  on  the  secondary  organs,  through 
which  it  is  manifested,  than  on  those 
which  we  believe  to  be  at  the  root  of  the 
mischief.  Thus  the  muscles,  which  have 
been  long  kept  in  a  state  of  spasm,  show 
the  marks  of  this  condition  in  their  soft- 
ened and  apparently  rotten  condition. 
They,  in  fact,  have  had  no  interval  of  rest, 
during  which  nutrition  could  go  on,  and 
have  lost  much  of  the  peculiarity  of 
structure  which  enables  them  to  contract. 
The  stomach  often  shows  marks  of  in- 
flammation, but  as  all  sorts  of  violent 
remedies  are  employed,  this  may  be  due 
to  them  rather  than  to  idiopathic  disease. 
The  lungs  also  are  generally  congested, 
but  here,  like  the  state  of  the  muscles,  it 
may  be  a  secondary  effect  of  the  long- 
continued  exertions  of  the  latter,  which 
nothing  but  the  absence  of  all  important 
lesions  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord 
would  induce  the  pathologist  to  pay  the 
slightest  attention  to. 

Tetanus  may  be  either  idiopathic  or 
symptomatic,  but  the  former  condition  is; 
somewhat  rare.  It  almost  always  follows', 
some  operation,  or  a  severe  injury  hx 
which  a  nerve  has  been  implicated,  the 
most  frequent  causes  being  the  piercing 
of  the  sole  by  a  nail,  or  a  prick  in  shoe- 
ing, or  the  operations  of  docking,  nick- 
ing, castration,  etc. 

The  symptoms  are  a  permanent  rigid- 
ity of  certain  voluntary  muscles,  and 
especially  of  the  lower  jaw  (whence  the 
popular  name,  lock  jaw).  The  mouth  is 
kept  rigidly  shut,  the  masseter  muslces 
feeling  as  hard  as  a  deal  board.  One  or 
both  sides  of  the  neck  are  rigid,  in  the 
former  case  the  head  being  turned  to  one 
side,  and  in  the  latter  stretched  out  as  if 
carved  in  marble.  The  nostrils  are  di- 
lated; the  eyes  retracted,  with  the  haws 
thrust  forward  over  them ;  the  ears  erect. 


io4 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


and    stiff,   and    the    countenance    as   if 
horror-struck.     At   first    the   extremities 
are  seldom  involved,  but  as  the  disease 
progresses  their  control  is  first  lost,  and 
then  they  become  rigid,  like  the  neck  and 
head.     The  patient   is   scarcely  able  to 
stand,  and  plants  his  feet  widely  apart  to 
prop  himself  up,  while  at  last  the  tail  also 
becomes   a  fixture.     The  pulse  varies  a 
good   deal,  in  some  cases  being  quick, 
small,  and  hard,  and  in  others  slow  and 
labored.     The  bowels  are  generally  cos- 
tive, and  the  urine  scanty;  but  this  last 
symptom  is  not  so  well  marked  as  the 
state   of   the   bowels   alluded  to.      The 
treatment  should  be  of  a  twofold  nature, 
partly    palliative    and     partly    curative. 
Since  the  introduction  into  use  of  chloro- 
form we  have  possessed  a  drug  which  in- 
variably enables  us  to  remove  the  spasm 
for  a  time,  and  if  it  does  nothing  more, 
it  gives  room  for  other  remedies  to  act 
.and  relieve  the  patient  from  the  horrible 
tortures   which   are   occasioned    by   the 
:spasm,  while  it  also  allows  the  muscular 
.and    nervous   powers   to    be    recruited. 
When,  therefore,  a  case  of  tetanus  occurs 
in  a  horse  of  any  value,  an  apparatus  for 
applying  chloroform  (described  under  the 
chapter  on  Operations)  should  be  pro- 
cured, and  the  animal  at  once  placed  un- 
der its  influence.     This  done,  the  whole 
length  of  the  spine  should   be  blistered 
with   tincture    of   cantharides,    and    an 
active  aperient  should  be  given,  consist- 
ing, if  practicable,  of  a  pint  of  castor  oil, 
and   six   or   eight   drops   of  croton  oil. 
This  may  be  pumped  down  the  throat  by 
the  usual  syringe  and  tube,  if  the  front 
teeth  can  be  separated;  but  if  this  can- 
not be  done,  some  solid  cathartic  must  be 
selected,  though  there  is  often  as  much 
difficulty   in   forcing   a  ball  down  as  in 
passing  an  elastic  tube.     Failing  in  either 
of  these,  two   drachms   of  calomel,  and 
the  same  quantity  of  tartar  emetic  should 
be  slightly  damped,  and  placed  in  the 
mouth   as  far  back   as   possible,  in  the 
hope   that  they  may  be  gradually  swal- 
lowed; the  bowels  should  be  raked,  and 
copious  injections  of  castor  oil  and  tur- 
pentine,  mixed    with  several   quarts    of 
gruel,   should  be   thrown  up.     If  these 
remedies  fail,  nature  must  be  left  to  her 
own  resources,  and  they  will  sometimes 
,be  found   equal   to  the   task,  for   many 
cases  have  recovered  after  having  been 


given  up  as  beyond  the  reach  of  our  art. 
Opium,  henbane,  digitalis,  hellebore,  and 
a  host  of  other  drugs  have  been  tried; 
sometimes  with,  and  sometimes  without 
success,  and  perhaps  it  is  worth  while, 
after  the  bowels  have  been  well  relieved, 
to  give  a  full  dose  of  one  or  other  of 
these  powerful  remedies,  such  as  two 
drachms  of  solid  opium;  but  we  confess 
that  we  think  little  reliance  is  to  be 
placed  on  them,  and  we  prefer  the  adop- 
tion of  chloroform  every  six  hours,  con- 
tinued for  about  two  or  three  hours  and 
gradually  withdrawn,  leaving  the  cure  to 
the  action  of  the  blister  and  purgatives. 

HORSE,  Apoplexy  and  Paralysis. — 
Usually  these  are  only  different  degrees 
of  the  same  disease,  but  there  are  excep- 
tions, in  which  the  latter  is  produced  by 
some  chronic  affection  of  the  spinal  cord 
or  brain.  As  a  rule,  both  depend  upon 
pressure  made  on  the  brain  by  an  over- 
loaded state  of  the  vessels,  commonly 
known  as  congestion,  or  by  extravasation 
of  blood,  in  which  it  escapes  from  them. 

Paralysis  is  marked  by  a  loss  of  power 
over  the  muscles  of  a  part,  and  may  be 
confined  to  one  limb  or  organ  or  extend 
to  more.  It  is  a  symptom  of  pressure 
on,  or  disorganization  of,  some  part  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  must  be  consid- 
ered as  such,  and  not  as  a  disease  of  the 
affected  muscles.  Thus  it  requires  a 
knowledge  of  anatomy  to  trace  it  to  its 
seat,  without  which  its  treatment  would 
be  conducted  on  false  principles.  By  far 
the  most  common  form  of  paralysis  is 
hemiplegia,  or  paralysis  of  the  muscles  ol 
the  hinder  extremities  and  loins,  generally 
arising  from  an  injury  to  the  spine.  Some- 
times the  body  of  a  vertebra  is  broken, 
and  the  parts  being  separated,  their  edges 
press  upon  the  spinal  cord  and  produce 
the  disease.  At  others  the  vessels  within 
the  canal  have  received  a  shock,  and  the 
serous  membrane  secretes  (or  allows  to 
ooze  out)  a  bloody  fluid  which  presses 
upon  the  cord,  and  produces  the  same 
effect,  but  in  a  more  gradual  manner.  In 
India,  a  disease  known  there  as  Kumree 
causes  paralysis  of  the  hinder  extremities, 
and  is  due  to  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
branes, which  secrete  a  bloody  serum. 
In  this  country,  however,  paraplegia  is 
very  rare,  excepting  as  the  result  of  acci- 
dent. 

When  a   horse  falls   in  running,  and 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


ioc, 


never  moves  his  hind  legs  afterwards,  but 
lies  with  his  fore  legs  in  the  position  to 
get  up,  groaning  and  expressing  great 
pain  and  distress,  it  may  be  concluded 
that  he  has  fractured  or  dislocated  his 
spine  and  that  the  case  is  hopeless. 
Sometimes,  however,  after  lying  for  a  lew 
seconds,  he  slowly  and  with  difficulty 
rises  and  is  led  to  a  stable,  but  after  two 
or  three  hours  lies  down  and  cannot  be 
got  up  again.  Here  there  will  be  some 
difficulty  in  ascertaining  whether  the  mis- 
chief is  confined  to  a  strain  of  the  mus- 
cles or  is  situated  within  the  vertebral 
canal.  If  the  former  is  the  case,  the  pain 
is  extreme,  and  generally  there  will  be 
some  quivering  or  slight  spasm  of  one  or 
more  of  the  muscles  of  the  hinder  ex- 
tremity, which  feel  naturally  firm,  while 
in  paralysis  they  feel  soft  and  are  as  quiet 
as  they  would  be  after  death.  By  atten- 
tion to  these  signs  the  two  cases  may  be 
distinguished,  but  when  the  case  is  made 
out  to  be  true  paralysis  the  treatment  is 
not  likely  (even  if  successful  in  preserving 
life)  to  bring  about  a  useful  restoration  to 
healthy  action.  In  valuable  horses  an 
attempt  may  be  made  by  bleeding,  phys- 
icking and  blistering  to  produce  an  ab- 
isorption  of  the  effused  serum  or  blood, 
but  the  recovered  animal  is  seldom  worth 
the  outlay,  and  too  often  as  soon  as  he  is 
put  to  any  kind  of  work  is  subject  to  a 
relapse.  The  most  humane,  and  certainly 
the  most  economical  plan  is  to  put  him 
out  of  his  misery  at  once  by  a  pistol  ball 
or  knife;  but  if  it  is  determined  to  try 
what  can  be  done  towards  effecting  a 
cure,  no  better  means  can  be  adopted 
than  those  we  have  alluded  to. 

HOBSE,  Sleepy  Staggers— (See  Horse, 
Apoplexy.) 

HOBSE,  String  Halt.— This  is  a  peculiar 
snatching  up  of  the  hind  leg,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  depend  upon  some  obscure  dis- 
ease of  the  sciatic  nerve.  It,  however,  is 
very  doubtful  whether  this  explanation  is 
"well  founded,  and  there  is  evidence  that 
in  some  cases  the  hock  itself  has  been 
-affected.  The  extensor  pedis  seems  to  be 
the  muscle  most  severely  implicated, 
though  not  the  only  one  which  is  thrown 
into  spasmodic  action.  No  treatment  is 
of  the  slightest  avail.  Horses  with  string 
halt  are  able  to  do  any  kind  of  work,  but 
it  is  considered  to  be  a  form  of  unsound- 
ness. 


HOBSE,  Ear,  Diseases  of  the. — Deaf- 
ness is  sometimes  met  with  in  the  horse, 
but  we  know  of  no  symptoms  by  which 
its  precise  nature  can  be  made  out ;  and 
without  ascertaining  the  seat  of  the  dis- 
ease, it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  treat  it. 

Sometimes  from  a  blow  on  the  external 
ear  inflammation  is  set  up,  and  an  abscess 
forms ;  but  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  open 
it,  so  that  the  matter  can  readily  flow  out 
as  fast  as  it  forms,  without  which  pre- 
caution it  will  not  readily  heal. 

HOBSE,  Eye,  Inflammation  of  the. — 
This  important  organ  is  subjected  to  three 
forms  of  inflammation,  to  opacity  of  the 
lens,  and  to  paralysis  of  the  nerve  called 
amaurosis 

Simple  inflammation  is  the  most  com- 
mon of  all  the  diseases  to  which  the 
horse's  eye  is  subject,  and  it  precedes  most 
of  the  others.  It  is  always  the  result  of 
any  injury  of  this  part,  or  of  cold ;  and 
it  shows  itself  if  there  is  a  tendency  to 
inflammation  of  this  organ,  whenever  the 
horse  is  in  a  state  of  plethora.  The  symp- 
toms are  an  intolerance  of  light,  so  that  the 
eye  is  kept  half  closed,  by  which  it  looks 
smaller  than  the  other;  a  gummy  secre- 
tion glues  the  lids  together  at  the  angles ; 
the  eyelids  are  slightly  swollen,  showing 
a  distended  state  of  their  veins ;  and  there 
is  more  or  less  watering  or  overflowing  of 
tears.  When  the  lids  are  separated,  their 
internal  surface  looks  more  red  than  na- 
tural, and  the  white  of  the  eye  is  covered 
with  a  net-work  of  fine  red  vessels.  Af- 
ter the  second  day  the  transparent  cornea 
loses  it  clearness,  and  becomes  muddy, 
sometimes  over  the  whole  surface,  and 
at  others  in  specks.  If  the  disease 
is  allowed  to  go  on  unchecked,  the  cornea 
is  involved,  and  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  aqueous  humour  follows ;  a  secretion 
of  pus  takes  place  into  the  chamber,  or 
the  cornea  ulcerates,  and  the  contents  of 
the  eye  escapes.  The  treatment  should 
be  a  copious  bleeding  from  the  jugular 
vein,  followed  by  a  ball,  such  as 
Take  of  Common  Physic  Ball  -  -  2  drachms. 
Tartar  Emetic       -     -     -     -     I  drachm. 

Mix  and  give  every  six  hours. 

This  not  only  acts  on  the  intestines,  but 
it  keeps  up  a  constant  nausea,  and  so 
tends  to  lower  the  action  of  the  heart. 
The  eye  should  be  bathed  with  warm 
water  frequently ;  and,  if  the  mischief  be 
[severe,  a  seton  should  at  once  be  put  into 


io6 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


the  skin  covering  the  upper  jaw,  about 
two  inches  below  the  eye.  On  the  next 
day,  if  "  the  white  "  still  looks  red,  the 
bleeding  must  be  repeated ;  and,  if  the 
bowels  are  much  moved,  the  tartar  emetic 
may  be  continued  without  the  aloes,  while 
if  they  are  obstinate,  the  dose  of  the  lat- 
ter may  be  increased.  When  the  acute 
symptoms  have  somewhat  diminished,  a 
camel's  hair  brush  may  be  dipped  in  wine 
of  opium,  and  the  eye  gently  touched 
with  it  daily,  which  will  generally  com- 
plete the  cure.  The  diet  must  be  low, 
corn  being  forbidden  entirely,  and  the 
stable  should  be  kept  very  cool  and  airy. 
Purulent  ophthalmia  is  confined  to 
the  conjunctiva,  and  it  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  profuse  discharge  of  puru- 
lent fluid  which  takes  place.  The  eyelids 
are  much  swollen,  and  the  white  of  the 
eye  is  covered  with  a  puffy  red  mem- 
brane, which  rises  up  above  the  level  of 
the  cornea,  sometimes  in  fungoid  excres- 
cences. This  form  of  inflammation  is 
generally  epidemic,  and  sometimes  runs 
through  a  stable  without  a  single  excep- 
tion. The  treatment  should  be,  at  first, 
similar  to  that  recommended  for  simple 
inflammation;  but  when  it  reaches  the 
chronic  stage,  a  more  powerful  stimulus  is 
required  to  restore  the  vessels  to  a  healthy 
condition.  A  wash,  composed  as  follows, 
must  therefore  be  applied  : 

Take  of  Nitrate  of  Silver    -    -     -    6  grains. 
Distilled  Water      -     -     -     I  ounce. 
Mix,  and  drop  a  little  into  the  eye  from  a  quill 
daily. 

Iritis,  or  inflammation  of  the  iris,  gener- 
ally known  as  specific  ophthalmia,  is  the 
most  formidable  of  all  the  diseases  to 
which  the  eye  is  subject,  and,  if  not 
checked,  rapidly  disorganizes  it ;  while  it 
also,  even  when  running  an  unusually  fa- 
vorable course,  is  very  apt  to  produce 
opacity  of  the  lens  or  its  capsule  (cata- 
ract). This  pest  of  the  stable  is,  un- 
doubtedly, often  brought  on  by  over  stim- 
ulations, first  of  the  whole  body,  through 
the  food,  and,  secondly,  of  the  eyes  them- 
selves, through  the  foul  emanations  from 
the  accumulated  urine  and  dung.  But 
these  would  produce  no  such  effect  in  a 
horse,  unless  he  were  predisposed  to  oph- 
thalmia; and  we  find  that  cattle  and 
sheep  are  often  fed  to  an  enormous  de- 
gree of  obesity,  in  far  closer  and  worse 
ventilated  stalls,  without  any  prejudicial 


effect  upon  their  eyes.  It  may,  then,  be 
assumed,  that  these  organs  in  a  horse 
have  a  tendency  to  put  on  inflammation ; 
but  though  these  words  are  true  they  ex- 
plain nothing  ot  the  real  cause,  and  only 
serve  to  conceal  our  ignorance  of  it* 
There  is  another  question  bearing  upon 
this  subject,  which  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. Is  the  stock  of  blind  horses 
more  liable  to  blindness  than  that  of 
sound  ones  ?  This  has  been  discussed  so 
often  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  throw 
any  fresh  light  upon  it,  chiefly  because  it 
is  so  difficult  to  rely  upon  the  facts  ad- 
duced pro  and  con.  Blindness  is  often  the 
result  of  accident,  and  such  cases  are  be- 
lieved to  be  exceptional,  and  not  at  all 
likely  to  hand  down  the  disease ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  we  are  inclined  to  believe 
that  many  of  them  show  a  marked  ten- 
dency to  its  development;  for  an  acci- 
dent never  destroys  both  eyes,  and  when 
one  follows  the  other,  it  is  a  pretty  sure 
sign  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  ophthal- 
mia. On  the  whole,  it  may,  we  think, 
be  assumed,  that  the  tendency  to  specific 
ophthalmia  is  handed  down  from  gen- 
eration to  generation,  and,  consequently, 
that  the  offspring  of  a  horse  who  has 
gone  blind  from  that  cause  is  peculiarly 
prone  to  it.  Its  symptoms  appear  very 
rapidly,  the  eye  having  been  quite  right 
over  night,  looks  contracted  and  almost 
closed  next  morning,  and  on  inspecting  it 
closely  "  the  white  "  looks  of  a  deep  red, 

'the  cornea  looks  muddy,  and  the  colored 
part  of  the  eye  (the  iris)  has  lost  its  bright 
color,  and  often  shows  one  or  two  white 
specks  upon  it  (these  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  specks  on  the  cornea). 
As  the  disease  advances,  the  intolerance 
of  light  is  very  great,  the  cornea  and  iris 
become  gradually  more  muddy,  and  either 
lymph  is  thrown  out  on  the  latter  in  the 
shape  of  white  patches,  or  pus  is  secreted 
and  fills  the  chamber  of  the  aqueous 
humour,  in  part  or  wholly.  If  the  treat- 
ment is  sufficiently  energetic,  these  signs 
abate,  the  pus  or  lymph  is  absorbed,  and 
the  eye  recovers  its  transparency;  but 
there  are  generally  some  traces  left  be- 
hind. Bleeding  (either  from  the  jugular 
or  the  angular  veins  of  the  face),  moder- 
ate purging,  and  a  seton,  are  the  remedies 
best  calculated  to  effect  this  object,  con- 
joined with  an  airy  stable  and  a  light  diet- 

I  Unfortunately,  however,  iritis   is  almost 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


107 


sure  to  return  on  the  restoration  of  the 
usual  food,  and  exposure  to  the  elements ; 
and  hence  it  is  of  the  utmost  consequence 
in  purchasing  a  horse  to  examine  his  eyes 
for  the  marks  left  behind  by  it.  If  the  case 
is  hopeless,  it  becomes  a  question  whether 
or  not  it  will  be  wise  to  put  an  end  to  the 
inflammation  by  destroying  the  affected 
eye,  for  it  is  well  known  that  if  it  goes  on 
for  any  length  of  time,  the  other,  sound  eye, 
becomes  affected.  The  only  difficulty  con- 
sists in  feeling  assured  that  there  is  really 
no  chance  of  recovery ;  for  when  once 
the  eye  is  finally  condemned,  the  sooner 
it  is  opened  and  its  contents  evacuated, 
the  sooner  will  the  horse  return  to  his 
work,  and  the  more  chance  has  the  other 
eye  of  escaping.  The  operation  is  very 
simple,  and  merely  requires  a  sharp-point- 
ed knife  to  be  passed  into  the  anterior 
chamber  from  one  edge  of  the  cornea, 
and  driven  back  till  it  cuts  into  the  lens, 
when  it  is  to  be  brought  out  on  the  other 
side  of  the  cornea,  and  the  whole  of  the 
humours  will  escape  on  making  pressure 
upon  the  upper  eyelid. 

In  injuries  of  the  eye,  fomentation  with 
warm  water  should  be  carried  on  for  half 
an  hour,  and  then  omitted  for  three  or 
four  hours,  after  which  it  may  be  repeat- 
ed again  and  again,  at  similar  invervals. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  any 
extraneous  bodies,  such  as  particles  of 
dust,  etc. 

Cataract,  or  opacity  of  the  lens,  is  very 
commonly  the  result  of  iritis,  its  capsule 
having  been  coated  with  a  layer  of  white 
lymph,  deposited  by  the  inflamed  vessels; 
but  it  also  sometimes  makes  its  appear- 
ance without  being  preceded  by  any  of 
the  signs  of  inflammation.  In  the  former 
case  the  early  symptoms  are  those  of  iritis , 
but  in  the  latter,  the  opacity  often  goes 
on  increasing,  without  the  owner  of  the 
horse,  or  his  groom,  having  his  attention 
drawn  to  the  eyes,  until  he  finds  that  he  is 
nearly  blind.  This  progress  is  generally 
marked  by  the  development  of  an  unus- 
ual timidity ;  the  previously  bold  animal 
is  alarmed  at  objects  advancing  on  the 
•  road,  and  covered  carts  and  wagons,  of 
which  he  formerly  took  no  notice, 
occasion  him  to  shy  in  the  most  timid 
manner.  On  examining  his  eyes  careful- 
ly, instead  of  the  beautifully  clear  pupil, 
with  the  reflection  of  tapetum  lucidum  shin- 
ing through  it,  there  is  seen  either  a  mass 


of  dull  white,  generally  more  opaque  in 
the  centre,  or  an  appearance  of  mottled, 
semi-transparent  soap,  or,  lastly,  one  or 
two  distinct  white  spots,  not  quite  circu- 
lar, but  with  irregular  edges.  In  confirm- 
ed cataract,  the  white  pupil  can  be  seen 
at  any  distance;  but  in  the  very  early 
stage,  only  a  practised  eye  can  detect  the 
opacity,  which,  however,  is  so  manifest  to- 
him,  that  he  wonders  it  is  not  visible  to 
every  one  else.  The  reason  of  this  diffi- 
culty of  detecting  the  alteration  of  struc- 
ture seems  to  be,  that  inexperienced  ex- 
aminers look  at  the  eye  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  are  confused  by  the  reflection 
on  it  of  their  own  faces,  hiding  all  be- 
neath. If,  however,  they  will  turn  their 
heads  a  little  more  to  one  side,  this  will 
disappear,  and  they  cannot  fail  to  per- 
ceive the  disease.  When  cataract  is 
clearly  proved  to  exist,  all  idea  of  treat- 
ment may  be  abandoned,  as  nothing  but 
an  operation  can  procure  a  removal  of 
the  opacity;  and  that  would  leave  the 
horse  in  a  more  useless  condition  than  be- 
fore, since  he  could  see  nothing  clearly, 
and  would  only  be  subject  to  continual 
alarms.  In  the  human  being,  the  opera- 
tion is  performed  with  great  success,  be- 
cause the  lens  which  is  sacrificed  can  be 
replaced  externally  by  means  of  convex 
glasses ;  but  in  the  horse  nothing  of  the 
kind  can  be  done.  Hence,  it  is  useless  to 
dream  of  effecting  any  improvement  in 
this  disease ;  and  if  both  eyes  are  the 
subject  of  cataract,  the  horse  is  incurably 
blind.  But  supposing  there  is  a  cataract 
in  one  eye  only,  is  the  other  sure  to  go- 
blind,  or  may  a  reasonable  hope  be  en- 
tertained of  its  remaining  sound  ?  Here 
the  history  of  the  disease  must  be  exam- 
ined before  any  opinion  can  be  formed. 
If  the  opacity  followed  an  accident,, 
there  is  no  reason  for  concluding  that 
the  other  eye  will  become  diseased; 
but  if  it  came  on  idiopathically,  either 
preceded  by  inflammation  or  otherwise, 
there  is  great  risk  of  a  repetition  in  the 
sound  eye.  Nevertheless,  instances  are 
common  enough  of  one  eye  going  blind 
from  cataract,  while  the  other  remains 
sound  to  the  end  of  life;  and  those  are 
still  more  frequent  in  which  the  one  sound 
eye  continues  so  for  six  or  seven  years. 

HORSE,  Amaurosis. — This  is  a  palsy  of 
the  nervous  expansion  called  the  retina^ 
produced  by  some  disease,  either  func- 


io8 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


tional  or  organic,  of  the  optic  nerve, 
which  is  generally  beyond  the  reach  of 
our  senses,  in  examining  it  after  death. 
The  symptoms  are  a  full  dilatation  of  the 
pupil,  so  that  the  iris  is  shrunk  to  a  thin 
band  around  it,  and  is  so  insensible  to  the 
stimulus  of  light,  in  confirmed  cases,  that, 
even  when  the  eye  is  exposed  to  the  di- 
rect rays  of  the  sun,  it  does  not  contract. 
In  the  early  stages,  this  insensibility  is 
only  partial ;  and  though  there  is  such 
ccmplete  blindness  that  the  horse  cannot 
distinguish  the  nature  of  surrounding  ob- 
jects, yet  the  pupil  contracts  slightly,  and 
the  inexperienced  examiner  might  pass  the 
eye  as  a  sound  one.  The  unnaturally 
large  pupil,  however,  should  alwas  create 
suspicion ;  and  when,  on  closing  the  lids 
and  re-opening  them  in  a  strong  light, 
there  is  little  or  no  variation  in  its  size, 
the  nature  of  the  disease  is  at  once  made 
apparent.  The  treatment  of  amaurosis 
must  depend  upon  the  extent  to  which  it 
has  gone,  and  its  duration.  If.  recent, 
bleeding  and  a  seton  in  close  proximity 
to  the  diseased  organ  will  be  the  most 
likely  to  restore  it.  Sometimes  the  dis- 
ease depends  upon  a  disordered  condition 
of  the  stomach,  and  then  a  run  at  grass 
will  be  the  most  likely  means  to  restore 
both  the  affected  organs  to  a  sound  state. 
Generally,  however,  an  amaurotic  eye  in 
the  horse  may  be  considered  as  a  hopeless 
case. 

HORSE,  Buck  Eye.— A  buck  eye  is, 
strictly,  rather  a  congenital  malformation 
than  a  disease;  but  practically,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  utility  of  the  animal,  it  mat- 
ters little.  It  depends  upon  an  excess  of 
convexity  of  the  conea,  by  which  the 
focus  of  the  eye  is  shortened  too  much, 
the  image  being  thus  rendered  indistinct 
as  it  falls  on  the  retina.  No  treatment 
xan  be  of  the  slightest  use. 

HORSE,  Surfeit. — An  eruption  of  the 
skin,  which  shows  itself  in  the  form  of 
numerous  small  scabs,  matting  the  hair, 
and  chiefly  met  with  on  the  loms  and 
quarters,  is  known  by  this  name.  Doubt- 
less, it  has  been  supposed  to  arise  from  an 
excess  of  food,  causing  indigestion;  but 
it  often  comes  on  in  horses  which,  appa- 
rently, are  quite  free  from  that  disorder. 
The  most  common  cause  appears  to  be, 
sweating  the  horse  when  he  is  in  a  gross 
or  plethoric  condition,  and  then  exposing 
him  to  a  chill.     Colts  are  very  subject  to 


surfeit  while  being  broken,  as  are  horses 
fresh  from  grass  during  the  summer, 
when  they  are  usually  over-fat,  and  re- 
quire great  care  in  reducing  this  plethoric 
condition.  The  usual  course  of  the 
eruption  is  for  the  scabs  to  dry  and  grad- 
ually loosen,  when  the  hair  of  the  part  is 
slightly  thinned  by  being  pulled  out  in 
dressing,  a  fresh  crop  of  pustules  forming, 
and,  to  the  casual  observer,  keeping  up 
the  appearance  of  a  permanent  state  of 
the  original  scabs.  Surfeit  is  not  con- 
fined to  gross  horses,  as  it  sometimes 
makes  its  appearance  in  those  which  are 
low  in  condition,  exhibiting  the  same  ap- 
pearance to  the  eye;  but,  on  examina- 
tion, the  secretion  from  the  skin  will  be 
found  to  be  thinner,  and  of  a  more  puru- 
lent nature.  The  treatment  must  greatly 
depend  upon  the  state  of  the  general 
health.  If  the  horse  is  very  gross,  it  may 
be  desirable  to  take  a  little  blood  away; 
but  this  will  seldom  be  necessary,  and 
never  is  desirable.  Physic  seems  to  do 
little  immediate  good ;  and,  indeed,  it  is 
very  doubtful  whether  any  treatment  is  of 
much  service,  excepting  such  as  will 
gradually  bring  the  horse  into  working 
condition.  The  disease,  in  most  cases, 
has  its  origin  in  obstruction  of  the  seba- 
ceous and  perspiratory  pores;  and  until 
these  are  restored  to  their  proper  func- 
tions, by  gradually  exercising  them,  little 
good  can  be  done.  Unfortunately,  the 
very  means  which  will  accomplish  this 
object  are  apt  to  increase  the  disease  for 
a  time;  but  still  this  must  be  put  up  with, 
as  a  matter  in  which  no  choice  can  be 
made.  Regular  exercise  and  grooming 
must  be  fully  attended  to,  using  the  whisp 
only  in  dressing  the  skin,  when  the  erup- 
tion shows  itself,  and  carefully  avoiding 
the  brush  and  currycomb.  By  acting  on 
the  kidneys,  more  good  will  be  done  than 
by  purging  physic,  which  seems  to  be  of 
little  or  no  service  in  any  case  but  when 
the  stomach  is  greatly  out  of  order.  An 
ounce  of  nitre  may  be  given  with  a  mash 
twice  a  week,  or  the  following  balls  may 
be  administered: 

Take  of  Nitre,  -    3  drachms. 

Sulphur 3  drachms. 

Sulphuret  of  Antimony  -  £  drachms. 
Linseed  Meal  and  Water  enough  to  form  two 
balls. 

HORSE,    Hidebound.— This    is    essen- 
tially a  disorder  of  the  skin  produced  by 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT, 


109 


sympathy  with  the  stomach.  It  rarely 
occurs  in  any  horse  but  one  sadly  out  of 
health,  from  a  deficiency  either  in  the 
quantity  or  quality  of  the  food.  Some- 
times it  comes  on  in  the  latter  stages  of 
consumption  or  dysentery,  without  any 
previous  mismanagement ;  but  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases,  the  cause  may  be  laid 
to  the  food.  The  skin  of  a  horse  in 
health  feels  supple,  and  on  his  sides  it  may 
readily  be  gathered  up  by  the  hand  into 
a  large  fold,  but  in  hidebound,  it  is  as  if 
it  were  glued  to  the  ribs,  and  were  also 
too  tight  for  the  carcass  which  it  invests. 
The  name,  indeed,  is  expressive  of  this 
state,  and  the  disease  can  scarcely  be 
mistaken  when  once  seen,  or  rather  felt. 
Coincident  with  this  condition  of  the  skin, 
there  is  also,  generally,  either  a  distended 
state  of  the  abdomen  from  flatulence,  or 
a  contracted  and  "tucked  up"  appear- 
ance from  diarrhoea.  The  treatment  should 
be  addressed  to  the  digestive  organs,  the 
state  of  which  must  be  carefully  exam- 
ined, and,  if  possible,  rectified.  A  pint 
of  linseed,  scalded,  and  mixed  with  a 
bran  mash  every  night,  or  scalded  malt 
given  in  equal  quantities  with  the  corn ; 
or,  in  the  spring  time,  vetches,  clover,  or 
lucerne,  will  do  more  than  any  medicine; 
but  when  there  is  a  deficient  appetite,  or 
the  bowels  or  stomach,  or  either  of  them, 
are  evidently  much  weakened  and  disor- 
dered, a  stomachic  ball  once  or  twice  a 
week  will  do  good.  The  remedies  appro- 
priate to  these  several  conditions  will  be 
found  under  their  respective  heads.  (See 
Horse,  Diarrhoea.) 

HORSE,  Mange. — Mange  corresponds 
with  the  itch  of  the  human  subject  in 
being  produced  by  a  parasitic  insect, 
which  is  an  acarus,  but  of  a  different  spe- 
cies to  that  of  man,  and  of  a  much  larger 
size,  so  as  to  be  readily  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  It  is  generally  produced  by 
contact  with  horses  previously  affected 
with  the  same  disease,  but  it  appears 
highly  probable  that  a  poor,  half-starved 
animal,  allowed  to  accumulate  all  kinds 
of  dirt  on  his  skin,  will  develop  the  para- 
site, though  how  this  is  done  is  not 
clearly  made  out.  The  whole  subject  of 
parasites  is  wrapt  in  mystery,  which  mod- 
ern researches  appear  likely  to  fathom, 
but  hitherto  little  progress  has  been  made 
except  in  the  history  of  the  metamor- 
phoses of  the  tape-worm,  from  the  anal- 


ogy of  which  some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  the  probable  modes  of  production  of 
other  parasites.  When  caused  by  conta- 
gion, as  certainly  happens  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases,  the  first  symptoms  no- 
ticed will  be  an  excessive  itching  of  the 
skin,  which  is  soon  followed  by  a  bare- 
ness of  the  hair  in  patches,  partly  caused 
by  constant  friction.  The  disease  usually 
shows  itself  on  the  side  of  the  neck,  just 
at  the  edges  of  the  mane,  and  on  the 
insides  of  the  quarters  near  the  root  of 
the  tail.  From  these  parts  the  eruption 
extends  along  the  back  and  down  the 
sides,  seldom  involving  the  extremities 
excepting  in  very  confirmed  cases.  After 
a  time  the  hair  almost  entirely  falls  off, 
leaving  the  skin  at  first  bare  and  smooth, 
with  a  few  small  red  pimples  scattered 
over  it,  each  of  which  contains  an  acarus, 
and  these  are  connected  by  furrows, 
along  which  the  acari  have  worked  their 
way  to  their  present  habitation.  In  pro- 
cess of  time,  the  pimples  increase  in  num- 
ber and  size,  and  from  them  a  matter  ex- 
udes which  hardens  into  a  scab,  beneath 
which,  on  examination,  several  acari  may 
readily  be  seen,  moving  their  legs  like 
mites  in  a  cheese,  to  which  they  are 
closely  allied.  At  first  the  mangy  horse 
may  keep  his  health,  but  after  a  time  the 
constant  irritation  makes  him  feverish; 
he  loses  flesh,  and  becomes  a  most  miser- 
able object;  but  such  cases  of  neglect 
are  happily  rare  in  the  present  day.  The 
treatment  must  be  addressed  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  life  01  the  acarus,  which, 
as  in  the  human  subject,  is  rapidly  de- 
stroyed by  sulphur,  turpentine,  arsenic, 
hellebore,  and  corrosive  sublimate.  Some 
of  these  drugs  are,  however,  objectiona- 
ble, from  being  poisonous  to  the  horse, 
as  well  as  to  the  parasite  which  preys 
upon  him,  and  they  are,  therefore,  not  to 
be  employed  without  great  and  urgent 
necessity,  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of 
milder  remedies.  The  following  recipes 
may  be  relied  on  as  perfectly  efficacious,, 
the  former  being  sufficient  in  mild  cases, 
and  the  latter  being  strong  enough  in  any : 

1.  Take  of  Common  Sulphur         -        6  ounces. 

Sperm  or  Train  Oil       -         I  pint. 
Spirits  of  Turpentine    -        3  ounces. 
Mix  and  rub  well  into  the  skin  with  a  flannel,  or 
in  preference  with  a  painter's  brush. 

2.  Take  of  Compound  Sulphur  Ointment,  8  ounces. 

Train  or  Sperm  Oil    -     -     I  pint. 
Spirit  of  Turpentine    -     -     3  ounces. 
Mix  and  use  as  above. 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


One  or  other  of  the  above  dressings 
should  be  well  rubbed  in  every  third  day 
for  at  least  three  or  four  weeks  in  bad 
■cases,  and  two  in  trifling  ones,  when  the 
inflammation  resulting  from  the  acari  and 
also  from  the  application  may  be  allowed 
to  subside,  in  the  hope  that  all  the  para- 
sites are  killed,  in  which  case  the  erup- 
tion disappears,  but  the  hair  does  not  al- 
ways come  on  again  as  quickly  as  ever. 
All  the  stable  fittings  around  the  stall  or 
box  in  which  the  horse  has  been  standing 
should  be  thoroughly  washed  over  with  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  made  as 
follows : 
Take  of  Corrosive  Sublimate    -     -     -     I  ounce. 

Methylated  Spirit  of  Wine    -    6  ounces. 

Water I  gallon. 

Dissolve  the  sublimate  in  the  spirit  by  rubbing 
in  a  mortar,  then  mix  with  the  water,  and  use 
with  a  brush,  stirring  it  up  continually  to  prevent 
its  settling. 

The  clothing  should  be  destroyed,  as  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  cleanse  it  complete- 
ly from  the  parasites ;  but  if  it  is  deter- 
mined to  risk  a  return  of  the  disease,  it 
should  be  thoroughly  washed,  and  when 
dry,  saturated  with  spirit  of  turpentine. 

When  the  health  has  suffered  from  the 
irritation  of  mange,  a  few  tonic  balls  may 
be  required,  but  generally  the  removal  of 
the  cause  will  be  sufficient. 

HORSE,  Lice. — In  former  days  lice 
were  not  uncommon  in  the  horse,  but  now 
they  are  comparatively  rare.  Still  they 
are  occasionally  met  with,  and  their  pres- 
ence is  readily  ascertained,  being  of  a 
considerable  size,  and  easily  seen  with  the 
naked  eye.  They  may  be  destroyed  by 
rubbing  into  the  roots  of  the  hair  white 
precipitate,  in  powder,  taking  care  to 
avoid  sweating  the  horse  or  wetting  his 
skin  for  some  days  afterwards. 

HORSE,  Mallenders  and  Sallenders 

These  eruptions  are  both  of  the  same  na- 
ture, differing  only  in  the  locality  where 
they  are  displayed.  The  former  shows 
itself  in  the  flexure  at  the  back  of  the 
knee,  and  the  latter  at  the  bend  of  the 
hock.  The  symptoms  are  shown  in  the 
appearance  of  a  foul  scurf  mixed  with  a 
few  thin  scabs,  the  skin  underneath  being 
stiff*  and  unyielding.  They  are  generally 
brought  on  by  washing  the  legs  and  leav- 
ing them  undried.  The  treatment  re- 
quired is  merely  the  application  of  the 
following  ointment,  which  should  be  well 
rubbed  in  every  night : 


Take    of    Cerate   of   Superacetate    of 

Lead, 2  ounces. 

Take  of  Creosote    ------     10  drops. 

Mix  and  use  as  above. 

If  the  skin  continues  to  be  very  hard 
and  stiff,  a  little  glycerine  should  be 
brushed  on  two  or  three  times  a  week. 

HORSE,  Warbles,  Sitfasts  and  Harness 
Galls. — When  the  saddle  has  galled  the 
skin  beneath  it  the  inflammation  resulting 
is  called  a  "warble,"  and  if  this  is  neglect- 
ed, so  as  to  cause  a  troublesome  sore,  the 
term  "sitfast"  is  applied.  The  effect  pro- 
duced is  similar  to  a  harness  gall,  and 
there  is  not  the  slightest  necessity  for  in- 
venting names  to  distinguish  each  stage 
of  cruelty  in  the  rider,  for  if  attention  is 
paid  to  the  warble,  no  sitfast  will 
ever  make  its  appearance.  Preven- 
tion is  better  than  cure,  and  it  may  al- 
most always  be  effected  by  the  adoption 
of  the  plan  of  always  keeping  the  saddle 
on  (after  loosing  the  girths)  for  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes.  Some- 
times, however,  in  spite  of  this  precau- 
tion, the  skin  of  the  back  swells,  and 
when  a  heavy  man  has  been  riding 
for  six  or  eight  hours  on  a  horse  unaccus- 
tomed to  his  weight,  the  cuticle  will  per- 
haps peel  off,  bringing  the  hair  with  it. 
When  the  swelling  is  considerable  it 
should  be  fomented  for  an  hour,  and  then 
bathed  with  a  lotion  composed  of  one 
drachm  of  tincture  of  arnica  in  a  half  pint 
of  water.  The  saddle  should  never  be 
reapplied  until  the  skin  is  quite  cool,  and 
free  from  all  inflammation,  even  if  con- 
siderable inconvenience  is  thereby  suf- 
fered. The  same  treatment  will  also  ap- 
ply to  harness  galls.  Oiling  the  inside  of 
the  collar  will  often  prevent  the  shoulder 
from  suffering  excoriation. 

HORSE,  Grubs.— The  larva  of  some 
beetle,  but  of  what  species  we  do  not  know, 
is  occasionally  met  with  in  the  horse,  caus- 
ing a  small  lump  about  the  size  of  a 
raisin,  and  usually  on  the  back.  This  ob- 
stinately continues  for  months,  if  its 
its  nature  is  not  understood,  in  spite 
of  all  ordinary  applications.  At  last  a 
white  larva  or  grub,  with  a  black  head, 
and  very  similar  in  everything  but  size  to 
the  maggot  found  in  the  nut,  makes  its 
appearance,  and  either  escapes  to  fall  to 
the  ground  and  become  a  chrysalis,  or 
else  it  is  squeezed  out  by  the  groom, 
which  is  easily  done  as  soon  as  the  head 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


is  visible.  When  discovered  previously, 
an  opening  may  by  made  with  the  point 
of  the  penknife,  and  then  the  larva  may 
be  gradually  squeezed  out,  avoiding  too 
much  haste  in  the  operation,  which  will 
only  retard  the  process. 

HORSE,  Bites  and  Stings  of  Insects. — 
Horses  are  liable  to  be  stung  by  hornets, 
wasps  and  bees.  If  there  are  only  one 
or  two  stings  made  no  interference  is 
necessary,  but  sometimes  a  larger  num- 
ber of  poisonous  punctures  have  been  ef- 
fected, and  then  the  best  treatment  is  the 
application  of  spirit  of  turpentine  and 
laudanum  in  equal  proportions. 

The  bites  of  the  gadfly  are  so  trouble- 
some in  their  effects  that  it  is  sometimes 
desirable  to  prevent  them  if  possible. 
This  is  effected  by  making  a  strong  infu- 
sion of  the  green  bark  of  the  elder,  and 
washing  the  flanks,  etc.,  with  it  before 
going  out. 

HORSE,  Swelled  Legs.— The  skin  of 
the  legs  and  the  cellular  membrane  be- 
neath it  are  liable  to  two  kinds  of  swell- 
ing, one  of  which  is  of  an  inflammatory 
character,  while  the  other  is  solely  due  to 
a.  deposit  of  serum  (oedema),  owing  to 
the  non-performance  of  their  office  by  the 
kidneys.  Both  kinds  are  much  more  fre- 
quent in  the  hiad  legs  than  the  fore,  but 
especially  the  former. 

Inflammatory  swelled  leg,  sometimes 
•called  weed,  is  generally  accompanied  by 
a  certain  amount  of  feverishness,  and 
comes  on  suddenly,  almost  always  show- 
ing itself  on  the  inside  of  the  hind  leg, 
which  is  hot  and  extremely  tender.  It  is 
not  a  very  common  disease,  and  merely 
requires  the  ordinary  low  treatment,  by 
purging  physic,  and,  if  necessary,  bleed- 
ing. Should  it  continue  for  more  than 
two  or  three  days  after  these  are  tried,  an 
ounce  of  nitre  may  be  given  every  night 
in  a  bran  mash. 

Ordinary  swelling  of  the  legs,  or  oedema, 
occurs  in  every  degree,  from  a  slight  "  fil- 
ling," to  which  many  horses  are  always 
subject,  whether  they  work  or  stand  in  the 
stable,  to  an  enlargement  extending  up  to 
the  stifles  and  elbows,  sometimes  render- 
ing the  legs  almost  as  round  and  as  hard 
as  mill-posts.  When  horses  are  first 
brought  in  from  grass  their  legs  almost 
always  fill  more  or  less,  and  until  they  are 
regularly  seasoned  to  their  work  there  is 
seldom  that  clean  condition  of  the  sus- 


pensory ligaments  and  back  sinews  which 
one  likes  to  see  even  before  the  daily  ex- 
ercise is  given.  The  oedema  appears  to 
depend  partly  upon  a  deficient  action  of 
the  kidneys,  but  chiefly  on  the  vessels  of 
the  legs  not  acting  sufficiently  without 
constant  walking  exercise,  such  as  is  na- 
tural to  the  horse  when  at  liberty,  and 
which  he  takes  at  grass.  Half  an  hour's 
walking  will  generally  produce  absorption 
completely,  so  that  a  daily  remedy  is 
forthcoming;  but  as  a  rule,  whenever 
there  is  this  tendency  to  "  filling  "  of  the 
legs,  the  cellular  membrane  is  not  the 
only  tissue  in  fault,  but  the  tendons  and 
the  joints  are  also  liable  to  inflammation. 
The  treatment  will  greatly  depend  upon 
the  exact  cause.  If  the  swelling  is  only 
due  to  the  change  from  grass  to  the  con- 
finement of  a  warm  stable,  time  alone  is 
wanted,  taking  care  not  to  over-work  the 
horse,  in  the  meantime.  Bandages  will 
always  assist  in  keeping  down  the  swell- 
ing ;  but  they  should  not  be  used  without 
necessity,  as  when  once  the  horse  becomes 
accustomed  to  them,  his  legs  can  hardly 
be  kept  fine  without  their  aid.'  If  weak- 
ness is  the  cause,  a  drachm  of  sulphate  of 
iron  given  in  the  corn  twice  a  day  will 
often  strengthen  the  system,  and  with  it 
the  legs.  Diuretics  may  be  adopted  as 
an  occasional  aid  to  the  kidneys,  but  they 
should  be  of  the  mildest  kind,  such  as 
nitre,  or  they  will  do  more  harm,  by 
weakening  the  body  generally,  than  good 
by  their  stimulus  to  the  kidneys.  Indeed, 
they  are  often  the  sole  cause  of  the  legs 
filling,  for  some  grooms  use  them  so  con- 
tinually, whether  they  are  wanted  or  not, 
that  the  kidneys  becomes  diseased  and 
refuse  to  act,  which  is  a  sure  forerunner 
of  oedema.  Where  swelling  of  the  legs 
is  confirmed,  bandages  must  be  regularly 
applied  as  recommended  in  article 
Horse,  Bandages,  Use  and  Applica- 
tion of,  which  see. 

HORSE,  Chapped  Heelr.  —  When  a 
horse  suffers  from  oedema  of  the  legs,  he 
is  particularly  prone  to  an  eruption  of  a 
watery  nature  in  the  cleft  between  the  heels 
and  behind  the  lesser  pastern.  Those  also 
whose  legs  are  washed  and  not  dried  are 
still  more  prone  to  it,  especially  if  the 
hair  is  white.  The  skin  cracks,  and,  in 
bad  cases,  is  so  inflamed  and  swollen  that 
the  leg  cannot  be  bent  without  great  pain, 
and  often  there  is  a  bleeding  from  the 


112 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


cracks,  caused  by  the  action  of  the  limb, 
but  only  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  show 
that  blood  has  escaped.  The  treatment 
must  (  be  local  as  well  as  general  if  the 
eruption  is  not  entirely  due  to  misman- 
agement. In  any  case,  the  part  should 
be  dressed  with  cerate  of  acetate  of  lead, 
a  little  of  which  should  be  rubbed  in 
every  night.  Next  morning  some  glycer- 
ine should  be  brushed  on  an  hour  at  least 
before  the  exercise,  and  renewed  before 
the  daily  work  is  commenced.  This  will 
prevent  all  risk  of  the  skin  cracking, 
while  the  ointment  will  act  beneficially  on 
the  vessels  of  the  heart.  In  addition  to 
the^e  applications,  the  general  health 
should  be  attended  to  if  in  fault,  and  ton- 
ics or  diuretics  should  be  given,  as  the 
case  may  require. 

HORSE,  Grease. — The  eruption  known 
as  grease  is  sometimes  only  an  aggravat- 
ed form  of  chapped  heels,  and  is  often 
preceded  by  them.  At  others  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  disease  is  ushered  in  by 
constitutional  symptoms,  such  as  fever- 
ishness,  oedema  of  the  limbs  and  hide- 
bound. The  first  local  sympton  is  a 
slight  swelling  of  the  skin  of  the  heels 
and  adjacent  parts,  which  soon  cracks, 
and  from  the  fissures  there  exudes  an  of- 
fensive discharge  which  looks  greasy,  but 
is  really  watery,  being  of  a  serous  nature. 
It  inflames  every  part  that  it  touches,  and 
has  a  tendency  to  cause  a  spread  of  the 
eruption  in  all  directions,  but  chiefly 
downwards.  The  legs  go  on  swelling  to 
a  frightful  extent,  and  are  thereby  render- 
ed so  stiff  and  sore  that  great  lameness  is 
produced.  If  this  stage  is  neglected  the 
whole  surface  ulcerates,  and  a  fungoid 
growth  makes  its  appearance,  chiefly  from 
the  original  cracks.  The  discharge  be- 
comes purulent  and  has  a  most  foul  smell, 
and  the  leg  can  with  difficulty  be  bent  at 
all.  Finally,  the  fungous  excresences 
cover  the  whole  of  the  diseased  skin,  be- 
ing of  a  bright  red  color,  and  slightly  re- 
sembling grapes  in  form,  from  which  cir- 
cumstances this  stage  has  been  called 
"  the  grapes."  It  is  now  very  rare  to  meet 
with  grease  in  any  of  its  forms  except  in 
the  cart-stable,  where  the  hairy  legs  of  its 
inmates  render  them  peculiarly  prone  to 
its  attacks,  from  the  time  required  to  dry 
them  when  wet.  They  are  so  difficult  to 
clean  without  water  that  the  carters  may 
well  be  excused  for  using  it,  but  if  they 


do  they  ought  carefully  to  dry  the  legs 
afterwards.  The  treatment  when  grease 
is  established  must  be  founded  upon  the 
same  principle  as  in  chapped  heels.  The 
skin  must  be  kept  supple,  and  at  the  same 
time  stimulated  to  a  healthy  action.  For 
the  former  purpose  glycerine  is  most  val- 
uable, being  far  more  efficacious  than  any 
greasy  dressing,  such  as  we  were  obliged 
to  employ  before  the  discovery  of  this 
substance.  In  all  the  stages  of  grease, 
this  latter  agent  may  be  employed,  and 
as  it  is  readily  soluble  in  water  it  can  be 
washed  off  and  renewed  as  often  as  it 
may  be  desired.  The  discharge  is  so  foul 
and  irritating  that  it  ought  to  be  thor- 
oughly removed  at  least  once  in  twenty- 
four  hours ;  and  one  of  the  chief  advan- 
tages of  the  use  of  glycerine  is  that  it  so 
greatly  assists  this  cleansing  process  from 
its  solubility  in  water.  In  addition  to  this 
emollient  plan,  some  stimulus  must  be  se- 
lected, and  none  answers  so  well  (in  all 
stages  but  the  very  earliest)  as  chloride 
of  zinc.  When,  therefore,  the  heels  are 
in  that  state  that  it  is  almost  doubtful 
whether  the  disease  is  the  mere  chap  or 
absolute  grease,  the  treatment  recom- 
mended for  the  former  may  be  tried,  but 
should  this  fail,  the  groom  should  at  once 
proceed  to  cut  the  hair  of  the  skin  which 
is  diseased  as  short  as  possible.  Then  let 
him  take  some  soap  and  warm  water  and 
gently  wash  the  parts  with  a  sponge  till 
the  skin  is  perfectly  clean  and  free  from 
scab  or  scurf,  taking  care  to  remove  every 
particle  of  soap  by  well  rinsing  it.  Next 
dry  the  leg,  and  them  with  a  small  paint- 
brush rub  gently  into  the  inflamed  parts 
enough  of  the  following  lotion  to  damp 
them,  but  not  to  wet  them  thoroughly: 

Take  of  Chloride  of  Zinc  -    -    -    30  grs. 

Water    --•-•-       1  pint.   Mix. 

A  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards  apply  a 
little  glycerine  over  the  whole,  and  keep 
the  parts  sufficiently  supple  with  it.  If 
there  is  much  discharge  the  cleansing  may 
be  repeated  night  and  morning,  followed 
by  the  chloride  of  zinc,  but  in  most  cases 
once  a  day  will  be  sufficiently  often.  If 
the  ulcerated  or  inflamed  skin  does  not 
put  on  a  healthy  appearance  in  a  few  days, 
the  lotion  may  be  increased  in  strength, 
using  forty,  fifty,  or  sixty  grains  to  the 
pint,  as  required;  but  the  remedy  will  be 
found  to  be  almost  a  specific,  except  for 
the  grapy  form,  if  properly  proportioned 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


"3 


in  strength.  When  the  iungoid  growths 
are  very  extensive,  nothing  but  their 
removal,  either  by  the  knife  or  by  the 
actual  or  potential  cautery,  will  suffice. 
The  least  painful  plan  is  to  slice  them  off 
to  a  level  with  the  skin  and  then  just 
touch  the  bleeding  surface  with  a  hot 
iron,  which  will  have  the  doubly  good 
effect  ot  stopping  the  bleeding  and  induc- 
ing a  healthy  action.  The  glycerine  may 
then  be  applied,  and  next  day  the  leg  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  for  ordinary 
grease,  described  above.  When  the  dis- 
ease is  of  long  standing,  local  applications 
may  cure  it  for  a  time ;  but  either  it  will 
return,  or  there  will  be  some  other  organ 
attacked,  unless  the  unhealthy  state  of 
the  blood  is  attended  to.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  during  the  existence  of 
grease,  this  vital  fluid  is  called  upon  to 
supply  the  materials  for  the  secretion 
which  is  constantly  going  on.  Now,  if  on 
the  cessation  of  the  demand  for  them  the 
blood  still  goes  on  obtaining  its  supplies 
from  the  digestive  organs,  it  becomes 
over-loaded,  a  state  of  plethora  is  estab- 
lished, which  Nature  attempts  to  relieve 
in  some  one  or  other  of  her  established 
modes  by  setting  up  disease.  To  avoid 
such  a  result  arsenic  may  be  given  inter- 
nally, for  this  medicine  has  a  special 
power  in  counteracting  this  tendency. 
How  it  acts  has  never  yet  been  made  out, 
but  that  it  does  exert  such  a  power  is 
thoroughly  ascertained,  and  if  the  doses 
are  not  too  large  it  is  unattended  by  any 
injurious  effect.  Indeed,  for  a  time  it 
seems  to  act  as  a  tonic.  The  arsenic 
should  be  given  in  solution  and  with  the 
food,  so  as  to  procure  its  absorption  into 
the  blood  without  weakening  the  stomach. 
A  wine-glassful  of  liquor  arsenicalis  (i^ 
oz.)  should  be  poured  over  the  corn  twice 
a  day,  and  continued  for  a  couple  of 
months,  when  it  may  be  discontinued 
with  a  fair  hope  of  its  having  had  the 
desired  effect.  Should  the  skin,  however, 
look  inflamed,  a  second  course  of  it  may 
be  given,  and  it  will  be  found  that  if  it  is 
given  with  the  corn  it  will  not  be  followed 
by  any  injurious  consequences. 

HORSE,  Warts. — Warts  are,  generally, 
only  to  be  considered  as  eyesores;  for, 
unless  they  appear  on  the  penis,  they  are 
not  injurious  to  health ;  nor  do  they  inter- 
fere with  work  unless  they  happen  to 
appear  on  the  shoulders  beneath  the  col- 
8 


lar  in  a  harness  horse,  which  is  very  rare 
indeed.  They  are,  doubtless,  very  un- 
sightly, and,  for  this  reason,  it  is  often 
desired  to  remove  them,  which  may  be 
done  by  first  picking  off  the  rough  outer 
surface,  so  as  to  make  them  bleed,  and 
then  rubbing  in,  with  a  stiff  brush,  some 
yellow  orpiment,  wetted  with  a  little 
water.  This  will  cause  considerable 
inflammation,  and  in  a  few  days  the  wart 
will  drop  off,  leaving  a  healthy  sore,  which 
soon  heals.  Sometimes  the  whole  wart 
does  not  come  away  on  the  first  applica- 
tion, in  which  case  a  second  must  be 
made.  When  the  glans  penis  is  completely 
covered  with  warts,  the  best  plan  is  to- 
amputate  it,  as  it  requires  the  greatest 
caution  and  tact  to  remove  them  by  arsenic 
or  any  other  caustic  without  destroying, 
also,  as  much  of  the  penis  as  is  taken  away 
by  the  knife. 

HORSE,  Falie  Quarter.— When,  from 
an  accident,  the  coronary  substance  is 
permanently  injured,  it  ceases  to  secrete 
sound  horn,  and  a  stripe  of  the  crustr 
defective  in  strength,  runs  all  the  way 
down  from  the  coronet  to  the  plantar  edge. 
This  generally  happens  at  the  inner  quar- 
ter, and  is  owing  to  the  horse  treading  on 
his  coronet ;  but  it  may  also  occur  on  the 
outside,  either  from  the  tread  of  another 
horse,  or  from  some  kind  of  external 
violence.  The  result  is  similar  to  that  of 
a  sandcrack ;  there  is  no  strength  in  the 
affected  heel,  and  lameness  is  produced. 
The  treatment  is  very  much  the  same  as 
for  sandcrack.  In  the  first  place,  the 
pressure  must  be  taken  off  the  quarter, 
and  a  bar-shoe  applied,  so  as  to  convey 
the  weight  on  the  frog,  as  described  under 
the  head  of  sandcrack.  The  heel  of  the 
affected  quarter  should  be  lowered,  and 
thus  further  injury  will  be  prevented. 
The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  stimulate 
the  coronet  to  a  healthy  action  by  blis- 
tering it,  which  must  be  done  two  or 
three  times,  taking  care  that  the  blister  is  : 
not  of  too  violent  a  nature,  and  that  the 
skin  heals  before  a  second  is  applied.  By 
these  means,  a  cure  may  sometimes  bef 
effected;  but  it  takes  considerable  time,, 
and  until  the  quarter  is  reproduced  in  full! 
strength,  ok  nearly  so,  the  bar-shoe  should 
be  continued.  By  its  use,  any  horse  with 
a  sound  frog  can  travel  very  well  on  the 
road,  even  if  the  quarter  is  entirely  and 
permanently  separated  from   the  toe  by 


H4 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


inefficient  horn;  and  without  it,  the 
chance  of  a  cure  is  not  to  be  reckoned  on. 

HORSE,  Foot,  Disease  of.— In  coun- 
tries where  the  roads  are  hilly  and  rough, 
this  is  a  common  trouble,  and  it  is  doubt- 
less caused  by  disease  of  that  part  of  the 
foot  which  centers  round  the  navicular 
bone  (a  small  bone  in  the  center  of  the 
foot),  and  is  caused  by  constant  and  irri- 
tating jars  upon  this  highly  sensitive  part. 
To  the  cutting  of  the  frog  and  the  removal 
of  that  elastic  cushion,  provided  by  nature 
for  the  protection  of  these  delicate  parts, 
is  due  the  prevalence  of  this  disease, 
which  unfortunately  is  rarely  curable.  An 
unerring  symptom  is  the  throwing  for- 
ward of  the  foot  by  the  horse  when  in  the 
.stable,  or  pointing,  as  it  is  called, 
mentioned  as  belonging  to  this  case. 
Absolute  rest,  with  good  feed,  cooling 
bandages  to  the  leg,  stuffing  the  hoof 
with  cow-dung,  making  a  soft  bed  of  wet 
■  clay  for  the  fore-feet  to  rest  in,  and  rub- 
,  bing  the  hoof  with  glycerine  to  soften  and 
cool  the  crust,  are  the  best  remedial 
measures.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  the 
horse's  foot  is  a  solid  mass  of  horn ;  if  one 
.is  dissected,  it  will  be  found  a  very  differ- 
ent thing  indeed,  and  it  should  be  treated 
accordingly. 

HORSE,  Founder— (See  Horse,  Lam- 

•INITIS). 

HORSE,  Seedy  Toe.— This  term  is  so 
generally     employed   among    horsemen, 
that  though  the  state  which  it  describes 
is   one  of  the   ordinary  consequences  of 
laminitis,  we  prefer  to   give   it  a  distinct 
.  section.     We   have   already  described  its 
nature  in  the  preceding  page,   and   have 
•  only  now  to  allude  to  its  treatment.   This 
imay   generally    be   so   conducted   as  to 
'.restore  the  shape  of  the  foot,  if  the  inflam- 
mation has  not  lowered  the  toe  of  the 
pedal  bone,  as  shown  at  fig.  i ;  for  if  this 
has   taken  place,  although  it  is  perhaps 
possible  to  get  rid  of  the  cavities   in  the 
horn,  the  relative  positions  of  the  bony 
parts  cannot  be  changed.      When,  how- 
ever, as   is  often  the  case,  a  moderately 
rsmall   hollow  has  been  formed  between 
.the  layers  of  the  wall,  and  the  foot  retains 
a   tolerably    healthy   shape,   by    cutting 
.away  all  the  external  horny  walls,  expos- 
ing the  parts  in  contact  with  the  laminae, 
jand  resting  the  horse  in  a  loose  box,  the 
-secreting  surface   will  form   a  new  wall, 
without  any  spongy  texture,  in  the  course 


of  three  or  four  months,  if  the  coronary 
band  is  constantly  stimulated  by  external 
applications.  To  effect  this,  the  horse 
should  be  put  to  stand  on  red  deal  saw- 
dust, without  shoes ;  and  his  coronets, 
after  being  gently  stimulated  by  a  mild 
liquid  blister,  should  be  kept  dressed  with 
tar  ointment,  which  should  also  be  applied 
to  the  exterior  of  the  horn.  It  is  seldom, 
however,  that  a  foot  which  has  been  thus 
treated  is  sufficiently  sound  to  bear  hard 
work. 

HORSE,  Navicular  Disease.  —  This 
formidable  disease,  called  also  the  navicu- 
lar joint  lameness,  and  navicularthritis,  is 
the  chief  danger  to  be  apprehended  from 
a  good-looking  strong  foot,  just  as  the 
open  flat  one  is  prone  to  laminitis,  and  is 
rarely  subject  to  disease  in  the  navicular 
joint.  The  reason  of  this  immunity  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  contrary  on  the 
other,  is  this.  The  open  foot,  with  a  large 
spongy  frog,  exposes  the  navicular  bone 
and  the  parts  in  contact  with  it  to  con- 
stant pressure  in  the  stable,  so  that  these 
parts  are  always  prepared  for  work.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  concave  sole  and 
well-formed  frog  are  raised  from  the 
ground  by  our  unfortunate  mode  of  shoe- 
ing, and  when  the  whole  foot  is  exposed 
to  injury  from  battering,  and,  in  addition, 
the  tendon  which  plays  over  the  navicular 
bone  presses  it  against  the  os  coronae,  the 
unprepared  slate  in  which  this  part  is 
allowed  to  remain  is  sure  to  produce 
inflammation,  if  the  work  is  carried  far 
enough.  Thus  in  each  case  the  weak 
part  suffers;  but  occasionally,  though  very 
rarely,  the  foot  with  an  arched  sole  con- 
tracts laminitis,  and  the  flat  one  is  attack- 
ed by  navicular  disease ;  the  exceptions, 
however,  are  so  few  that  they  may  be 
thrown  out  of  the  calculation,  and  from 
the  shape  of  the  foot  alone  it  may  almost 
invariably  be  pronounced,  when  a  horse 
is  known  to  be  subject  to  chronic  lame- 
ness, whether  its  seat  is  in  the  laminae  or 
in  the  navicular  joint. 

When  a  foot  is  examined  after  death 
which  is  known  to  have  been  the  subject 
of  navicular  disease,  the  parts  implicated 
are  invariably  either  the  navicular  bone, 
or  the  soft  parts  in  contact  with  it,  or 
often  all  together.  Most  frequently  on 
dividing  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  perforans, 
and  turning  it  down  so  as  to  expose  the 
back  of  the  joint  between  the  navicular 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


and  coronal  bones,  that  part  will  be  greatly 
thickened  and  inflamed,  the  tendon  being 
often  adherent  to  it.  In  the  healthy  con- 
dition there  ought  to  be  no  adhesion  of  the 
fibres  of  the  tendon  to  any  part  of  the 
navicular  bone  but  its  postero-inferior 
•edge,  to  which  the  tendon  is  fixed  by  some 
few  fibres,  the  bulk  passing  to  be  inserted  in 
the  os  pedis.  The  posterior  face  of  the  na- 
vicular bone  should  be  beautifully  smooth, 
and  lined  by  synovial  membrane,  which 
forms  a  lubricating  sac  for  it  to  play  upon, 
and  thus  take  off  the  friction  between  the 


Fig.  27. — Ulceration  of  the  Posterior 
Surface  of  the  Navicular  Bone. 

1.  Lower  or  plantar  surface  of  pedal  bone. 

2.  Small  specks  of  exostosis. 

3.  Carious  patch. 

tendon  and  the  bone.  Such  is  nature's 
provision  against  mischief  in  this  delicate 
part  of  the  machinery  of  the  foot,  which 
she  keeps  in  order  by  the  constant  supply 
of  synovia  or  joint  oil.  But  when  the 
sac  is  not  stimulated  to  a  healthy  action 
by  the  pressure  of  the  frog  below  it  in- 
doors and  out,  synovia  is  no  longer  se- 
creted in  proper  quantity,  and  as  soon  as 
the  horse  is  put  to  hard  work,  inflamma- 
tion takes  place  for  want  of  it.  The  re- 
sult is  some  one  of  the  consequences  of 
inflamed  joints.  Either  ulceration  takes 
place  in  the  postero-inferior  surface,  where 
the  tendon  glides  over  it  as  shown  in  fig. 
27  (at  3),  sometimes  ending  in  caries  of 
the  bone  itself;  or  adhesion  takes  place 
without  ulceration  of  the  tendon  with  the 
surface  of  the  bone,  or  there  are  small 
exostoses  thrown  out,  see  fig.  27  (2);  or 
lastly,  there  is  simple  inflammation  with- 
•  -out  either  adhesion  or  ulceration,  and  in 


this  stage  the  disease  is  amenable  to  treat- 
ment without  leaving  any  trace  behind. 

The  symptoms  of  navicular  disease  are 
the  same,  whether  the  mischief  has  ex- 
tended to  ulceration  or  not ;  but  the  his- 
tory will  guide  us  in  ascertaining  how  far 
it  has  gone.     Of  course  they  vary  in  de- 
gree, for  there  may  be  only  a  slight  extent 
of  ulceration,  or  a  high  degree  of  simple 
inflammation ;  but  in  the  former  case  the 
lameness  will  not  be  so  marked  as  in  the 
latter,  though  the  prospect  of  recovery 
will  be  much  less.     There  is  always  more 
or  less  lameness ;  but,  in  consequence  of 
its  affecting  both  feet,  it  is  not  so  marked 
to  the  careless  observer  as  in  some  much 
more  trivial  cases  where  only  one  is  dis- 
eased.    The  distinguishing  sign,  though 
not  absolutely  infallible,  is  the  pointing  of 
the  toe,  and  a  peculiar  rounding  forward 
of  the  fetlock  joint,  so  as  to  relieve  the 
navicular  bone  of  any  weight.     In  1am- 
initis,  the  object  of  the  sufferer  is  to  re- 
lieve all  pressure  as  much  as  possible,  by 
bringing  the  hind  legs  under  the  body, 
and  by  bearing  the   weight   of  the  fore 
quarter  on  the  heels.     Here,  the  reverse 
of  the  latter   attitude   is   observed — the 
heels  are  not  allowed  to  take  any  pressure, 
and  the  toes  alone  are  placed  at  all  firmly 
on  the  ground.     This  is  marked  in  the 
stable  by  the  pointing  of  the  toe  (in  each 
foot  alternately,  if  both  are  diseased,  but 
in  the  one   only,  if  they   are   not  both 
affected).     Out  of  doors,  the  toes  dig  into 
the  ground,  the  heel  never  being  brought 
firmly  down;  and  frequent  stumbles  mark 
the  difference  between   this  species    of 
lameness  and  laminitis.     The  subject  of 
navicular  disease  generally  walks  sound ; 
but  the  moment  he  is  trotted,  he  goes  as 
if  his  legs  were  tied  together,  his  stride 
being  shortened  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
but  without  exhibiting  the  peculiar  fum- 
bling gait  of  the  foundered  animal.     As 
in  his  case,  soft  ground  suits  him,  and  he 
has  no  fear  of  plough,  because  his  sole  is 
hard   and   unyielding.      Many  tolerably 
confirmed  cases  of  navicular  disease  may, 
therefore,   be   driven,   except   when   the 
ground  is  hard,  supposing,  of  course,  that 
they  are  kept  off  the  road ;  but  no  plan 
of  management  will  enable  them  to  bear 
the  jars   incidental   to   harness-work   or 
hacking.     When  one  foot  only  is  the  sub- 
ject of  navicular   disease,  it  often  hap- 
pens that  it  is  smaller  altogether  than  the 


n6 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


other;  but  it  is- somewhat  difficult  to  say 
whether  this  is  a  cause  or  a  consequence 
of  inflammation.  One  thing  is  quite 
clear,  that  many  horses  are  met  with,  still 
perfectly  free  from  lameness,  in  which 
there  is  a  difference  of  size  in  their  fore 
feet ;  but  whether  or  no  these  are  after- 
wards invariably  the  subjects  of  navicu- 
lar disease,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
ascertain.  It  is,  however,  the  general 
opinion,  founded  on  experience,  that 
when  this  variation  exists,  navicular  dis- 
ease is  extremely  likely  to  attack  the 
smaller  foot,  if  it  is  not  already  there; 
and  for  this  reason,  horses  with  such  feet 
are  generally  avoided  by  the  intending 
purchaser. 

The  treatment  of  navicular  disease,  as 
before  remarked,  is  only  successful  in  the 
early  stage,  before  either  ulceration  or  ad- 
hesion has  taken  place.  If  a  horse  with 
strong,  concave  soles  suddenly  becomes 
lame,  points  his  toe,  and  shows  other 
signs  that  his  navicular  bone  is  inflamed, 
he  should  be  treated  in  the  usual  way 
suited  to  inflammation,  and  at  the  same 
time  liberty  should  be  given  to  the  vascu- 
lar tissues  to  expand,  by  reducing  the 
substance  of  the  horn.  Bleeding  at  the 
toe  has  the  double  good  effect  of  abstract- 
ing blood,  and  at  the  same  time  weaken- 
ing the  sole,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  expan- 
sion which  is  desired.  The  operation 
should,  therefore,  at  once  be  performed; 
at  the  same  time,  the  whole  sole  may  be 
reduced  in  thickness,  and  the  heels  low- 
ered in  proportion.  The  foot  should  then 
(after  the  shoe  is  tacked  on)  be  placed  in 
a  cold  bran  poultice,  which  will  soften  the 
horn ;  and  the  system  should  be  reduced 
by  the  exhibition  of  the  medicines  recom- 
mended under  Laminitis.  Next  day,  if 
the  pulse  continues  high,  more  blood  may 
be  taken;  but,  in  ordinary  cases,  it  is 
better  at  once  to  insert  a  seton  in  the  frog 
(see  Figure  27,)  and  trust  to  this  for 
relieving  the  chronic  inflammation  re- 
maining, by  its  counter-irritation.  But 
when  the  disease  itself  is  mastered,  there 
is  still  a  good  deal  to  be  done  to  prevent 
the  injurious  effects  which  are  so  apt  to 
follow.  The  horse  contracts  a  habit  ot 
stepping  on  his  toes,  to  prevent  hurting 
his  navicular  structures;  and  hence  the 
frog  is  not  used,  the  heels  of  the  crust 
and  the  bars  are  not  strained,  and  there 
being  no  stimulus  to  the  soft  parts  which 


secrete  them,  they  waste  and  contract  in 
size.  If  the  human  hand  is  allowed  to> 
lie  idle,  the  palm  and  the  insides  of  the: 
fingers  are  covered  with  a  delicate  cuticle,, 
which  affords  so  poor  a  protection  to  the 
cutis,  that,  on  using  it  with  any  kind  of 
hard  work,  it  actually  separates,  and 
leaves  an  exposed  surface,  which  speedily 
inflames.  But  by  gradually  exposing  the 
same  hand  to  pressure,  a  thickened  and 
tougher  cuticle  is  secreted;  and  this  will 
bear  any  moderate  amount  of  pressure 
or  friction  without  injury.  Nevertheless,. 
even  the  hand  so  prepared  must  be  con- 
tinually stimulated  by  work,  or  the  skin 
returns  to  its  original  delicate  state,  and: 
is  then  exposed  to  the  same  risk  of  injury 
as  before.  So  it  is  with  the  horse's  foot, 
even  in  a  state  of  health ;  but  this  is  far 
more  marked  after  an  attack  of  disease.. 
The  tendency  then  is  to  produce  the  na- 
tural horny  growths  of  a  smaller  sub- 
stance than  before ;  and  if  the  secreting 
surfaces  are  not  stimulated  by  pressure,, 
they  become  doubly  idle,  and  the  frog,, 
as  well  as  the  adjacent  parts  beneath  the 
navicular  bone,  shows  a  wasted  and  shriv- 
elled appearance.  To  avoid  the  risk  of 
these  ill  consequences,  the  horse  should, 
be  placed,  for  two  or  three  hours  daily,, 
on  a  bed  of  wet  clay,  which  will  allow 
the  shoe  to  sink  into  it,  but  will  yet  be 
tenacious  enough  to  make  firm  and 
steady  pressure  on  the  frog,  while  its  low 
temperature  will  keep  down  inflammation. 
No  plan  is  of  so  much  service  in  pro- 
ducing what  is  called  expansion  of  the 
heels  and  growth  of  the  frog  as  this ;  not,, 
as  is  commonly  supposed,  from  the  clay 
mechanically  pressing  the  heels  out,  but 
from  the  stimulus  of  its  pressure  causing 
the  soft  parts  to  secrete  more  horn,  and. 
of  a  sounder  quality  than  before. 

Should  these  remedies  fail  in  restoring 
the  foot  affected  with  navicular  disease  to 
a  healthy  state,  recourse  can  only  be  had 
to  the  operation  of  neurotomy,  which  is. 
perfectly  efficacious  in  removing  the  lame- 
ness; and  if  there  is  no  ulceration,  and 
merely  an  adhesion  of  the  tendon  to  the 
bone,  it  will,  by  causing  the  horse  to  step 
more  on  his  heels,  effect  an  absolute 
improvement  in  the  shape  of  the  foot, 
and  hence  it  has  sometimes  been  consid- 
ered to  have  produced  a  cure.  Where,, 
however,  there  is  caries  of  the  bone,  or 
even  ulceration  of  the  synovial  membrane,, 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT 


117 


!the  disease  progresses  even  faster  than  be- 
fore the  operation,  and  in  process  of  time 
the  joint  becomes  mechanically  unfit  to 
perform  its  duties. 

HORSE,  Legs  and  Feet,  Accidents  to 
the. — These  parts  are  subject  to  a  variety 
of  accidents,  trifling  perhaps  in  the  cause 
which  produces  them,  but  serious  in  their 
effects,  from  the  lameness  which  ensues. 
The  chief  of  these  are  ordinary  cutting, 
speedy  cutting,  and  pricks  of  the  foot 
either  from  putting  the  sole  down  upon  a 
nail  or  a  piece  of  glass,  or  driving  a  nail 
improperly  in  shoeing.  Bruises  and  over- 
reaches also  come  under  this  head. 

Ordinary  cutting  may  occur  either  be- 
fore or  behind,  the  latter  being  the  more 
common.  It  is  often  met  with  in  poor 
horses,  where  the  flesh  is  so  reduced  in 
substance  that  the  legs  are  brought  nearer 
together  than  in  a  proper  condition.  Here 
all  that  is  required  is  patience,  till  the 
legs  are  restored  to  their  proper  relative 
position,  taking  care  in  the  meantime  that 
there  is  no  permanent  injury  done.  Us- 
ually the  inside  of  one  or  both  feet  strike 
the  fetlock  joint  of  the  other  leg  in  pas- 
sing it,  but  sometimes  the  blow  is  given 
higher  up,  and  it  may  occur  anywhere  on 
the  cannon  bone  except  just  below  the 
knee,  when  it  is  called  "  speedy  cutting," 
which  will  be  separately  considered. 
Sometimes  this  blow  on  the  cannon  bone 
is  either  the  cause  or  the  effect  of  a  splint, 
the  blow  of  the  foot  having  a  tendency 
to  produce  exostosis  (see  Splints).  But 
if  a  splint  is  thrown  out  on  a  part  of  the 
cannon  bone  which  comes  in  the  way  of 
the  natural  action,  the  horse  whose  foot 
previously  passed  clear  of  that  part  of 
the  other  leg  will  hit  it,  and  not  only  give 
pain,  but  cause  a  considerable  access  of 
inflammation  in  the  previous  enlarge- 
ment. In  the  treatment,  therefore,  of 
cutting,  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  the 
habit  being  continued  from  the  swelling 
produced  either  by  a  splint  or  by  previous 
blows.  A  horse,  perhaps,  either  from 
weakness  or  bad  shoeing,  hits  his  legs 
and  produces  considerable  swelling  and 
soreness.  Here,  unless  the  swelling  is  re- 
duced or  protected,  there  is  no  chance  of 
preventing  the  cutting,  because  there  is  a 
projection  of  the  swollen  soft  parts  right 
in  the  way  of  the  other  foot.  No  altera- 
tion of  the  shoeing,  and  no  increase  of 
strength  or  flesh,  will  be  of  service  until 


the  inflammation  is  reduced,  and  the  sore, 
if  any  exists,  is  healed,  and  this  can  only 
be  done  either  by  rest  or  by  protecting  the 
leg  with  a  boot.  The  latter  is  the  better 
plan,  and  wherever  a  horse  cuts  it  is,  in 
our  opinion,  advisable  to  let  him  wear  a 
boot  for  some  weeks,  until  the  skin  is 
quite  sound  again  and  reduced  to  its 
proper  thickness.  A  piece  of  an  old  rug 
folded  round  the  leg  so  as  slightly  to  over- 
lap, and  then  tied  with  a  tape  and  turned 
down  over  the  fetlock  joint,  is  quite  suf- 
ficent  to  serve  this  temporary  purpose, 
and  being  soft  it  is  well  calculated  to  pro- 
tect a  swollen  joint ;  but  if  it  is  worn  any 
length  of  time,  the  pressure  of  the  tape 
and  the  friction  of  the  grit  from  the  road 
wear  away  the  hair,  and  cause  an  un- 
sightly appearance,  which  is  sometimes 
permanent.  If,  therefore,  the  cutting  is 
not  rectified  completely  in  the  course  of  a 
month  or  six  weeks,  a  leather  or  india- 
rubber  boot  should  be  nicely  adapted  to 
the  joint  and  buckled  round  it,  the  flat 
surface  of  the  strap  not  having  so  injuri- 
ous an  effect  as  the  tape  of  the  cloth 
boot.  When  the  cutting  takes  place 
above  the  joint,  a  pad  must  be  adapted 
to  its  inside,  and  fastened  round  the  can- 
non bone  by  two  or  three  buckles,  accord- 
ing to  the  height  at  which  the  injury  takes 
place. 

Such  is  the  best  mode  of  guarding 
against  the  injury  done  by  cutting,  but 
we  must  also  consider  how  it  can  be  en- 
tirely prevented.  In  the  first  place,  it 
should  be  carefully  ascertained  by  what 
part  of  the  foot  or  shoe  the  blow  is  given. 
Most  commonly  it  will  be  found,  by 
chalking  the  inside  of  the  foot,  that  a 
small  patch  is  rubbed  clear  of  chalk, 
about  half  an  inch  above  the  middle  of 
the  quarter,  and  corresponding  with  the 
hindermost  nail  hole,  especially  when 
four  inside  nails  are  used.  When  this  is 
the  hitting  point,  if  great  care  is  taken  to 
avoid  driving  in  a  nail  there,  the  tenden- 
cy to  cut  can  never  be  increased  as  it 
often  is  by  a  raised  clench,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  rasp  may  safely  be  used 
to  reduce  the  thicknees  of  the  hoof  at 
least  the  eighth  of  an  inch,  or  often 
much  more.  The  crust  is  usually  here 
about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
very  often  it  is  so  sound  that  it  will  bear 
to  be  rasped  down  till  there  is  only  one- 
eighth  left,  provided  it  has  not  to  bear 


n8 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


the  pressure  of  a  nail  near  it,  and 
that  the  reduction  is  not  carried  up  too 
near  to  the  coronet.  In  the  hind  foot 
the  quarter  is  fully  half  an  inch  thick,  and 
it  therefore  will  bear  reduction  better 
even  than  the  fore  foot.  Sometimes  the 
blow  is  given  by  the  shoe  itself,  which  is 
fixed  on  so  as  to  overlap  the  crust,  and 
then  the  remedy  is  simple  enough,  for  this 
ought  never  to  occur,  and  can  easily  be 
prevented  by  any  smith.  But  supposing, 
in  spite  of  these  precautions,  the  cutting 
still  continues  after  the  horse  is  restored 
to  his  natural  strength  and  flesh,  can  any- 
thing be  done  by  shoeing?  In  most 
cases  this  question  may  be  answered  in 
the  affirmative,  by  the  use  of  what  is 
called  a  feather-edged  shoe,  which  will  be 
described  under  the  head  of  shoeing.  By 
its  aid  the  heels  are  both  raised,  not  the 
inner  one  only  (which  is  entirely  useless 
and  even  prejudicial,  for  then  the  ground 
surface  of  the  shoe  is  not  a  true  plane), 
but  both  heels,  the  inner  one  being  nar- 
rower, and  having  no  nail  holes  beyond 
the  two  near  the  toe,  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  the  web  projecting;  nor  is 
there  any  nail  hole  required,  with  the  fear 
of  a  clench  rising,  or  of  the  crust  being 
weakened  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  thin- 
ned to  a  proper  degree.  By  thus  raising 
the  heels  (in  the  hind  foot  especially),  the 
fetlock  is  less  bent,  and  as  in  horses  that 
cut  there  is  almost  always  a  tendency  in 
their  fetlock  joints  to  bend  inwards  as 
well  as  backwards,  this  diminution  of  the 
angle  will  not  only  straighten  the  leg  in  a 
forward  direction,  but  it  will  also  increase 
the  distance  between  the  joints,  which  is 
the  object  to  be  desired.  In  the  fore  foot 
the  obliquity  in  this  direction  is  not  so 
frequent,  and  then  the  high  heel  will  be 
of  no  use ;  indeed,  it  is  only  when  the 
toes  are  too  much  turned  out  that  this 
plan  of  shoeing  the  fore  foot  is  ever  suc- 
cessful. When  cutting  occurs  before,  un- 
less there  is  this  turn  out,  it  is  better  to 
put  the  shoes  on  in  a  perfectly  level  man- 
ner, and  trust  to  the  reduction  of  the 
thickness  of  the  quarter,  and  the  absence 
of  the  third  nail.  If,  with  these  precau- 
tions, the  horse,  when  in  good  condition, 
still  strikes  his  fore  legs,  it  will  be  better 
to  put  up  with  the  constant  use  of  a  boot. 
Generally,  however,  if  the  inflammation 
is  first  subdued,  and  the  foot  is  shod  in  a 
perfectly  true  and  level  manner,  taking 


care  to  rasp  away  the  particular  part 
which  strikes  the  other  leg,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  cutting  is  avoided. 

Speedy  cutting  is  more  dangerous  than 
ordinary  cutting,  because  the  pain  given 
by  the  blow  is  generally  more  severe,  and 
is  often  so  great  that  the  horse  falls  as  if 
he  were  shot.  On  examining  the  leg  of 
a  confirmed  speedy  cutter  there  is  always 
apparent  a  small  scab  or  bruise  on  the  in- 
side of  the  cannon  bone,  immediately  be- 
low the  knee;  but  in  slight  cases  rest  may 
have  been  used  to  allow  the  skin  to  heal, 
and  then  no  mark  may  possibly  be  left. 
A  careful  examination  will,  however,  gen- 
erally detect  a  small  bare  place,  partially 
concealed  by  the  growth  of  the  adjacent 
hair.  In  bad  cases  the  periosteum  is 
swollen,  and  there  is  a  considerable  en- 
largement of  the  surface  of  the  bone.  In 
the  management  of  slight  cases  of  this 
kind  of  cutting  the  action  should  be  ex- 
amined while  the  hoof  is  covered  with 
chalk,  and  the  latter  should  be  treated  in 
the  same  way  as  already  described.  If, 
however,  this  fails,  as  it  generally  does  in 
this  form  of  cutting,  there  is  no  remedy 
but  to  put  on  a  regular  speedy-cut  boot, 
in  which  there  is  a  pad  buckled  on  the 
inside  of  the  leg,  and  reaching  from  the 
knee  to  the  fetlock.  It  must  be  of  this 
length,  because  otherwise  it  cannot  be 
kept  in  its  place,  as  the  leg  allows  it  to 
slip  down  until  it  reaches  the  larger  cir- 
cumference presented  by  the  joint. 
Where  there  is  pain  and  swelling,  caused 
by  the  contusion,  it  must  be  treated  in  the 
ordinary  way,  by  the  application  of  cold 
water  and  the  tincture  of  arnica,  a  wine- 
glassfull  of  the  latter  in  two  quarts  of 
water. 

Pricks  in  shoeing  occur  from  the  want 
of  skill  in  the  smith,  who  drives  the  nail 
too  near  the  laminae,  and  sometimes  even 
absolutely  wounds  them.  It  may  be  that 
the  nail  in  its  passage  upwards  is  not 
within  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  these  del- 
icate parts,  and  the  horse  may  not  have 
flinched  during  the  driving  of  it,  but 
when  he  is  put  to  work  the  nail  opposes 
a  hard,  unyielding  line  to  the  soft  parts, 
inflammation  is  established,  and  possibly 
even  matter  is  formed  which  may  end  ini 
quittor.  When,  on  the  day  after  shoe- 
ing, a  horse  which  was  previously  sound 
goes  lame,  and  the  foot  is  hot  to  the 
touch,  it  may  generally  be  assumed  that 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


n<> 


a  nail  or  nails  have  been  driven  too  near 
to  the  quick,  unless  there  is  evidence  of 
laminitis  from  other  causes.  On  tapping 
the  crust  with  a  hammer*,  the  horse  will 
flinch  at  some  particular  spot,  and  there 
is  the  nail  which  is  in  fault.  Sometimes 
there  is  little  inflammation  as  yet  set  up, 
but  the  pressure  of  the  nail  is  sufficient  to 
cause  lameness,  and  in  either  case  the 
shoe  should  be  taken  off.  Then,  if  there 
is  reason  to  suppose  that  matter  has 
formed,  the  opening  from  which  the  nail 
came  out  should  be  enlarged,  and  the  mat- 
ter allowed  to  escape.  If,  however,  the 
foot  has  been  merely  "bound,"  it  may  be 
either  left  to  nature,  with  a  shoe  lightly 
tacked  on,  and  a  wet  "swab"  round  the 
coronet,  or  it  may  be  placed  in  a  bran 
poultice,  which  is  the  safest  plan. 

When  a  nail  is  picked  up  on  the  road 
the  prognosis  will  depend  upon  the  part 
which  it  has  penetrated.  If  it  has  en- 
tered deeply  into  the  toe  of  the  frog,  the 
probability  is  that  the  navicular  joint  has 
been  wounded,  dr  probably  the  tendon  of 
the  flexor  at  its  insertion  into  the  pedal 
bone,  either  of  which  are  very  serious  ac- 
cidents. If  the  wound  is  further  back 
there  is  less  risk  of  permanent  injury,  as 
the  bulbous  heels  or  cushion  of  the  frog 
will  bear  a  considerable  amount  of  injury 
without  permanent  mischief.  In  any  case 
the  treatment  should  consist  in  cutting 
away  the  horn  round  the  opening,  so  as 
to  allow  of  a  free  escape  of  matter  if  it 
forms.  At  the  same  time  inflammation 
should  be  kept  under  by  cold  "swabs"  to 
the  coronet,  or  by  putting  the  whole  foot 
into  a  bran  poultice. 

Over-reaches,  when  slight,  may  be 
treated  by  the  application  of  Friar's  bal- 
sam, or  tincture  of  arnica  in  full  strength, 
which  will  have  a  tendency  to  dry  them 
up  and  prevent  suppuration.  If,  howev- 
er, the  heel  is  very  much  bruised,  a  poul- 
tice must  be  applied,  but  even  then  a  lit- 
tle tincture  of  arnica  should  be  sprinkled 
on  it.  When  the  bruise  is  so  severe  that 
a  slough  or  core  comes  away  the  wound 
may  be  dressed  with  a  piece  of  lint, 
dipped  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
eight  grains  to  the  ounce  of  distilled 
water,  and  over  this  a  bran  poultice.  In 
most  cases,  however,  it  is  better  to  fo- 
ment the  part  well  and  then  apply  the 
tincture  of  arnica  neat. 

A  bruise  on  the  thin  sole  will  some- 


times cause  matter  to  form,  in  which  case 
the  horn  must  be  cut  away  and  the  case- 
treated  as  foi  quittor.  (See  Horse,  Quit- 
tor.)  Before  matter  forms  the  horn 
should  be  reduced,  and  the  foot  placed  in 
a  cold  bran  poultice. 

HORSE,  Snow  Balling,  to  prevent. — 
Clean  their  hoofs  well,  then  rub  thorough- 
ly with  thick  soap  suds  before  going  out 
in  the  snow. 

HORSE,  Interfering. — To  prevent  in- 
teifering  in  a  horse  who  is  turned  out  in  the 
front  feet,  the  shoe  should  be  applied  to 
fit  closely  on  the  inside,  and  the  nails  ap- 
plied round  the  toe  and  to  the  outside. 
In  some  instances  a  small  piece  of  leather 
placed  betwixt  the  sole  and  the  shoe,  and 
allowed  to  project  outwards,  has  a  very 
good  effect  in  preventing  interfering. 

HORSE,  Knee-Fan  Displaced. — Feed 
the  horse  well  on  oats,  barley  and  sound 
hay ;  give  him  a  drachm  of  powdered 
phosphate  of  iron  daily  in  his  food;  keep- 
in  a  stall  with  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
level  floor,  and  not  less  than  5^  or  6  feet 
wide ;  apply  a  shoe  with  a  bar  welded  ta 
the  toe,  projecting  two  or  three  inches,, 
and  then  let  it  be  turned  up;  rub  the 
joint  with  an  ointment  made  of  one 
drachm  of  powdered  cantharides  to  one- 
half  ounce  of  lard,  repeating  the  ap- 
plication the  next  day  if  it  has  not  blis- 
tered. When  a  blister  rises  wash  it  off 
with  soap  and  warm  water,  and  then, 
anoint  the  part  daily  with  lard,  until  the 
scab  and  other  effects  have  passed  offr 
when  another  blister  may  be  applied. 

HORSE,  Feet,  Scaling  in  Summer. — To* 
prevent  horses'  feet  from  scaling  or  crack- 
ing in  summer,  and  enable  the  shoes  to  be' 
carried  a  longer  time  without  injury,  the 
French  practice  is  to  coat  the  hoofs  once 
a  week  with  an  ointment  composed  of 
equal  proportions  of  soft  fat,  yellow  wax, 
linseed  oil,  Venice  turpentine  and  Nor- 
way tar ;  the  wax  is  melted  separately  be- 
fore mixing. 

HORSE,  Fevers. — The  horse  is  very 
rarely  subject  to  fever  as  a  disease  of  it- 
self, independently  of  inflammation,  un- 
der which  head  we  have  already  described 
catarrhal  fever,  both  of  the  simple  kind 
and  when  epidemic,  and  known  as  influ- 
enza. Indeed,  all  the  important  inflam- 
mations of  the  body  are  attended  with 
fever;  but  in  them  the  local  affections  are- 
evidently  more  serious  than  the  general 


PIORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


disturbance  of  the  system,  which  we  call 
by  the  name  of  fever.  By  many  veteri- 
narians it  is  doubted  whether  fever  ever 
shows  itself  in  the  horse  without  inflam- 
mation; but  occasionally  it  may  be  ob- 
served under  the  form  of  simple  fever, 
presenting  all  the  symptoms  which  ac- 
company ordinary  inflammation,  but 
without  any  such  complication,  and 
more  rarely  of  the  typhoid  form,  which 
now  sometimes  attends  influenza  and 
other  epidemics. 

Simple  fever  shows  itself  by  dullness 
and  reluctance  to  move,  a  staring  coat, 
and  cold  legs  and  feet,  with  increased 
warmth  of  the  body.  The  pulse  is  quick, 
soft  and  variable — breathing  a  little  accel- 
erated, but  not  much — appetite  entirely 
lost — bowels  confined,  and  urine  scanty. 
These  symptoms  continue  for  two  or 
, three  days,  and  then  either  go  on  into  the 
typhoid  form,  or  they  are  complicated  by 
inflammation  in  some  organ  of  the  body. 
The  treatment  merely  consists  in  giving  a 
mild  dose  of  physic,  followed  by  a  febri- 
fuge drink,  such  as  the  following : 
Take  of  Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether  -    I  ounce. 

Mitre 3  to  5  drachms. 

Tincture  of  Ginger     -    -   2  drachms. 
Camphor  Mixture    -    -    6  ounces. 

Mix,  and  give  twice  a  day. 

Typhoid  fever  sometimes  appears  as  an 
^epidemic,  occurring  either  as  a  sequel  to 
influenza,  or  in  its  pure  form,  without  any 
-complication.  The  latter  condition  is, 
however,  extremely  rare.  In  its  early 
:stage  it  can  scarcely  be  recognized  or  dis- 
tinguished from  simple  fever;  but  in  the 
^course  of  two  or  three  days  the  strength 
is  so  much  reduced,  the  breath  is  so 
fetid  and  the  mouth  is  loaded  with 
such  a  black  discharge  from  the  tongue 
and  gums,  that  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
<ease  is  clearly  manifested.  The  pulse 
is  very  low,  the  languor  increases,  and 
there  is  often  more  or  less  delirium.  The 
course  of  the  disease  is  extremely  rapid, 
and  in  five  or  six  days  a  strong  horse  will 
sink  beneath  its  powers,  refusing  food,  and 
dying  without  any  attempt  to  rally.  The 
treatment  should  be  of  the  most  generous 
kind,  as  soon  as  the  bowels  have  been 
gently  moved,  which  should  be  effected, 
if  possible,  by  injection.  Then  give  a  ball 
two  or  three  times  a  day,  composed  thus : 
Take  of  Carbonate  of  Ammonia    -     %  to  I  drachm 

Powdered  Ginger     -     -     -      -      I  drachm. 

Powdered  Yellow   Bark     -      -     3  drachms. 
.Syrup  enough  to  make  into  a  ball. 


This  should  be  washed  down  with  a 
quart  of  ale  caudle,  and  hay  tea  should  be 
allowed  as  the  drink  ad  libitum  y  or,  if 
there  is  diarrhasa,  rice  water  may  be  used 
in  the  same  way.  Few  cases,  however, 
will  recover,  in  spite  of  every  exertion  and 
careful  treatment  on  the  part  of  the 
attendant. 

HOR.SE,  Anasarca.  —  Anasarca,  or 
moor-ill,  occurs  chiefly  among  horses 
turned  out  in  marshes  or  low  commons, 
and  may  readily  be  known  by  the  general 
swelling  of  the  body,  increasing  by  gravi- 
tation in  the  legs  during  the  standing 
posture,  but  showing  itself  chiefly  in  the 
lower  side  of  the  body  in  the  early  morn- 
ing, when  the  horse  has  been  lying  down 
all  night.  The  disease  is  now  rare,  but 
it  occasionally  appears  under  the  circum- 
stances above  described.  The  treatment 
must  be  by  acting  on  the  kidneys,  the 
following  being  a  useful  recipe  for  the 
purpose : 

Take  of  Nitre    -     -     -     -    4  drachms. 

Powdered  Resin      -     -     3  drachms. 

Ginger I  drachm. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether     l}4  oz. 

Warm  Water      -     -     -     2  Pints. 
Mix  and  give  as  a  drench  every  night. 

HORSE,  Moor-Ill,  (See  Horse,  Ana- 
sarca). 

HORSE,  Glanders. — This  frightful  con- 
stitutional disease  appears  to  consist  in 
the  generation  of  some  poisonous  matter 
in  the  blood,  which  nature  attempts  to 
throw  off  by  establishing  a  discharge  in 
the  nostrils.  It  is  perfectly  incurable,  and 
therefore  it  is  only  necessary  to  study  its 
symptoms,  with  a  view  to  distinguish  it 
from  ozena,  with  which  alone  it  is  liable 
to  be  confounded.  Its  chronic  character 
and  insidious  onset  will  serve  to  distin- 
guish it  from  catarrh  and  strangles. 

At  its  commencement,  it  seems  to  be 
confined  to  the  internal  lining  of  the 
nostrils,  which  is  not  reddened,  as  in 
chronic  catarrh  (ozena),  but  presents  a 
leaden  or  purple  color,  sometimes  of  a 
deep  shade, 'but  at  first  generally  very 
light  and  pale.  This  is  accompanied  by 
a  thin  acrid  discharge,  transparent,  and 
without  odor.  Generally  one  nostril 
only  is  affected,  which  in  this  country  is 
more  frequently  the  left,  and  in  France 
the  right;  but  why  this  should  be  so  has 
never  yet  been  even  conjectured  with  any 
appearance  of  probability.  This  state  of 
things  usually  only  lasts  for  a  few  weeks, 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


121 


but  it  may  go  on  for  an  indefinite  time, 
and  is  recognized  as  the  first  stage ;  dur- 
ing which  the  health  does  not  suffer,  and 
the  horse  can,  and  often  does,  go  on  with 
his  ordinary  work.  It  may  be  distin- 
guished from  ozena  by  the  purple  color 
of  the  lining  membrane,  and  by  the  trans- 
parency and  freedom  from  smell  of  the 
discharge. 

In  the  second  stage,  the  discharge  in- 
creases in  quantity,  and  though  still 
watery  and  transparent,  it  is  slightly  sticky, 
indicating  the  presence  of  mucus.  The 
lymphatic  glands  below  the  jaw  enlarge, 
and  become  adherent  to  the  bone,  feel- 
ing hard  to  the  touch,  and  almost  like 
exostosis.  Here  the  permanent  character 
of  the  discharge  and  the  adherence  of  the 
glands  to  the  bone  are  the  diagnostic 
signs  from  ozena. 

In  the  third  stage,  the  discharge  in- 
creases rapidly,  and  becomes  yellow  and 
opaque — in  fact,  it  is  pure  pus.  If  the 
nose  is  carefully  examined,  its  lining  mem- 
brane will  be  seen  to  present  one  or  more 
sores,  with  depressed  centres  and  ragged 
edges,  and  surrounded  by  small  varicose 
vessels  leading  to  them  from  all  directions. 
In  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  local 
mischief,  constitutional  disturbance  is  dis- 
played. The  appetite  fails — the  horse 
loses  flesh  and  spirits — the  coat  is  turned 
the  wrong  way — the  skin  is  hide-bound, 
.and  the  legs  fill  slightly  during  the  day, 
but  go  down  at  night — the  nose  is,  at  last, 
frightfully  ulcerated,  the  sores  spreading 
to  the  larynx — ulcers  break  out  on  the 
body — and  the  horse  finally  dies,  worn  to 
a  skeleton. 

When  the  diagnosis  of  the  disease  is 
confirmed,  as  it  is  undoubtedly  highly 
contagious,  both  to  other  horses  and  to 
man  himself,  the  patient  ought  to  be 
destroyed.  By  the  use  of  green  food,  his 
life  may  be  prolonged  for  a  time,  and  a 
certain  amount  of  work  may  be  got  out  of 
him;  but  the  risk  of  contagion  is  too 
great  to  be  incurred,  and  no  man  who  re- 
gards his  own  welfare,  and  that  of  his 
neighbors  should  keep  a  glandered 
horse. 

HORSE,  Farcy. — This  disease  appears 
to  depend  upon  the  development  of  the 
same  poison  as  in  glanders ;  but  the  at- 
tempt at  elimination  is  made  in  the  skin, 
instead  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  nose.     A  horse  inoculated  with  slan- 


ders may  exhibit  farcy,  and  vice  versa ;  so 
that  the  essence  of  the  disease  is  the 
same,  but  its  seat  is  a  different  tissue. 

Farcy  usually  shows  itself  first  by  one 
or  two  small  hard  knots  in  the  skin  called 
"  farcy  buds."  These  soon  soften,  and 
contain  a  small  quantity  of  pus ;  but  as 
this  is  rapidly  absorbed,  the  lymphatics 
which  convey  it  into  the  circulation  in- 
flame ;  and  at  a  short  distance  another  bud 
is  formed,  and  then  another,  and  another. 
These  buds  are  usually  met  with  in  the 
thin  skin  covering  the  inside  of  the  thighs 
and  arms,  or  the  neck  and  lips.  They 
vary  from  the  size  of  a  shilling  to  that  of 
a  half-crown ;  and  as  they  increase  in 
numbers,  the  skin  becomes  cedematous. 
In  process  of  time,  the  general  system 
suffers,  as  in  glanders,  and  the  horse  dies, 
a  miserable,  worn-out  object.  No  treat- 
ment can  be  relied  on  to  cure  the  disease; 
and  as  it  is  equally  contagious  with 
glanders,  every  farcied  horse  ought  at 
once  to  be  destroyed.  The  hard  nature 
of  the  buds,  and  the  thickened  lymphatics 
extending  like  cords  between,  clearly 
make  known  the  nature  of  the  disease. 

HORSE,  Chloroform,  Administration  of. 
— The  use  of  chloroform  to  procure  in- 
sensibility to  pain  is  a  great  aid  to  the 
operator  on  the  horse,  who  without  it  acts 
under  great  difficulties,  owing  to  the  nerv- 
ous twitch  which  the  poor  animal  gives 
at  each  touch  of  the  knife.  Under  chlo- 
roform, however,  he  lies  as  if  dead ;  and 
as  long  as  its  effects  continue,  the  most 
elaborate  dissection  may  be  conducted 
with  comparative  ease.  There  is  some 
little  danger  of  over-doing  this  powerful 
agent,  but  the  risk  is  not  so  great  as  is 
generally  supposed,  and  with  ordinary 
care  it  is  more  than  1,000  to  i  that  no 
injurious  effects  produced. 

The  best  and  most  simple  apparatus  for 
the  purpose  of  administering  chloroform 
is  a  common  wire  muzzle,  to  the  upper 
edge  of  which  a  strip  of  leather  six  inches 
deep  is  stitched,  and  so  arranged  that  it 
may  be  buckled  round  the  upper  part  of 
the  jaws.  This  insures  that  all  the  air 
inspired  shall  pass  through  the  wires,  and 
by  covering  them  with  a  cap  of  very  loose 
flannel,  in  which  a  few  holes  are  cut  to 
facilitate  respiration,  the  muzzle  may  be 
made  ready  for  use.  The  horse  is  first 
cast,  after  which  the  above  apparatus  is 
put  on  and  buckled  round  the  jaw,  when 


122 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


on  sprinkling  the  chloroform  over  the 
cap  of  flannel,  it  may  be  applied  or  re- 
moved in  an  instant,  and  the  amount  of 
anaesthesia  regulated  accordingly.  With- 
out some  guard  such  as  the  wire  affords, 
the  chloroform  runs  over  the  nostrils  and 
lips,  and  blisters  them  to  a  serious  ex- 
tent; but  when  it  is  used,  such  an  ac- 
cident can  only  occur  from  over-satur- 
ating the  flannel.  The  necessary  quantity 
of  this  powerful  agent  must  be  employed; 
but  when  once  it  is  found  that  a  prick  of 
a  pin  or  other  pointed  instrument  is  borne 
without  shrinking,  the  flannel  may  be 
withdrawn,  and  the  operation  quickly 
commenced,  taking  care  to  have  an 
assistant  ready  to  put  it  on  again  if  the 
horse  shows  signs  of  returning  sensibility 
to  pain.  Six  or  eight  ounces  of  chloro- 
form must  be  provided,  as  the  quantity 
required  is  rather  uncertain,  the  average 
dose  being  about  three  or  four  ounces. 

If  casting  is  objected  to,  either  from 
the  absence  of  hobbles,  or  from  fear  of 
injury  to  the  horse,  a  soft  bed  of  straw 
should  be  provided,  and  a  strong  halter 
must  be  put  over  the  muzzle  with  two 
cords,  one  of  which  should  be  held  by  a 
man  on  each  side.  These  will  serve  to 
guide  the  horse  in  falling;  but  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  make  sure  of  his  going 
down  where  he  is  wanted  to  lie;  and 
there  is  also  considerable  time  lost  in  se- 
curing him  after  he  is  down,  which  the 
safety  of  the  operator  imperatively  re- 
quires. The  effect  of  the  chloroform 
must  therefore  be  kept  up  for  a  much 
longer  time  than  if  it  is  given  after  the 
horse  is  cast  and  secured. 

HORSE,  Confining  the  Horse,  Methods 
of. — There  are  various  plans  adopted  by 
veterinary  surgeons  to  bind  the  horse's 
limbs,  so  that  he  cannot  injure  himself  or 
them  when  undergoing  an  operation. 
Even  when  chloroform  is  employed,  some 
coercion  of  this  kind  must  generally  be 
adopted,  as  directed  in  the  last  section ; 
for  if  it  is  given  in  the  standing  position, 
the  horse  is  very  apt  to  injure  himself  in 
falling,  which  is  often  accompanied  by 
powerful  convulsive  motions,  and  more- 
over he  cannot  with  certainty  be  placed 
in  a  suitable  position.  The  plan  adopted 
by  Mr.  Rarey  is  seldom  suitable,  because 
it  can  only  be  employed  on  subjects 
taught  to  go  down  without  resistance,  for 
the  severe  struggle  which  the  untaught 


horse  makes  before  he  submits  is  calcu- 
lated to  produce  injurious  constitutional 
disturbance,  and,  moreover,  it  would 
sadly  increase  any  of  the  various  diseases 
of  the  limbs  for  which  operations  are  so 
often  performed.  Sometimes,  however,  it 
might  advantageously  be  introduced  into 
veterinary  surgery,  as  for  instance  in  cas- 
tration, when  the  colt  will  not  suffer  his 
hind  legs  to  be  touched,  but  even  then  it 
will  be  necessary  to  throw  him  two  or 
three  times,  or  he  will  be  in  such  a  state 
of  arterial  excitement  that  inflammation 
will  be  likely  to  follow.  The  usual  meth- 
ods of  confinement  are:  ist.  The  hob- 
bles. 2d.  The  side  line.  3d.  The  trevis,. 
or  break.  4th.  The  twitch  and  barna- 
cles. 

Hobbles  consist  of  four  broad  padded 
leather  straps,  provided  with  strong  buck- 
les, and  long  enough  to  encircle  the 
pasterns.  To  each  of  these  an  iron  ring 
is  stitched,  and  to  one  of  them  a  strong,. 
soft  rope,  six  yards  in  length,  is  securely 
attached.  Provided  with  four,  or,  if  pos- 
sible, five  assistants,  the  operator  buckles 
the  hobble  with  the  rope  attached  to  the 
near  fore  leg,  and  the  remaining  three  to 
the  other  legs.  Then  passing  the  rope 
through  their  rings,  and  through  the  first 
also,  it  is  held  by  three  assistants,  the 
nearest  of  whom  stands  about  a  yard 
from  the  horse,  so  as  to  pull  upwards  as. 
well  as  away  from  him;  a  fourth  assistant 
holds  him  by  the  head  to  keep  him  quiet, 
and  to  be  ready  to  fall  on  it  as  soon  as  he 
is  down,  and  the  fifth  stands  at  his  quar- 
ters, ready  to  push  him  over  on  his  off 
side.  This  place  is  sometimes  occupied 
by  the  operator  himself  when  he  is  short 
of  hands.  Casting  should  never  be  at- 
tempted on  any  hard  surface,  a  thick  bed 
of  straw  being  necessary  to  prevent  injury 
from  the  heavy  fall  which  takes  place. 
The  hind  legs  should  be  brought  as  far 
forward  as  possible  before  beginning  to. 
pull  the  rope,  and  when  the  men  do  this 
they  should  do  it  "  with  a  will,"  but  with- 
out jerking,  so  as  to  take  the  horse  off  his 
guard,  when  he  will  resist  much  less 
stoutly  than  if  he  is  allowed  more  time. 
As  soon  as  the  legs  are  drawn  up  to- 
gether, the  man  at  the  quarters  is  quite 
safe  from  injury,  and  he  may  lean  forcibly 
against  that  part,  and  force  the  horse  over 
to  the  off  side,  upon  which  he  falls ;  the- 
assistant   at  the  head  keeping  that  part 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


i*3 


down,  no  further  struggling  takes  place, 
and  he  is  secured  by  passing  the  end  of 
the  rope  under  the  hobble  rings  between 
the  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  securing  it 
with  a  hitch.  Something  more,  however, 
is  necessary  to  be  done  before  any  of  the 
usual  operations  can  be  performed,  as  all 
of  the  legs  are  at  liberty  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent and  the  scrotum  cannot  be  reached 
in  safety.  The  following  further  precau- 
tions must  therefore  be  taken,  varying 
according  to  the  part  to  be  operated  on. 

For  castration  the  horse  should  be 
cast  on  his  near  side,  with  a  web  halter 
in  the  usual  place  of  a  collar.  The  rope 
of  the  halter  is  then  passed  through  the 
ring  of  the  hobble  on  the  off  hind  leg, 
and  using  it  as  a  pulley  the  foot  is  drawn 
forcibly  forward  beyond  the  arm  and 
firmly  secured  to  the  webbing  round  the 
neck,  and  bringing  it  back  again  it  may 
be  passed  round  the  thigh  above  the  hock 
(which  should  be  guarded  from  friction 
by  a  soft  cloth  or  leather),  amd  again  se- 
cured to  the  webbing.  By  these  precau- 
tions the  scrotum  is  completely  exposed, 
and  the  hind  legs  cannot  be  stirred  be- 
yond the  slight  spasmodic  twitch  which 
extends  to  the  whole  body. 

To  perform  any  operation  on  the  fore 
leg,  it  must  be  taken  out  of  its  hobble,  and 
drawn  forward  upon  the  straw  by  a  web- 
bing attached  to  its  pastern,  where  it 
must  be  held  by  an  assistant,  the  horse 
having  little  or  no  power  over  it  in  this 
position. 

The  hind  leg  is  secured  in  the  same 
way  as  for  castration,  unless  the  fetlock 
is  to  be  fired,  when  webbing  must  be  ap- 
plied to  the  thigh  above  the  hock  only. 
With  most  horses,  however,  firing  can  be 
performed  without  casting,  by  buckling 
up  the  fore  leg,  or  by  having  it  held  by 
a  competent  assistant. 

When  the  horse  is  to  be  released,  the 
hobbles  are  quietly  unbuckled  in  succes- 
sion, beginning  with  the  undermost  hind 
leg. 

Several  improved  hobbles  have  been 
invented,  but  they  are  suited  rather  for 
the  veterinary  surgeon  than  for  the  ordi- 
nary horsemaster,  who  will  only  require 
them  for  castration  and  minor  operations. 

The  side  line  is  sometimes  used  for  se- 
curing one  hind  leg  thus  :  the  long  rope 
and  single  hobble  only  are  required,  the 
latter  being  buckled  to  the  hind  pastern, 


which  is  to  be  secured.  The  rope  is  then 
passed  over  the  withers  and  brought  back 
round  the  bosom  and  shoulder  of  the 
same  side  as  the  leg  to  which  it  is  secured, 
and  then  passed  inside  the  first  part  of 
the  rope.  By  pulling  at  the  end  of  this 
cord  the  hind  leg  is  drawn  up  to  the 
shoulder,  and  secured  there  with  a  hitch, 
but  the  plan  is  not  nearly  so  safe  as  cast- 
ing. 

The  trevis  or  break  consists  of  four 
strong  posts  driven  into  the  ground,  at  the- 
corners  of  a  space  six  feet  long  by  three 
feet  wide.  They  are  strongly  braced  to- 
gether by  wooden  stays,  three  feet  six 
inches  from  the  ground  on  three  sides,  the. 
fourth  being  left  open  for  the  horse  to  en- 
ter, after  which  this  also  is  made  good  by 
a  padded  bar  passed  through  stout  iron 
rings  fixed  at  three  feet  from  the  ground  to 
the  uprights.  By  means  of  this  frame- 
work, to  which  sundry  rings  are  bolted, 
the  body  of  the  horse  is  first  securely  con- 
fined by  two  broad  bands  under  the  belly 
and  two  above  the  shoulders  and  croup. 
Thus  he  can  neither  rear  nor  kick  to  any 
extent  sufficient  to  free  himself,  and  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  lay  hold  of  any  limb 
selected  for  operation,  and  confine  it  to 
one  of  the  uprights,  or  to  some  other  con- 
venient point.  This  is  the  best  plan  to 
be  adopted  for  firing  and  other  operations 
on  the  legs,  and  if  the  belly-bands  are 
wide,  strong,  and  secure,  chloroform  may 
be  administered  in  it,  without  the  horse 
going  down. 

The  twitch  is  a  short  stick  of  strong 
ash,  about  the  size  of  a  mopstick,  with  a 
hole  pierced  near  the  end,  through  which 
is  passed  a  peice  of  strong  but  small  cord,, 
and  tied  in  a  loop  large  enough  to  admit 
the  open  hand  freely.  This  is  passed 
over  the  upper  lip  close  to  the  nostrils, 
and  then,  by  twisting  the  stick,  compres- 
sion is  made  to  a  painful  extent,  which 
will  keep  horses  quiet  for  any  slight  oper- 
ation. Sometimes  it  is  placed  on  the  ear 
in  preference,  but  in  either  case  the  effect 
is  dependent  on  the  pain  produced. 

Barnacles  consist  in  the  application  of 
pressure  by  means  of  the  handles  of  a 
pair  of  pincers  inclosing  the  muzzle,  and 
held  firmly  by  an  assistant.  They  are, 
however,  not  so  useful  as  the  twitch. 

HORSE,  Bleeding. — In  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century  bleeding  was  re- 


124 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIED 


sorted  to  on  every  appearance  of  the 
slightest  inflammation,  and  often  without 
the  slightest  necessity.  Many  horses  were 
regularly  bled  "  every  spring  and  fall,"  to 
prevent  mischief,  as  was  supposed ;  but  at 
last  it  always  happened  to  every  horse 
which  lived  long  enough,  that  the  more  fre- 
quently blood  was  taken,  the  more  the  oper- 
ation was  required,  and  when  it  was  ab- 
solutely wanted  to  lower  the  heart's  action, 
such  a  quantity  of  blood  must  be  taken 
that  the  system  was  reduced  to  a  danger- 
ous degree.  Stallions  were  constantly 
submitted  to  this  treatment,  and  mares  as 
long  they  were  worked,  so  that  in  course 
of  time  it  has  happened  to  the  horse,  as  it 
has  also  to  man  himself,  that  the  horrid 
abuse  of  the  lancet  for  two  or  three  con- 
secutive generations  has  completely  chang- 
ed the  type  of  the  diseases  to  which  they 
are  both  subject.  Inflammation  does  not 
now  follow  the  same  course  that  it  used  to 
do,  but  is  of  a  much  milder  type,  and  the 
attendant  fever  is  inclined  to  assume  the 
typhoid  character,  if  lowering  measures 
are  pushed  to  any  great  extent.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  account  for  this 
change  in  human  diseases  by  the  altera- 
tion in  the  habits  of  the  present  genera- 
tion, which  are  certainly  more  temperate 
than  those  of  the  previous  one ;  but  in  the 
case  of  the  horse  the  reverse  holds  good, 
for  he  is  now  stimulated  by  more  corn 
than  ever.  The  only  point,  as  far  as  we 
can  make  out,  in  which  the  horse  and  his 
master  have  been  similarly  maltreated,  is 
in  the  abuse  of  the  lancet,  which  undoubt- 
edly may  account  for  the  change  in  the 
type  of  their  diseases  to  which  we  have 
alluded,  and  it  is,  therefore,  reasonable  to 
refer  it  to  this  cause.  But  though  this  pow- 
erful agent  has  been  thus  abused,  we  must 
not  be  deterred  from  having  recourse  to 
it  when  severe  inflammation  occurs  in  the 
horse.  Sometimes  there  is  no  time  to 
wait  for  the  effects  of  a  slower  remedy, 
even  if  there  is  one  which  will  be  suffi- 
ciently powerful  to  control  the  heart's 
action.  The  only  sensible  plan  in  such 
case  is  to  choose  the  lesser  of  the  two 
evils,  and  to  save  life,  or  the  integrity  of 
the  organ  attacked,  as  the  case  may  be, 
by  abstracting  blood,  always  remember- 
ing that  this  is  to  be  avoided  as  long  as  it 
is  safe  to  do  so,  but  that  when  it  is  decid- 
ed on,  a  sufficient  quantity  must  be  taken 
to  produce  a  sensible  effect,  without  which 


there  is  no  attendant  good  to  counterbal- 
ance the  evil.  ' 

Bleeding  is  either  performed  in  the  jug- 
ular vein,  when  the  whole  system  is  to  be 
affected;  or  when  a  part  of  the  body 
only  is  inflamed,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
abstract  blood  locally,  as  for  instance 
from  the  toe  or  from  the  plate  vein,  in  in- 
flammation of  the  foot,  and  in  ophthal- 
mia from  the  vein  which  lies  on  the  face 
just  below  the  eye. 

The  instruments  used  are  either  the 
lancet  or  the  fleam,  the  former  being  the 
safer  of  the  two,  but  requiring  some  prac- 
tice to  manage  it  properly.  In  bleeding 
from  the  jugular  vein,  a  string  is  some- 
times tied  round  the  neck  below  the  part 
to  be  opened,  which  is  four  or  five  inches 
below  the  fork  in  the  vein  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  neck.  The  skilled  operator, 
however,  makes  pressure  with  his  left 
hand  answer  the  purpose  of  causing  the 
vein  to  rise,  and  during  this  state  either 
uses  the  lancet  with  his  right  or  the  fleam 
with  the  aid  afforded  by  the  blow  of  a 
short  stick,  callen  a  "blood  stick." 
When  the  blood  begins  to  flow,  the  edge 
of  the  bucket  which  catches  it  is  pressed 
against  the  same  part,  and  as  long  as  this 
is  continued  a  full  stream  will  run  until 
faintness  occurs.  After  sufficient  blood  has 
been  been  taken,  the  two  lips  of  the  wound 
are  raised  between  the  fingers,  and  a  small 
common  pin  passed  through  both,  when 
the  point  is  cut  off  and  some  tow  is  twist- 
ed round,  by  which  the  edges  are  kept  to- 
gether and  the  pin  is  retained  in  position. 
In  a  couple  of  days  the  pin  may  be  with- 
drawn without  disturbing  the  tow,  and 
the  wound  will  heal  with  little  or  no  de- 
formity. Sometimes  the  blood  continues 
to  flow  beneath  the  skin  after  it  is  pinned, 
and  a  swelling  takes  place  in  consequence, 
which  is  called  ecchymosis.  "When  this 
happens,  cold  water  should  be  freely  ap- 
plied and  the  head  kept  up  by  racking  to 
the  manger. 

The  quantity  of  blood  necessary  to  be 
taken  will  vary  according  to  circumstances, 
and  can  scarcely  be  fixed  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  blood  drawn,  but  a  repe- 
tition of  the  operation  may  be  decided  on 
if  the  clot  of  the  blood,  after  standing, 
is  very  concave  at  the  top  (cupped),  or  if 
it  is  very  yellow  (buffed),  and  especially 
if  both  these  signs  are  present.  In  in- 
flammation  of   a  severe   character  less 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


I2S 


than  six  quarts  of  blood  will  seldom 
lower  the  pulse  sufficiently  to  be  of  much 
service,  and  sometimes  seven  or  eight 
quarts  even  must  be  taken  from  a  large, 
plethoric  animal. 

Inflammation  of  the  vein  will  some- 
times supervene  upon  bleeding,  the  symp- 
toms being  a  slight  swelling  appearing  in 
the  evening,  or  the  next  day,  with  a  little 
oozing  from  the  wound.  These  are  soon 
followed  by  a  hard,  cord-like  enlarge- 
ment of  the  vein,  which  feels  hot  to  the 
touch,  and  the  parts  at  the  angle  of  the 
jaw  swell  considerably.  The  conse- 
quence generally  is  that  the  vein  is  oblit- 
erated, occasioning  some  disturbance  to 
the  circulation,  especially  when  the  head 
is  held  down,  as  it  is  at  grass.  The  treat- 
ment consists  in  cold  applications  as  long 
as  there  is  heat,  the  lotion  recommended 
(see  Horse,  Capped  Hock)  being  gen- 
erally useful.  When  the  heat  has  sub- 
sided, and  the  vein  remains  enlarged,  the 
biniodide  of  mercury  will  procure  the 
absorption  of  the  new  deposit,  by  rub- 
bing it  in  as  recommended.  (See  Horse, 
Splints.) 

HORSE,  Firing.  — The  purpose  for 
which  the  heated  iron  is  employed  is  two- 
fold ;  first,  to  produce  immediate  counter- 
irritation,  by  which  the  previous  inflam- 
mation is  reduced;  and  secondly,  to 
cause  the  formation  of  a  tight  compress 
over  the  part,  which  lasts  for  some 
months.  It  is  the  fashion  to  deny  the 
existence  of  the  latter  effect  of  this  ope- 
ration ;  but  every  practical  man  must  be 
aware  that  it  follows  upon  firing  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, but  always  lasting  for  a  few 
months,  until  the  skin  stretches  to  its  pre- 
vious condition.  The  blemish  which  it 
leaves,  and  the  pain  which  it  occasions, 
both  during  and  after  the  application  of 
the  iron,  should  cause  it  to  be  avoided 
when  any  equally  useful  substitute  can  be 
employed;  but,  unfortunately,  there  are 
many  cases  where  it  stands  without  a 
rival,  as  being  at  once  the  safest  and  the 
most  efficient  remedy  which  can  be  adopt- 
ed. Blisters  and  setons  can  be  made  to 
cause  the  same  amount  of  counter-irrita- 
tion; but  the  inflammation  accompany- 
ing the  former  often  extends  beneath  the 
skin,  and  increases  the  mischief  it  was  in- 
tended to  relieve;  while  the  latter  has  no 
effect    whatever  in  producing    pressure 


upon  the  parts  beneath.  The  pain  of 
firing  can  be  relieved  entirely  at  the  time 
of  the  operation  by  chloroform;  but  the 
subsequent  smarting  is  quite  as  bad,  and 
this  is  beyond  the  reach  of  any  anaesthetic. 
Independently,  however,  of  the  interests 
of  the  master,  it  is  also  to  the  advantage 
of  the  horse  to  get  thoroughly  cured ;  for 
if  he  is  not,  he  will  either  work  on  in 
misery,  or  he  will  be  consigned  to  the 
knacker's  yard ;  and,  therefore,  the  adop- 
tion of  the  most  efficacious  plan  of  treat- 
ment, even  if  somewhat  the  most  painful, 
is  the  best  for  both. 

Firing  may  be  performed  standing,  by 
the  use  of  the  side  line  for  the  hind  leg, 
or  by  fixing  up  one  fore  leg  when  the 
other  is  to  be  operated  on.  There  is, 
however,  nothing  like  the  break  or  trevis, 
where  more  than  a  slight  extent  of  sur- 
face is  to  be  lined.  The  firing-iron  should 
have  a  smooth  edge,  about  the  thickness 
of  a  worn  shilling;  and  it  should  be 
heated  to  the  point  when  it  shows  a  dull 
red  in  the  dark.  When  the  disease  for 
which  the  irons  are  used  is  slight,  the  skin 
should  not  be  penetrated;  but  in  bad 
cases,  where  the  mischief  is  great,  and 
particularly  when  it  is  wanted  to  have  a 
good  permanent  bandage,  the  cauteriza- 
tion must  be  deeper;  but  this  requires 
some  practical  knowledge  to  decide. 
The  hair  of  the  part  should  be  cut  very 
closely  with  the  scissors,  or  shaved; 
then,  having  secured  the  leg,  the  iron  is 
to  be  steadily  but  rapidly  passed  in  par- 
allel lines  over  the  skin,  making  just  the 
proper  pressure  which  is  required  to  burn 
to  the  requisite  depth.  A  light  brown 
mark  should  be  left,  which  shows  that  the 
proper  effect  has  been  produced ;  and  the 
color  should  be  uniform,  unless  it  is  de- 
sired to  penetrate  deeper  at  certain  parts, 
which  is  sometimes  practised  with  ad- 
advantage.  The  lines  are  sometimes 
made  in  a  slanting  direction  round  the 
leg,  and  at  others  straight  up  and  down ; 
but  it  is  useless  to  describe  the  details  of 
this  operation,  which  can  only  be  learned 
by  watching  its  performance  by  another 
hand.  Badly  done,  firing  is  always  an 
eyesore;  but  when  the  lines  are  evenly 
drawn,  and  they  have  healed  without  any 
sloughs,  caused  by  irregular  or  excessive 
pressure,  they  show  that  a  master-hand 
has  been  at  work,  and  that  the  poor  beast 
has  been  treated  scientifically.     In  very 


126 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


severe  diseases,  a  blister  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied over  the  part,  immediately  after  the 
tiring;  but  this  can  seldom  be  required, 
and  as  it  aggravates  the  pain  tenfold,  it 
should  be  avoided,  if  possible.  On  the 
following  day,  a  little  neat's  foot  oil 
should  be  gently  rubbed,  or  brushed  with 
a  feather,  over  the  leg ;  and  this  should 
be  repeated  daily,  until  the  swelling  which 
'comes  on  has  nearly  subsided.  Less 
than  three  months'  rest  should  never  be 
allowed  for  the  operation  to  have  its  full 
effect,  as,  if  the  horse  is  put  to  work  be- 
fore that  time  has  elapsed,  the  disease 
will  almost  certainly  return.  Indeed,  it 
is  far  better  to  allow  double  this  time, 
especially  if  the  horse  is  wanted  for  fast 
work. 

HDItSE,  Setons  and  Rowels. — Se*ons 
are  pieces  of  tape  or  lamp  cotton,  passed 
through  and  beneath  the  skin,  leaving 
the  two  ends  hanging  out,  either  tied 
together  or  with  a  knot  upon  each.  The 
latter  is  the  safter  plan,  as  the  loop  is 
always  liable  to  be  caught  on  a  hook  or 
other  projecting  body.  The  needle  with 
which  the  passage  is  effected  has  a  spear 
point,  slightly  turned  up,  and  an  eye  at 
the  other  end,  through  which  the  tape  or 
cotton  is  threaded.  The  ordinary  one  is 
about  nine  or  ten  inches  long,  and  by  its 
means  a  tape  or  piece  of  lamp  cotton, 
smeared  with  blister  cerate,  may  be  passed 
through  a  long  track  of  the  cellular  mem- 
brane, by  pinching  up  the  skin  into  a'fold, 
and  piercing  this  close  to  the  body  with 
the  needle,  which  is  then  to  be  carried 
straight  through.  On  drawing  the  tape 
out  of  the  eye,  it  must  be  tied  in  a  large 
knot  at  each  end,  which  will  prevent  its 
slipping  out.  In  three  or  four  days,  a 
profuse  discharge  will  come  on,  and  it 
must  be  kept  up,  if  necessary,  by  repeated 
applications  of  blister  cerate,  or  digestive 
ointment,  as  may  be  necessary.  The 
ends  should  be  sponged  occasionally,  to 
remove  the  accumulated  matter. 

A  smaller  curved  needle,  about  five  or 
six  inches  long  is  used  for  introducing  a 
seton  into  the  frog,  or  beneath  the  eye. 
For  the  former  operation,  a  twitch  is  first 
applied,  and  the  foot  is  then  buckled  up 
to  the  arm.  The  needle  then,  armed  with 
the  tape,  greased  with  blister  cerate,  and 
a  little  oil  to  lubricate  the  surface,  is  thrust 
in  at  the  heel  and  out  at  the  cleft  of  the 
frog,  taking  care  not  to  go  deep  enough 


to  wound  the  tendon  as  it  passes  over  the 
navicular  bone.  The  needle  is  then  forci- 
bly drawn  through,  and  the  tape  knotted, 
as  already  described.  The  openings  must 
be  kept  clean  by  sponging  daily ;  and  in 
three  or  four  weeks  the  tape  will  have 
nearly  worked  its  way  out,  when  it  may 
be  withdrawn. 

Rowels  are  now  seldom  employed, 
being  very  unmanageable  plans  for  caus- 
ing counter-irritation.  An  incision, 
about  an  inch  long,  is  made  in  the  skin, 
selecting  a  part  where  it  is  loosely  at- 
tached, and  into  this  a  blunt  instrument, 
called  a  "  cornet,"  is  pushed,  and  worked 
about  in  all  directions,  until  the  skin  is 
separated  from  the  subjacent  parts  for  a 
circle  with  a  diameter  of  from  two  to 
three  inches.  Into  this  a  piece  of  thick 
leather  of  that  diameter,  with  a  hole  in 
the  middle,  is  inserted,  previously  having 
smeared  it  with  blister  cerate ;  and  the 
part  is  then  left  to  nature.  In  a  few  days, 
a  discharge  of  matter  comes  on,  which 
must  be  washed  off  occasionally ;  and  in 
the  course  of  time,  the  leather,  if  allowed, 
would  find  its  way  out  by  ulceration.  Be- 
fore, however,  this  takes  place,  it  is  gen- 
erally removed. 

HOBSE,  Blistering.— When  it  is  decid- 
ed to  blister  any  part,  the  hair  should  be 
cut  off  as  closely  as  possible ;  the  oint- 
ment is  then  rubbed  in  with  the  hand  for 
ten  minutes,  leaving  a  good  quantity 
smeared  on  the  surface.  If  the  legs  are  to 
be  blistered,  the  heels  should  be  protected 
by  lard.  Considerable  itching  is  caused 
after  the  first  two  or  three  days,  and  many 
horses,  if  allowed,  gnaw  the  part  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  cause  a  serious  blemish. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  keep  the  head 
away,  which  is  done  by  putting  a  "  cradle" 
on  the  neck.  The  irritation  of  loose 
straw  is  very  aggravating,  and  the 
stall  or  box  should  either  be  bedded  with 
tan,  or  sawdust,  or  with  used  litter,  so 
damp  as  to  lie  smoothly.  It  is  generally 
the  practice  to  put  the  blistered  horse  on 
a  bare  floor;  but  he  will  often  do  great 
harm  to  his  legs  and  feet  (which  are  of 
course  unsound,  or  they  would  not  be 
treated  in  this  way),  by  constantly  stamp- 
ing from  the  pain  occasioned  while  the 
blister  is'  beginning  to  rise.  When  the 
legs  are  stiff  and  sore  from  the  swelling, 
he  stands  still  enough,  but  at  first  there  is 
nothing  of  this   kind  to   keep  him  quiet. 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


127 


James'  blister,  which  is  very  mild,  and 
useful  for  trifling  diseases  of  the  legs,  or 
for  bringing  on  the  hair  after  "  broken 
knee,"  can  generally  be  used  without  a 
cradle ;  but  even  with  it  horses  will  some- 
times gnaw  themselves,  and  it  is  better 
not  to  run  any  risk.  At  the  end  of  a 
week,  some ,  neatsfoot  oil  should  be  ap- 
plied every  morning,  with  a  feather  or 
soft  brush,  to  keep  the  scabs  as  supple  as 
possible.  The  various  formulas  for  blis- 
ters will  be  given  in  the  list  of  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for. 

HORSE,  Castration.  —  For  removing 
the  testicles  several  methods  of  operation 
have  been  proposed ;  but  hitherto  none 
has  been  tried  which  is  so  successful  as 
the  old  plan,  in  which  the  division  of  the 
cord  is  performed  by  a  heated  iron  with  a 
sharp  edge.  In  human  surgery  the  sper- 
matic artery  is  tied,  and  all  danger  of 
haemorrhage  is  over,  because  the  small 
amount  of  bleeding  which  takes  place 
from  the  artery  of  the  cord  is  of  no  con- 
sequence, as  it  cannot  enter  the  cavity  of 
the  peritoneum.  In  the  horse,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  inguinal  canal  communi- 
cates with  that  cavity,  and  if  the  ligature 
is  used,  there  is  a  double  danger  of  in- 
flammation— first,  from  effused  blood;  and 
secondly,  from  the  irritation  of  the  ends 
of  the  ligature.  This  plan,  therefore,  is 
now  generally  abandoned,  though  some 
few  practitioners  still  adhere  to  it,  and  the 
choice  rests  between  two  methods  of  re- 
moval by  cautery,  namely,  the  actual  and 
potential — the  former  giving  more  pain 
at  the  moment  when  the  heated  iron  is 
applied,  but  the  latter  being  really  far 
more  severe,  as  the  caustic  is  a  long  time 
in  effecting  a  complete  death  of  the  nerve 
and  other  sensitive  parts.  Torsion  of  the 
vessels  has  been  also  tried,  but  it  is  often 
followed  by  haemorrhage,  and,  moreover, 
the  pain  which  is  caused  during  the  twist- 
ing of  the  artery  is  apparently  quite  as 
great  as  is  given  by  the  heated  iron.  We 
are  all  inclined  to  fancy  that  fire  occasions 
more  agony  than  it  really  does,  but  those 
who  have  in  their  own  persons  been  un- 
fortunately able  to  compare  the  effects  of 
the  two  kinds  of  cautery,  have  uniformly 
admitted  that  the  actual  is  less  severe  than 
the  potential,  if  the  two  are  used  so  as  to 
produce  the  same  amount  of  cauterization. 
The  best  period  for  performing  the 
operation  on  the  foal  is  just  before  wean- 


ing, provided  the  weather  is  mild.  If, 
however,  his  neck  is  very  light,  and  the 
withers  low,  its  postponement  till  the  fol- 
lowing spring  will  give  a  better  chance 
for  the  development  of  these  parts.  The 
cold  of  winter  and  heat  of  summer  are 
both  prejudicial,  and  the  months  of  April, 
May,  September,  or  October  should 
always  be  selected. 

No  preparation  is  required  in  the 
"  sucker,"  but  after  weaning,  the  system 
always  requires  cooling  by  a  dose  of 
physic  and  light  food  before  castration 
can  safely  be  performed.  Horses  which 
have  been  in  training,  or  other  kind  of 
work  attended  with  high  feeding,  require 
at  least  three  weeks'  or  a  month's  rest  and 
lowering,  by  removing  corn,  mashing,  &c, 
together  with  a  couple  of  doses  of  physic, 
before  they  are  fit  to  be  castrated. 

For  the  ordinary  method  of  operating,  a 
pair  of  clams  should  be  provided,  lined  at 
the  surfaces  where  the  compression  is 
made,  with  thick  layers  of  vulcanized 
india-rubber.  This  material  gives  a  very 
fiim  hold  without  bruising  the  cord, 
and  causing  thereby  inflammation.  A 
large  scalpel  and  a  couple  of  irons  will 
complete  the  list  of  instruments,  over  and 
above  the  apparatus  necessary  for  casting 
the  horse.  (See  Casting.)  The  horse 
being  properly  secured  according  to  the 
directions  there  given,  and  a  twitch  being 
put  on  the  lip  in  case  he  should  struggle 
much,  the  operator,  kneeling  on  the  left 
side,  grasps  the  testicle  so  as  to  make  the 
skin  of  the  scrotum  covering  it  quite  tense. 
A  longitudinal  incision,  about  three  inches 
long,  is  then  made  down  to  the  testicle, 
which,  if  care  has  been  taken  that  there  is 
no  rupture,  may  be  rapidly  done — a 
wound  of  its  surface  not  being  of  the 
slightest  consequence,  and  giving  far  less 
pain  than  the  slow  niggling  dissection  of 
its  coverings,  which  is  sometimes  practised 
to  avoid  it.  The  testicle  can  now  be 
cleared  of  its  coverings,  and  the  hand 
laying  hold  of  it  gently,  the  operator 
raises  it  from  its  bed,  and  slips  the  clams 
on  each  side  of  the  cord,  at  once  mak- 
ing the  proper  pressure  with  them,  which 
should  be  sufficient  to  prevent  all  risk  of 
the  part  inclosed  slipping  from  between 
its  jaws.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  whole  of  the  testicle,  including  the 
epididimis,  is  external .  to  the  clams ;  and 
as  soon  as  this  is  satisfactorily  ascertained, 


128 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


the  cord  may  be  divided  with  the  ordina- 
ry firing-iron  at  a  red  heat.  To  make 
sure  that  no  haemorrhage  shall  occur, 
some  operators  sear  the  artery  separately 
with  a  pointed  iron ;  but  if  the  division  is 
slowly  made  with  the  heated  iron,  and 
avoiding  any  drag  upon  the  cord,  no 
such  accident  will  be  at  all  likely  to  fol- 
low, though  very  rarely  it  will  happen  in 
spite  of  every  care.  The  clams  may  now 
be  removed,  and  the  other  testicle  treated 
in  the  same  way ;  after  which  the  hobbles 
are  cautiously  removed,  and  the  patient 
is  placed  in  a  roomy,  loose  box,  where  he 
can  take  sufficient  exercise  to  insure  the 
gravitation  of  the  discharge,  but  no  more. 
The  French  plan,  by  means  of  caustic, 
requires  two  pieces  of  wood,  each  about 
six  inches  long  and  an  inch  square,  with 
a  notch  or  neck  at  each  end,  to  hold  the 
twine  by  which  they  are  tied  together, 
and  a  groove  in  the  two  opposite  surfaces, 
to  hold  the  caustic.  This  is  composed  of 
one  part  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  four 
of  flour,  made  into  a  paste  with  water, 
and  it  is  introduced  while  moist  into  the 
grooves,  which  it  should  completely  fill. 
The  horse  is  then  secured  as  before,  the 
cord  is  exposed,  the  pieces  of  wood  are 
adjusted  on  each  side,  and  firmly  held  to- 
gether with  the  pincers  by  an  assistant, 
while  the  operator  binds  their  ends  to- 
gether with  waxed  string.  The  testicle 
may  now  be  removed  with  the  knife,  if 
the  string  has  been  tied  sufficiently  tight ; 
but  unless  the  operator  has  had  some  ex- 
perience, it  is  safer  to  let  it  remain  on  till 
it  comes  away  by  the  ulceration  of  the 
cord.  This  is  the  uncovered  operation, 
the  covered  one  being  performed  with  the 
same  instruments,  as  follows.  The  scro- 
tum is  grasped,  and  opened,  taking  care 
to  avoid  wounding  the  tunica  vaginalis 
reflexa,  or  outer  serous  investment,  but 
cutting  down  to  it  through  the  skin,  dar- 
tos  muscle,  and  cellular  membrane.  These 
are  to  be  carefully  dissected  back,  until 
the  cord  can  be  isolated  without  wound- 
ing its  serous  investment  (tunica  vaginalis), 
which  is  so  thin  that  it  is  easy  to  ascertain 
with  certainty  the  nature  of  its  contents 
by  examination  with  the  fingers.  If  there 
is  no  hernia,  the  caustic  can  at  once  be 
applied  to  its  outside  in  the  same  way  as 
before;  and  if  there  is,  it  must  be  pushed 
back  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  by 
a  little  careful  manipulation. 


Some  veterinary  surgeons  operate  in 
a  similar  way  to  one  or  other  of  the 
two  last  described  plans,  with  the  omission 
of  the  caustic,  which  they  maintain  is 
wholly  unnecessary,  for  there  must  be  suf- 
ficient pressure  to  cause  a  sloughing  of  the 
cord.  There  jk  certainly  some  truth  in 
this  argument,  but  if  the  pressure  has  not 
been  sufficient  to  cause  the  sloughs,  the 
caustic  will  assure  that  essential  process, 
and  thus  it  renders  the  operation  safer, 
though  it  somewhat  increases  the  subse- 
quent local  inflammation.  The  plan  with- 
out the  caustic  is  almost  precisely  the  same, 
as  far  as  safety  is  concerned,  as  that  form- 
erly adopted  by  country  farriers,  called 
"  twitching,"  in  which  two  pieces  of  wood 
were  applied  on  each  side  of  the  base  of 
the  scrotum,  and  tied  firmly  at  each  end. 
The  pain,  however,  occasioned  by  the 
pressure  on  so  large  a  surface  of  skin  is 
intense,  and  the  operation  is  on  that  ac- 
count indefensible,  besides  which  it  is  not 
nearly  so  successful  as  either  the  ordinary 
English  or  French  operations. 

HORSE,  Docking  and  Nicking.— These 
operations  on  the  tail  are  subject  to  the 
fashion  of  the  day,  the  former  being  used 
for  the  purpose  of  shortening  its  length, , 
which  is  inconvenient  to  the  rider  or 
driver  in  dirty  weather,  and  the  latter  for 
altering  its  carriage,  when  this  is  too  low 
for  the  taste  of  the  owner.  Nicking  is, 
however,  very  seldom  practised  in  the 
present  day,  and  never  to  the  extent 
which  was  the  fashion  fifty  years  ago. 
Herbert  says :  "  These  barbarous  meth- 
ods of  depriving  the  horse  of  his  natural 
form  and  appearance,  in  order  to  make 
him  conform  to  the  fashion  of  the  time, 
are,  fortunately,  very  fast  going  into  dis- 
use. If  the  tail  of  the  horse  were  given 
to  him  for  no  good  purpose,  and  if  it  were 
not  a  design  of  nature  that  he  should 
have  the  power  of  moving  it  forcibly  to 
his  sides,  there  might  be  some  excuse  for 
cutting  it  off,  within  a  few  inches  of  his 
body,  or  for  separating  the  muscles  at  its 
sides  to  lessen  this  power ;  but  that  this 
is  not  the  case,  must  be  acknowledged  by 
all  who  have  seen  how  a  horse,  whose 
tail  has  been  abridged  by  '  docking,'  or 
weakened  by  nicking,  is  annoyed  by  flies. 

"  If  a  horse  has  a  trick  of  throwing 
dirt  on  his  rider's  clothing,  this  may  be 
prevented  by  cutting  of  the  hair  of  the 
tail,  below  the  end  of  the  bones,  as  is  the 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


custom  with  hunters  in  England,  where 
the  hair  is  cut  squarely  off  about  eight  or 
ten  inches  above  the  hocks. 

"  No  apology  is  offered  for  not  giving 
in  this  work  a  description  of  these  two 
operations ;  they  are  so  barbarous  and  so 
senseless  that  they  are  going  very  rapidly 
out  of  fashion,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
they  will  ere  long  have  become  obsolete, 
as  has  the  cropping  of  the  ears,  formerly 
so  common  in  England. 

"  A  more  humane  way  of  setting  up 
the  horse's  tail,  to  give  him  a  more  stylish 
appearance,  is  by  simply  weighting  it,  for  a 
few  hours  each  day,  in  the  stall,  until  it 
attains  the  desired  elevation.  This  is 
done  by  having  two  pulleys  at  the  top  of 
the  stall,  one  at  each  side,  through  which 
are  passed  two  ropes,  which  come  togeth- 
er and  are  fastened  to  the  tail,  the  ropes 
having  at  their  other  ends  weights  (bags 
of  sand  or  of  shot  are  very  good  for  the 
purpose),  which  must  be  light  at  first,  and 
may  be  increased  from  day  to  day.  The 
weighting  should  be  continued  until  the 
tail  has  taken  a  permanent  position  as  de- 
sired. It  is  true  that  this  method  requires 
a  somewhat  longer  time  than  that  of  cut- 
ting the  muscles,  but  while  it  is  being 
done,  the  horse  is  never  off  his  work,  and 
he  suffers  infinitely  less  pain. 

"The  method  of  nicking  or  pricking,  as 
usually  performed  in  this  country,  is  not 
quite  so  cruel  or  so  hazardous  as  the  cut- 
ting of  the  muscles,  described  in  Stewart's 
1  Stable  Book : ' 

" '  The  tail  has  four  cords,  two  upper 
and  two  lower.  The  upper  ones  raise  the 
tail,  the  lower  ones  depress  it,  and  these 
last  alone  are  to  be  cut.  Take  a  sharp 
penknife  with  a  long  slender  blade ;  insert 
the  blade  between  the  bone  and  under 
cord,  two  inches  from  the  body;  place  the 
thumb  of  the  hand  holding  the  knife 
against  the  under  part  of  the  tail,  and  op- 
posite the  blade.  Then  press  the  blade 
toward  the  thumb  against  the  cord,  and 
cut  the  cord  off,  but  do  not  let  the 
knife  cut  through  the  skin.  The  cord  is 
firm,  and  it  will  easily  be  known  when  it 
is  cut  off.  The  thumb  will  tell  when  to 
desist,  that  the  skin  may  not  be  cut.  Sever 
the  cord  twice  on  each  side  in  the  same 
manner.  Let  the  cuts  be  two  inches  apart. 
The  cord  is  nearly  destitute  of  sensation; 
yet,  when  the  tail  is  pricked  in  the  old 
manner,  the  wound  to  the  skin  and  flesh 


is  severe,  and  much  fever  is  induced,  and 
it  takes  a  long  time  to  heal.  But  with 
this  method  the  horse's  tail  will  not  bleed, 
nor  will  it  be  sore,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, more  than  three  days ;  and 
he  will  be  pulleyed  and  his  tail  made  in 
one-half  of  the  time  required  by  the  old 
method.' " 

HORSE,  Unnerving. — The  nerves  dis- 
tributed to  the  foot  are  sometimes  divided 
for  navicular  disease,  as  they  lie  on  each 
side  of  the  bone  above  the  fetlock  joint. 
No  one,  however,  should  attempt  this  op- 
eration without  having  previously  seen  it 
performed,  as  it  requires  considerable  dex- 
terity for  its  due  execution.  We  have  de- 
scribed such  operations  as  can  be  wanted 
in  the  country,  where  a  veterinary  sur- 
geon cannot  always  be  reached,  but  un- 
nerving is  never  required  there,  and  we 
shall  therefore  omit  any  detailed  account 
of  it. 

HORSE,  Hernia,  Reduction  of— Her- 
nia is  sometimes  strangulated ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  protruding  portion  of  bowel  is 
confined  in  its  situation  by  such  pressure 
on  its  neck  as  to  cause  danger  of  mortifi- 
cation. Under  such  circumstances,  if  it 
is  found  to  be  impossible  to  return  the 
bowel  by  careful  manipulation,  an  opera- 
tion must  be  performed.  This  consists  in 
carefully  dissecting  through  the  coverings- 
of  the  bowel,  and  when  it  is  exposed  a 
long  and  narrow  guarded  knife  (Bistouri 
cache)  is  passed  by  the  side  of  the  intes- 
tine through  the  opening  into  the  abdo- 
men, and  then  making  the  blade  promi- 
nent it  is  withdrawn,  and  the  fibres  caus- 
ing the  pressure  are  divided.  This  usu- 
ally allows  of  the  Bowel  being  passed 
back  again  into  the  abdomen,  when  the 
operation  is  completed  by  bringing  the 
parts  together  with  one  or  two  stitches. 

When  hernia  occurs  in  the  colt  either 
at  the  naval  or  scrotum,  it  is  often  desired 
to  effect  a  cure  by  returning  the  bowel 
and  causing  the  opening  to  close  by  ad- 
hesive inflammation.  If  the  colt  is  uncut 
the  performance  of  the  covered -operation: 
on  the  French  plan  (see  Castration)  will 
generally  succeed,  great  care  being  of 
course  necessary  to  return  the  intestine 
before  the  clams  are  applied.  In  umbili- 
cal hernia,  a  similar  plan  has  been  tried, 
but  the  adhesion  is  too  superficial  to  be 
of  much  use;  and  the  only  successful 
method  is  the  passas."  of  one  or  two 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


skewers  through  the  opposite  edges  of  the 
opening,  and  then  winding  some  waxed 
twine  round  them,  with  a  moderate  de- 
gree of  force.  This  should  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  cause  mortification,  or  the  open- 
ing will  only  be  increased  in  size,  and  the 
bowel  will  protrude  without  any  covering 
of  skin;  but  it  should  be  just  sufficient 
to  cause  adhesive  inflammation ;  experi- 
ence in  such  matters  alone  enabling  the 
operator  to  hit  upon  the  right  amount. 

In  all  operations  for  hernia,  chloroform 
is  of  great  assistance,  as  it  prevents  the 
risk  of  a  protrusion  of  the  bowel  while 
the  knife  is  being  used,  which  will  other- 
wise sometimes  happen  during  the  strug- 
gles of  the  horse. 

HORSE,  Physic,  Administration  of. — 
Medicine  may  be  given  to  the  horse 
either  in  the  solid  form  as  a  ball,  or 
liquid,  and  then  called  a  drench,  or  as  a 
•  dry  powder,  when  in  small  compass  and 
with  little  taste,  mixed  with  the  corn  or 
.mash.  Sometimes  also  a  small  quantity 
of  a  tasteless  liquid,  such  as  liquor  arsen- 
icalis,  may  be  given  with  the  food. 

In  giving  a  ball  place  a  halter  on  the 
head  with  a  knot,  so  that  the  jaws  may 
be  widely  opened.  Then  turn  the  horse 
round  in  the  stall  and  back  him  up  to  the 
manger,  lay  hold  of  the  tongue  and  draw 
it  out  of  the  mouth,  grasp  it  with  the  left 
hand,  which  must  also  hold  the  halter- 
cord  so  short  that  the  strain  is  partly 
taken  off  the  tongue,  and  then  holding 
the  ball  in  the  right  hand  with  the  fingers 
inclosing  it  like  a  cone,  and,  the  arm 
bare,  it  should  be  rapidly  carried  to  the 
back  of  the  mouth  and  deposited  there, 
.holding  the  head  up  till  it  is  seen  to  pass 
down  the  gullet.  Cautious  grooms  use  a 
balling  iron,  which  gags  the  mouth  and 
protects  the  arm,  but  a  handy  man  will 
have  less  difficulty  in  introducing  his 
hand  than  in  inserting  the  gag,  unless  the 
horse  is  a  determined  biter,  when  it  may 
be  absolutely  necessary.  In  that  case  the 
gag  is  insinuated  with  as  much  case  as  a 
bit  in  a  flat  direction,  and  the  handle  be- 
ing suddenly  depressed,  the  mouth  gapes 
(and  the  teeth  cannot  be  brought  togeth- 
er. Then  holding  its  handle  together 
with  the  halter  in  the  left  hand,  the  right 
easily  introduces  the  ball  into  the 
pharynx. 

In  giving  a  drench,  two  persons  are 
necessary,   the  operator  standing  at  the 


right  shoulder,  while  the  assistant  is  ready 
to  steady  the  head  and  aid  him  on  th^ 
the  left.  The  operator  raises  the  head 
with  his  left  hand  beneath  the  jaw,  and 
with  his  right  he  forces  the  lip  of  the  horn 
into  the  side  of  the  mouth,  and,  raising 
the  small  end,  pours  the  contents  in.  If 
the  horse  is  violent,  a  twitch  must  be 
placed  on  the  nose  and  held  by  the 
assistant.  The  horn  must  not  be  passed 
far  into  the  mouth,  or  any  unnecessary  vio- 
lence used,  for  fear  of  producing  a 
cough ;  in  which  case  the  hand  must  be 
instantly  lowered.  A  neglect  of  this  pre- 
caution will  probably  cause  some  of  the 
liquid  to  pass  into  the  larynx. 

HORSE— Clysters  are  most  valuable 
agents,  if  properly  administered.  The 
best  syringe  for  the  purpose  is  Read's,  by 
which  any  quantity  may  be  thrown  up ; 
and  in  colic,  some  gallons  of  warm  water 
are  sometimes  required  to  produce  the 
desired  effect.  For  an  ordinary  opening 
clyster,  a  handful  or  two  of  common  salt 
may  be  dissolved  in  five  or  six  quarts  of 
warm  water. 

HORSE— Back-Raking  is  effected  by 
passing  the  greased  hand  and  arm  into 
the  rectum  and  withdrawing  any  harden- 
ed faeces  which  may  have  accumulated 
there.  When  the  quantity  of  these  is 
great,  the  hand  must  be  passed  several 
times,  until  it  cannot  reach  any  more. 
Whenever  physic  is  given  to  an  unpre- 
pared horse,  as  is  sometimes  necessary  in 
severe  disease,  this  precaution  should 
never  be  neglected.  Mr.  Gamgee,  of  Ed- 
inburgh, is  of  opinion  that  this  opera- 
tion is  more  safely  and  easily  performed 
by  the  aid  of  instruments,  supporting  his 
views  by  the  assertion  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  hand  gives  unnecessary  pain. 
On  one  or  two  occasions  we  have  cer- 
tainly seen  a  shoulder  of  mutton  at  the 
end  of  a  human  arm,  and  this  would  per- 
haps cause  some  little  difficulty ;  but  no 
hand  of  average  size  is  nearly  so  large  as 
the  mass  of  dung  usually  passed;  and 
those  who  are  not  above  doing  a  dirty 
job  when  duty  requires  it,  well  know  by 
experience  that  the  hand  and  arm  may 
be  passed  to  the  shoulder  without  giving 
any  pain  whatsoever.  Instruments  are 
useful  when  they  cannot  be  dispensed 
with,  but  they  are  always  liable  to  cause 
laceration. 

HORSE,  Bowels,  Loose. — In   cases  of 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


*3* 


chronic  diarrhoea  a  good  remedy  is  to  put 
powdered  charcoal  in  the  feed,  and  if  the 
disease  depends  on  a  digestive  function — 
the  liver  included — give  a  few  doses  of 
the  following : 

Powdered  Golden  Seal 2  ounces. 

Ginger -     .    -     .     -  i       «« 

Salt      ----- i      " 

Dose,  }4  ounce  twice  a  day. 

HORSE,  Clicking.— This  is  noticeable 
by  a  disagreeable  clicking  noise  made  by 
the  horse  striking  the  toe  of  his  hind  shoe 
.against  the  inner  edge  of  the  fore  one. 
To  prevent  this  annoying  habit,  shoe  the 
hind  foot  short  at  the  toe — that  is  to  say, 
set  the  shoe  as  far  back  as  you  can  with 
safety  and  security.  The  fore  shoe  should 
be  forged  narrow,  with  the  inner  margin 
filed  round  and  smooth. 

HORSE,  Flies,  to  keep  from.— Procure 
a  bunch  of  smartweed  and  bruise  it  to 
cause  the  juice  to  exude.  Rub  the  ani- 
mal thoroughly  with  the  bunch  of  bruised 
weed,  especially  on  the  legs,  neck  and 
ears.  Neither  flies  nor  other  insects  will 
trouble  him  for  twenty-four  hours.  The 
process  should  be  repeated  every  day. 
A  very  convenient  way  of  using  it  is  to 
make  a  strong  infusion  by  boiling  the 
weed  a  few  minutes  in  water.  When  cold 
it  can  be  conveniently  applied  with  a 
sponge  or  brush.  Smartweed  is  found 
growing  in  every  section  of  the  country, 
usually  on  wet  ground  near  the  highways. 

Another. — Take  two  or  three  small 
handfuls  of  walnut  leaves,  upon  which 
pour  two  or  three  pints  of  soft  and  cold 
water ;  let  it  infuse  one  night,  and  let  it 
boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour;  when  cold 
it  will  be  fit  for  use.  No  more  is  required 
than  to  moisten  a  sponge,  and  before  the 
horse  goes  out  of  the  stable  let  those 
parts  which  are  most  irritable  be  smeared 
over  with  the  liquor,  viz:  between  and 
upon  the  ears,  the  flank,  etc. 

HORSE,  Heaves. — This  disease  is  indi- 
cated by  a  short,  dull,  spasmodic  cough, 
and  a  double-jerking  movement  at  the 
flank  during  expiration.  If  a  horse  suf- 
fering from  this  disease  is  allowed  to  dis- 
tend his  stomach  at  his  pleasure,  with  dry 
food  entirely,  and  then  to  drink  cold 
water,  as  much  as  he  can  hold,  he  is 
nearly  worthless.  But  if  the  food  be 
moistened,  and  he  be  allowed  to  drink  a 
moderate  quantity  only  at  a  time,  the  dis- 
ease is  much  less  troublesome. 


Take  one  pound  and  a  half  ot  good 
ginger  for  a  horse.  Give  two  table  spoon- 
fuls a  day,  one  in  the  morning  and  the 
other  in  the  evening,  mixed  with  bran. 
This  recpie  has  been  selling  at  five  dol- 
lars to  the  eastward,  where  the  efficacy  of 
the  above  medicine  has  been  proved  in 
the  cure  of  several  cases  of  obstinate 
heaves.  Another  remedy  is  to  feed  no 
hay  to  the  horse  for  36  or  48  hours,  and 
give  only  a  pailful  of  water  at  a  time. 
Then  throw  an  armful  of  well  cured  smart 
weed  before  him  and  let  him  eat  all  he 
will.  In  all  cases  where  the  cells  of  the 
lungs  are  not  broken  down  great  relief, 
if  not  a  perfect  cure,  will  follow.  Anoth- 
er remedy  is  sunflower  seed,  feeding  one 
or  two  quarts  of  the  seed  daily. 

HORSE,  Hoof,  Cracked.— The  horse 
must  be  laid  up  from  work,  if  possible. 
The  shoe  must  be  removed.  The  edges 
of  the  crack  must  be  pared  away  at  the 
upper  part,  so  that  a  distinct  separation 
is  made  between  the  crack  and  the  coro- 
net, or  between  the  old  horn  of  the  hoof 
and  the  substance  from  which  the  new 
horn  grows.  No  union  can  ever  be 
formed  of  the  parts  separated  by  the  old 
crack,  so  that  a  new  start  must  be  had. 
Blistering  ointment  may  be  applied  to  the 
coronet,  to  encourage  the  new  growth, 
and  the  hoof  should  be  smeared  with  tar 
and  bound  up,  to  prevent  injury  by  blows 
or  accidents.  (See  Horse,  Navicular 
Disease.) 

HORSES,  How  to  Save  from  Barns  on 
Fire. — Horses  are  frequently  burned  to 
death  when  barns  or  stables  are  on  fire, 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  leading  or 
driving  them  out  of  the  building  while 
their  eyes  are  dazzled  by  the  blaze.  But 
we  are  assured  that  by  simply  covering 
their  eyes  with  a  bag,  a  coat,  or  a  pocket- 
handkerchief,  they  may  be  led  out  of 
danger  without  trouble  or  difficulty.  They 
will  readily  come  out  if  the  saddle  and 
bridle,  or  harness  to  which  they  are  accus- 
tomed, be  thrown  over  them  as  usual. 

HORSES,  Palsy  in.— The  stream  of 
nervous  influence  is  sometimes  stopped, 
and  thence  results  palsy.  Every  organ 
of  motion  and  of  sense  is  paralyzed. 

Palsy  in  the  horse  generally  attacks  the 
hind  extremities.  It  commences  gener- 
ally in  one  hind  leg,  or  perhaps  both  are 
equally  affected.  The  animal  can  scarcely 
walk. 


132 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


Commence  with  bleeding.  Continue 
until  the  pulse  begins  to  falter  or  the 
horse  to  reel.  To  this  should  follow  a 
dose  of  physic — strong,  compared  with 
the  size  of  the  animal.  The  loins  should 
be  covered  with  a  mustard  poultice  fre- 
quently renewed.  The  patient  should  be 
warmly  clothed,  supplied  plentifully  with 
mashes,  but  without  a  grain  of  corn  in 
them ;  and  frequently  injections  should  be 
had  recourse  to. 

HORSE,  Tongue,  Sore  to  Cure.— By 
making  use  of  a  little  tar,  once  a  day, 
rubbed  on  the  tongue  of  the  sound  horses 
with  a  mop,  is  an  effectual  preventive; 
for  the  diseased  horse,  take  a  common  ta- 
blespoonful  of  the  spirits  of  turpentine 
and  pour  it  on  the  tongue,  as  far  down  as 
practicable,  then  with  a  mop  well  satur- 
ated with  the  spirits  of  turpentine,  mop 
every  part  of  the  tongue ;  after  this  make 
use  of  the  tar  in  the  way  above  men- 
tioned as  a  preventive;  this  done  once  or 
twice  a  day,  for  two  or  three  days,  has 
never  failed  making  a  cure. 

HORSE,  Tongue,  Lolling  of  the.— Rivet 
a  section  of  a  knife  from  a  mowing-ma- 
chine on  his  bit;  dull  the  edges,  and 
make  everything  smooth.  The  knife  run- 
ning up  in  his  mouth  prevents  him  from 
drawing  his  tongue  far  enough  back  to 
get  it  over  the  bit.  Carelessness  in 
breaking  colts  is  the  cause  of  it. 

HORSE,  Big  Head.— When  this  dis- 
ease occurs,  every  care  must  be  taken  to 
improve  the  general  health.  Let  work 
be  regular  and  moderate.  Have  the  sta- 
ble clean,  dry,  and  well  ventilated.  Feed 
on  sound  hay  and  oats,  either  bruised  or 
cooked.  Under  no  circumstances  give 
the  horses  Indian  corn.  Four  or  five 
pounds  of  linseed  cake  may  be  given 
daily.  Give  every  day  in  the  feed  two 
drachms  of  phosphate  of  iron,  and  four 
drachms  of  powdered  gentian. 

HORSE,  Big  Shoulder.— (See  HoRse, 
Big  Head.) 

Horse,  Big  Leg. — Apply  the  Blister  (see 
Buster,  Liquid  in  Medical  Receipts) 
every  third  hour  until  it  blisters.  In 
three  days  wash  the  leg  with  linseed  oil. 
In  six  days  wash  it  clean  with  soap  and 
water.  Repeat  the  last,  operation  every 
six  days  until  the  swelling  goes  down. 
If  there  should  be  any  callous  left,  apply 
Spavin  Ointment.    (See  Horse,  Spavin.) 

HORSE,  Breast,  Sore.— This  generally 


occurs  in  the  spring,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  plowing.  At  times  the  fault  is  in 
having  poor  old  collars,  and  not  having 
the  collar  properly  fitted  to  the  horse's 
breast;  and  at  others,  the  hames  are 
either  too  tight  or  too  loose.  There  is  a 
great  difference  in  horses  about  getting 
chafed  or  galled,  and  at  times  it  has 
seemed  to  be  impossible  to  keep  their 
breasts  from  getting  sore,  but  a  thorough 
application  of  strong  alum  water  or  white 
oak  bark  to  the  breast  of  the  animal, 
three  days  before  going  to  work,  will 
toughen  the  flesh,  so  that  the  same  will 
not  get  sore.  Another  excellent  plan  is, 
when  you  let  your  team  rest  for  a  few 
moments  during  work,  to  raise  the  collar, 
pull  it  a  little  forward,  and  rub  the 
breast  thoroughly  with  your  naked  hand. 

HORSE,  Blood,  Fullness  of.  — When 
this  condition  appears,  the  eyes  appear 
heavy,  dull,  red  or  inflamed,  and  are  fre- 
quently closed  as  if  asleep.  The  pulse  is 
small  and  oppressed;  the  heat  of  the 
body  somewhat  increased;  the  legs  swell; 
the  hair  also  rubs  off.  Horses  that  are 
removed  from  grass  to  a  warm  stable,  and 
full  fed  on  hay  and  corn,  and  not  suffi- 
ciently exercised,  are  very  subject  to  one 
or  more  of  these  symptoms.  By  regu- 
lating the  quantity  of  food  given  them, 
by  proper  exercise,  and  occasional  laxa- 
tives a  cure  may  soon  be  effected. 

HORSE,  Gravel.— Steep  one  pound  of 
hops  in  a  half  gallon  of  water,  and  give 
it  as  hot  as  the  horse  can  bear  it. 

HORSE,  Founder,  To  Cure.  — Clean 
out  the  bottom  of  the  foot  thoroughly, 
hold  up  firmly  in  a  horizontal  position, 
and  pour  in  a  tablespoonful  of  spirits  of 
turpentine,  if  the  cavity  will  hold  that 
much ;  if  not,  then  pour  in  as  much  as  it 
will  hold,  without  running  over.  Touch 
the  turpentine  with  a  red  hot  iron  (this 
will  set  it  on  fire),  hold  the  hoof  firmly 
in  this  position  till  it  burns  out,  and  be 
careful  that  none  of  the  turpentine  runs 
on  the  hair  of  the  hoof,  lest  the  skin  be 
burned.  This  will  give  speedy  relief,  and 
the  animal  will  be  ready  for  service  in  a 
short  time.  Another  way,  is  to  mix  a 
pint  of  the  seed  of  the  sunflower  in  his 
feed,  as  soon  as  the  founder  is  discovered. 
Still  another  plan  is  adopted  by  some  of 
standing  the  animal  up  to  his  belly  in 
water  a  short  time  daily,  for  six  or  seven 
times. 


HORSE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT 


123 


HORSE,  Hoof-Bound. — Cut  down  sev- 
eral lines  from  the  coronet  to  the  toe  all 
around  the  hoof,  and  fill  the  cuts  with 
tallow  and  soap  mixed ;  take  off  the  shoes, 
and  (if  you  can  spare  him)  turn  the  ani- 
mal into  a  wet  meadow,  where  his  feet 
will  be  kept  moist.  Never  remove  the 
sole  or  burn  the  lines  down,  as  this  in- 
creases instead  of  diminishing  the  evil. 

HORSE,  Hair,  Loss  of. — To  promote  the 
growth  of  hair,  where  the  skin  has  been 
deadened  by  bruises  or  rubbing,  take  of 
quinine  eight  grains,  finely  powdered 
galls  ten  grains,  powdered  capsicum  five 
grains,  oil  of  almonds  and  pure  lard  of 
each  one  ounce,  oil  of  lavender  twenty 
drops ;  mix  thoroughly,  and  apply  a  small 
quantity  to  the  denuded  parts  two  or 
three  times  a  week.  Where  there  is  fall- 
ing out  of  the  hair  of  the  mane  and  tail, 
take  glycerine  two  ounces,  sulphur  one 
ounce,  acetate  of  lead  two  drachms, 
water  eight  ounces.  To  be  well  mixed, 
and  applied  by  means  of  a  sponge. 

HORSE,  Halter  Pulling.— A  new  way 
to  prevent  horses  pulling  at  the  halter,  is 
to  put  a  very  small  rope  under  the  horse's 
tail,  bringing  the  ends  forward,  crossing 
them  on  the  back,  and  tying  them  on  the 
breast.  Put  the  halter  strap  through  the 
ring,  and  tie  to  the  rope  in  front  of  the 
breast.  When  the  horse  pulls,  he  will,  of 
course,  find  himself  in  rather  an  uncom- 
fortable position,  and  discontinue  the 
effort  to  free  himself. 

HORSE,  Ringbone,  Remedies. — Pul- 
verized cantharides,  oils  of  spike,  origa- 
num, amber,  cedar,  Barbadoes  tar,  and 
British  oil,  of  each  two  ounces;  oil  of 
wormwood  one  ounce  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine four  ounces,  common  potash  half 
ounce,  nitric  acid  six  ounces,  oil  of  vitriol 
(sulphuric  acid)  four  ounces,  and  lard 
three  pounds.  Melt  the  lard  and  slowly 
add  the  acids;  stir  well  and  add  the  oth- 
ers, stirring  until  cold.  Clip  off  the  hair, 
and  apply  by  rubbing  and  heating  in;  in 
about  three  days,  or  when  it  is  done  run- 
ning, wash  off  with  suds  and  apply  again. 
In  old  cases  it  may  take  three  or  four 
weeks,  but  in  recent  cases  two  or  three 
applications  will  cure. — 2.  Take  half  pint 
spirits  of  turpentine,  half  ounce  blue- 
stone,  half  ounce  of  red  precipitate. 
Shake  well  and  use  every  morning ;  and 
keep  the  hoof  well  greased.  This  will 
not  only  take  off  the  hair,  but  cause  a 


severe  blister,  which,  after  healing,  if 
there  still  be  signs  of  lameness,  repeat  the 
remedy. 

HORSE,  Scratches.— If  a  horse's  blood 
is  pure  he  will  not  have  the  scratches. 
Give  him  a  tablespoonful  of  saltpetre 
every  day  for  fifteen  days,  and  be  careful 
about  his  taking  cold  while  feeding  it. 
It  opens  the  pores,  so  that  he  will  take 
cold  very  easy.  Along  with  this  take 
pure,  dry  white  lead,  pure  oxide  of  zinc, 
and  glycerine,  of  each  half  an  ounce; 
fresh  lard  (free  from  rancidity)  1  *4  ounce. 
Mix  the  white  lead,  oxide  of  zinc  and 
glycerine  to  a  uniform,  smooth  paste, 
then  add  the  lard,  a  little  at  a  time,  till  a 
uniform,  smooth  ointment  is  formed. 
Wash  the  parts  with  Castile  soap  and 
water,  and  dry  with  a  cloth,  then  apply 
the  ointment  two  or  three  times  daily 
with  the  fingers.  Wash  once  in  two  or 
three  days,  and  dry  the  spot  well  before 
dressing  again. 

The  horse  should  stand  on  a  plank 
floor  kept  clean  and  dry;  and  if  used, 
all  dust,  sand  and  dirt  should  be  washed 
off,  so  that  the  affected  parts  may  remain 
clean.  If  these  directions  are  strictly 
carried  out,  it  will  seldom,  if  ever,  fail  to 
cure  the  very  worst  cases  within  a  reason- 
able time. 

HORSE,  Sweeny. — A  horse  is  said  to 
be  sweenied  when  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulder  appear  to  have  perished  away, 
and  the  skin  seems  to  be  attached  closely 
to  the  shoulder-blade.  These  symptoms 
may  arise  from  chronic  lameness  in  the 
foot  or  other  part  of  the  limb.  In  such 
case,  of  course  it  is  of  no  use  to  apply 
remedies  to  the  shoulder.  Cure  the  foot, 
and  the  shoulder  will  come  right,  although 
stimulants  and  rubbing  will  expedite  it. 
But  genuine  sweeny  is  quite  different  from 
the  above,  although  the  appearances  are 
the  same.  It  is  caused  by  hard  drawing 
in  a  collar  that  is  too  large ;  or  where  no 
whiffletree  is  ever  used,  but  the  traces  are 
hitched  directly  to  the  thills,  as  in  "jump- 
ers,' as  they  are  called;  or  by  jumping 
fences,  or  the  like.  The  presence  of  real 
sweeny  may  be  discovered  by  moving  the 
horse  in  a  circle,  or  causing  him  to  step 
over  bars,  when  you  can  generally  deter- 
mine the  seat  of  the  lameness.  For  such 
cases  irritants  with  friction,  is  the  proper 
treatment.     Blistering  liniment,  or  seton, 


134 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


or  a  piece  of  leather  inserted  under  the 
skin,  will  cure,  with  rest. 

HORSE,  Warts  on  Nose.  —  Dissolve 
one-half  pound  of  alum  in  a  quart  of 
water,  with  a  brush  or  cloth  wet  the  warts 
twice  each  day  for  four  days,  and  they 
will  disappear.  Another  remedy  is  to 
smear  the  warts  with  salted  butter. 

HORSE,  Water-Farcin.  —  Symptoms : 
The  horse  is  dull  and  loses  his  appetite, 
and  swells  along  the  belly  or  chest  and 
between  the  fore  legs.  To  cure :  Rowel 
in  the  breast  and  along  each  side  of  the 
chest,  as  far  as  the  swelling  goes.  Leave 
the  rowels  in  until  the  swelling  goes 
down ;  give  a  spoonful  of  cleansing  pow- 
ders morning  and  night. 

HORSE,  Wen,  To  Cure  a.— Take  equol 
parts  of  soft  soap  and  slacked  lime,  well 
mixed.  Lance  the  wen  at  the  time  of 
making  the  application,  or  two  or  three 
days  after.  Two  or  three  applications 
will  cure. 

HORSE,  Wind  in,  to  Improve.— It  will 
be  found,  if  tar  water  and  powdered 
charcoal  are  mixed  with  horse's  feed,  that 
it  will  have  a  most  beneficial  effect  on  his 
wind  and  condition. 

HORSE,  Nasal  Gleet  or  Running  at  the 
Nose. — Take  one-half  pound  rosin,  one- 
halt  pound  blue  vitrol,  and  lour  ounces 
ginger;  grind  them  together  to  powder, 
and  give  the  horse  a  spoonful  two  or 
three  times  a  day. 

HORSE,  Baulky,  to  Cure.— A  sure  and 
complete  remedy  to  cure  a  baulky  horse, 
is  to  silently  take  a  rope  and  tie  one  end 
to  his  tail  and  the  wagon,  making  it  so 
that  when  you  start  him  the  rope  will 
be  so  short  that  the  whole  strain  of 
the  pull  will  be  upon  the  rope  and  tail. 
This  is  an  effectual  remedy.  The  horse 
will  pull  to  save  his  tail — and  he  will 
never  repeat  the  operation  again.  A  city 
passenger  railway  in  Philadelphia,  which 
owned  nearly  fifty  baulky  horses,  gave 
$  1,000  for  this  receipt  on  condition  that 
it  operated  as  recommended,  and  out  of 
the  fifty  horses  forty-nine  were  completely 
cured  of  "baulkiness"  on  the  first  trial. 

If  a  horse  baulks  and  refuses  to  go 
fonvard  buckle,  a  strap  around  his  fore 
foot  below  the  fetlock  and  pull  gently  but 
firmly  and  steadily  forward.  It  will  not 
be  difficult  to  move  forward  the  foot,  and 
the  horse  will  be  compelled  to  go  forward 
to  recover  his  position. 


HORSES,  Shoeing  in  Winter.  —  lv 
Canada,  where  the  winter  is  never  of  less 
duration  than  five  months,  they  shoe  their 
horses  in  the  following  manner,  which 
serves  for  the  whole  winter :  The  smith 
fixes  a  small  piece  of  steel  on  the  fore- 
part of  each  shoe,  not  tempered  too  hard, 
which  turns  up  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch,  in  the  shape  of  a  horse's  lancet ;  the 
same  to  the  hinder-part  of  the  shoe, 
turned  up  a  little  higher  than  the  fore- 
part, tempered  in  the  same  manner.  In 
going  up  a  hill  the  fore-part  gives  a  pur- 
chase that  assists  the  horse,  and  in  going 
down  prevents  him  sliding  forward. 

HORSE,  Itch.— To  cure  a  horse  afflict- 
ed with  itch,  first  reduce  his  daily  allow- 
ance of  food,  putting  him  on  a  low  diet ; 
and  then  give  him  a  teaspoonful  of  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphur  and 
antimony,  and  at  the  end  of  a  week  or  ten 
days  the  sores  will  have  disappeared,  and 
the  horse  will  be  covered  with  a  fine  coat 
of  new  hair. 

HORSE,  Collar,  How  to  Fit.— An  excel- 
lent plan,  and  one  that  will  not  injure  the 
collar,  is  to  dip  it  in  water  until  the 
leather  is  thoroughly  wet,  then  put  it  on 
the  horse,  secure  the  hames  firmly,  keep- 
ing it  there  until  it  becomes  dry.  It  is 
all  the  better  if  heavy  loads  are  to  be 
drawn,  as  that  causes  the  collar  to  be 
more  'evenly  fitted  to  the  neck  and 
shoulder.  If  possible,  the  collar  should 
be  kept  on  from  four  to  five  hours,  when 
it  will  be  perfectly  dry,  and  retain  the 
same  shape  ever  afterwards ;  and  as  it  is 
exactly  fitted  to  the  form  of  the  neck,  will 
not  produce  chafes  nor  sores  on  the 
horse's  neck. 

HORSE,  When  Unsound.— Any  of  the 
following  defects  constitute  unsoundness 
in  a  horse : 

Lameness  of  all  kinds  and  degrees. 
Diseases  of  any  of  the  internal  organs. 
Cough  of  every  kind,  as  long  as  it  exists. 
Colds  or  catarrhs,  while  they  last.  Roar- 
ing, broken  wind,  thick  wind,  grease, 
mange,  farcy  and  glanders;  megrims  or 
staggers,  founder,  convex  feet,  contracted 
feet,  spavins  and  ringbones,  enlargement 
of  the  sinews  or  ligaments,  cataracts  and 
other  defects  of  the  eyes,  impairing  sight. 

The  following  may  or  may  not  occasion 
unsoundness,  according  to  the  state  or 
degree  in  which  they  exist :  Corns,  splints, 
thrushes,  bog-spavins,  thorough-pins,  wind 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


*35 


galls,  crib-biting.  Curbs  are  unsoundness, 
unless  the  horse  has  worked  with  them  for 
some  months  without  inconvenience. 

Cutting,  particularly  speedy  cutting, 
constitutes  unsoundness  when  it  cannot 
be  remedied  by  care  and  skill.  Quidding, 
when  a  confirmed  habit,  injures  the  sound- 
ness of  a  horse. 

Defects,  called  blemishes,  are  :  Scars 
from  broken  knees ;  capped  hocks,  splints, 
bog-spavins,  and  thorough-pins ;  loss  of 
hair  from  blisters  or  scars,  enlargements 
from  blows  or  cutting,  and  also  specks  or 
streaks  on  the  corner  of  the  eye. 

Vices  are :  Restivenes,  shying,  bolting, 
running  away,  kicking,  rearing,  weaving, 
or  moving  the  head  from  side  to  side, 
stringhalt,  quidding,  slipping  the   halter. 

HORSE,  Water  for. — Water  is  usually 
given  three  times  a  day ;  but  in  summer, 
when  the  horse  sweats  much,  he  should 
have  water  four  or  five  times ;  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  two  rules  will  guide 
the  attendant.  The  first  is,  never  to  let 
the  horse  get  very  thirsty ;  the  second,  to 
give  him  water  so  often  and  in  such 
quantity  that  he  will  not  care  to  take  any 
within  an  hour  of  going  to  fast  work. 
Tlie  quantity  of  water  which  a  horse  will 
drink  in  twenty-four  hours  is  uncertain; 
it  varies  so  much  that  one  will  drink  quite 
as  much  as  other  two  or  three.  It  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  food,  the  work,  the 
weather,  and  the  number  of  services;  the 
demand  for  water  also  increases  with  the 
perspiration.  Horses  at  fast  work,  and 
kept  in  hot  stables,  need  a  large  allow- 
ance, which  must  be  still  larger  in  hot 
weather ;  horses  of  slow  work  may  be  per- 
mitted to  take  what  quantity  they  please ; 
but  to  those  of  fast  work  occasional  re- 
striction is  necessary.  Restriction  is 
always  necessary  before  fast  work.  A  few 
quarts  given  an  hour  before  going  to  work 
ought  to  suffice.  Water  should  always 
be  given  before  rather  than  after  grain. 
Water  your  horses  from  a  pond  or  stream 
rather  than  from  a  spring  or  well,  because 
the  latter  is  generally  hard  and  cold, 
while  the  former  is  soft  and  comparatively 
warm.  The  horse  prefers  soft,  muddy 
water  to  hard  water,  though  never  so  clear. 

HORSE,  Cleaning. — When  brought  in 
from  work,  warm  with  exertion,  the  horse 
must  be  rubbed  down  and  then  blanket- 
ed ;  but  we  would  not  blanket  a  horse  in 
a  good  stable,  as  a  general  rule,  except  in 


extremely  cold  weather.  A  sharp  toothed 
curry  comb  is  the  dread  of  a  fine  skinned 
horse,  and  the  brush  and  straw  wisp 
answer  the  same  purpose  much  better,  if 
used  as  frequently  as  they  should  be. 
Mud  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the 
legs  of  a  horse ;  it  is  the  cause  of  half  the 
swelled  legs,  scratches,  and  other  affec- 
tions of  the  feet  with  which  they  are- 
afflicted. 

HORSE,  Harness,  Care  of.— First  take 
the  harness  apart,  having  each  strap  and 
piece  by  itself,  and  then  wash  it  in  warm 
soap-suds.  When  it  has  been  cleaned,, 
black  every  part  with  the  following  dye : 
one  ounce  extract  of  logwood,  twelve 
grains  of  bichromate  of  potash,  both 
pounded  fine;  put  it  into  two  quarts  of 
boiling  rain  water,  and  stir  until  all  is 
dissolved.  When  cool  it  may  be  used. 
You  can  bottle  and  keep  for  future  use  if 
you  wish.  It  may  be  applied  with  a 
shoe-brush,  or  anything  else  convenient. 
When  the  dye  has  struck  in,  you  may  oil 
each  part  with  neatsfoot  oil,  applied  with 
a  paint-brush,  or  anything  convenient. 
For  second  oiling  use  one-third  castor  oil 
and  double  that  quantity  of  neatsfoot  oil,, 
mixed.  A  few  hours  after  wipe  clean 
with  a  woolen  cloth,  which  gives  the  har- 
ness a  glossy  appearance.  The  prepara- 
tion will  not  injure  the  leather  or  stitch- 
ing, makes  it  soft  and  pliable,  and  obvi- 
ates the  necessity  of  oiling  as  often  as  is 
necessary  by  the  ordinary  method. 

HORSE,  Shoeing. — Few  horseshoers 
understand  thoroughly  the  anatomy  of 
the  horse's  foot.  The  great  mistake  is 
made  in  attempting  to  trim  the  hoof  to 
fit  the  shoe,  whereas  the  shoe  should  be 
made  to  fit  the  hoof.  Very  little  trim- 
ming is  needed  if  the  shoe  is  made  right. 
The  frog  should  never  be  touched  by  the 
buttress,  if  the  foot  is  healthy,  as  Nature 
has  intended  that  to  be  the  spring  or 
cushion  to  first  receive  the  blow  when 
the  foot  is  set  down  on  the  road,  to 
guard  the  knee  and  shoulder  from  the 
concussion. 

Nothing  can  be  more  barbarous  than 
the  carving  and  cutting  of  a  horse's  foot 
before  shoeing,  though  on  his  skill  in  this 
many  a  farrier  prides  himself.  The  idea 
that  the  frog  must  not  be  allowed  to  bear 
on  the  ground — that  the  sole  must  be 
thinned  till  it  "  springs  on  the  thumb,"  is 
a  most  pernicious  one. 


*36 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


As  you  value  your  horse  do  not  let 
the  blacksmith  even  scrape  the  dirt  off 
the  frog.  It  would  be  better  if  he  could 
not  see  it,  because,  if  anything  fit  to  be 
called  a  frog,  he  will  beg,  argue,  and  try 
every  means  to  persuade  you  to  let  him 
cut  it.  Do  not  turn  your  back  to  him 
while  he  has  the  foot  in  his  lap  and  knife 
in  his  hand,  or  else  off  comes  a  portion 
of  the  frog.  If  the  frog  is  left  to  itself  it 
will,  when  Nature  gets  ready,  shed  itself; 
but  the  difference  between  shedding  and 
cutting  is,  that  before  shedding  the  under 
frog  is  protected  by  a  suitable  covering, 
but  when  cut  it  is  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  air  and  water,  which  causes  it  to 
crack,  leaving  those  "rags"  which  the 
blacksmiths  love  so  well  to  cut.  Do  not 
•open  the  heels,  as  it  increases  the  resist- 
.ance  offered  to  contraction. 

The  summer  shoe  needs  to  present  a 
flat  surface  to  the  ground.  Make  it  of 
the  same  width  and  thickness  from  the 
toe  to  the  heel.  Have  the  seating  deep, 
rso  as  to  prevent  the  sole  pressing  upon 
the  shoe  as  it  descends.  Have  a  clip  at 
the  toe  to  prevent  the  shoe  slipping  back", 
but  none  at  the  sides,  as  they  not  only 
destroy  too  much  of  the  hoof,  but  pre- 
vent expansion.  Have  the  fullering  deep 
to  receive  the  nail-heads,  and  have  the 
nail  holes  straight — neither  inclined  in- 
wardly or  outwardly.  Have  only  five 
nails  to  hold  on  the  shoe — two  on  the 
inner,  and  three  on  the  outside.  Place 
.the  two  on  the  inner  side  about  i^ 
inches  from  the  top;  those  on  the  out- 
:side  may  be  placed  further  back  toward 
the  heel.  The  reason  is,  that  when  the 
foot  strikes  the  ground  it  expands  to  re- 
lieve the  horse  of  the  shock  of  his  weight, 
and  the  inner  side  being  thinner  than  the 
outside,  the  expansion  is  greater.  By 
placing  the  nails  far  back  we  prevent  that 
expansion,  thereby  cramping  the  foot, 
which  makes  the  animal  step  short  and 
quick,  like  one  with  tight  boots.  If  we 
take  an  old  shoe,  we  find  at  the  heels  that 
it  is  worn  down,  and  also  that  it  is  smaller 
and  bright,  which  is  not  done  by  the 
shifting  of  the  shoe,  as  you  only  find  it 
at  the  heels,  by  the  action  of  the  foot 
while  expanding  and  contracting.  Of 
.course,  this  action  wears  upon,  but  the 
foot  is  continually  growing. 

On  fitting  the  shoe,  do  not  let  it  burn 
the  foot,  as  it  makes  a  strong  foot  brittle, 


and  on  a  weak  one  hurting  the  horse. 
Be  sure  it  fits  close  to  the  foot.  Bring 
in  the  heels,  as  they  do  not,  but  the  nails 
prevent  expansion.  Do  not  get  the  nails 
larger  than  necessary;  bring  them  out 
low  down  in  the  crust,  and  make  the 
clinchers  very  broad.  Rasp  below  but 
not  above  the  clinchers,  as  the  foot  above 
is  covered — if  healthy — with  a  varnish 
which  excludes  the  air  and  water. 

The  hind  shoe  need  not  be  so  broad, 
but  a  little  higher  at  the  heels.  In  this 
put  seven  nails,  as  the  hind  legs  propel 
and  the  front  legs  receive  the  weight. 

The  winter  shoe  needs  toe  and  heel 
pieces  to  prevent  the  horse  from  slipping. 
Have  the  inner  cork  not  quite  so  sharp  as 
the  outer  one,  so  that  if  he  steps  upon 
the  other  foot  it  will  not  cut  it. 

The  outside  of  the  hoof  ought  not  to 
be  at  all  touched  by  the  rasp,  save  at  the 
very  edge,  as  rasping  tends  to  thicken  the 
hoof  and  make  it  coarse  and  clumsy. 
Shoes  should  be  made  just  as  light  as 
they  possibly  can  be  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose. Ordinarily  they  are  one-third  too 
heavy.  A  horse's  hoof  should  be  care- 
fully cleaned  every  day,  and  oiling  the 
hoof  once  or  twice  a  week  is  recom- 
mended. 

HORSE,  Training. — If  you  wish  to 
control  your  horse  study  his  character,  as 
horses,  like  men,  differ  in  their  disposi- 
tion, and  each  one  has  to  be  understood 
to  be  controlled. 

i.  Learning  him  to  Pace.  —  Buckle 
around  his  hind  legs  a  four  or  five  pound 
weight  (lead  is  the  best);  after  which 
ride  the  animal  briskly,  at  the  same 
time  twitching  each  rein  of  the  bridle  al- 
ternately ;  soon  he  will  be  thrown  into  a 
pace.  After  training  him  in  this  manner 
several  times,  detach  the  weights,  and  in 
their  stead  place  two  pound  weights,  and 
use  these  several  times ;  then  change  for 
something  still  lighter ;  leather,  padding, 
or  even  something  still  lighter,  will  an- 
swer the  purpose,  and  these  let  him  wear 
until  he  is  perfectly  trained,  and  you  will 
have  a  smooth  and  easy  pacer. 

2.  To  make  him  trot. — Use  rollers 
on  the  front  feet.  These  rollers  should 
be  made  of  wood  or  horn,  made  round, 
about  the  size  of  a  hickory-nut,  with  a 
small  hole  bored  by  a  gimlet  in  the  cen- 
tre of  each,  and  about  a  dozen  of  them 
strung  on  a  string  or  narrow  strap.     The 


HORSE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


137 


string  or  strap  should  be  much  smaller 
than  the  hole.  Then  tie  or  buckle  very 
loosely  around  the  fetlock  joint  next  to 
the  hoof,  so  that  they  can  play  loosely 
up  and  down  when  the  animal  is  moving. 
As  soon  as  the  horse  finds  that  there  is 
something  on  his  feet,  he  will  naturally 
think  that  there  are  stones  in  his  road, 
and  will  lift  them  up  higher,  and  throw 
them  out  further,  and  soon  he  will  learn 
to  be  a  good  trotter. 

Another  mode  is,  that  a  small  or  medi- 
um-sized flat  is  the  best  and  greatly  supe- 
rior to  the  track  system  for  teaching  the 
horse  or  colt  to  gather  quickly.  Always 
use  a  very  light  skeleton  wagon  or  gig  in 
training. 

3.  To  MAKE  HIM  SIT  ON  HIS  HAUNCHES. 

— First  learn  the  horse  one  idea,  and  this 
is,  that  you  are  his  master,  and  that  he 
must  obey  you,  so  that  when  you  say 
"ho !"  he  will  stand  still.  Then,  having 
already  learned  him  to  lie  down,  let  him 
attempt  to  rise,  and  when  he  gets  up  on 
his  fore  legs,  say  the  word  "sit!"  and 
make  him  understand  that  you  want  him 
to  stop  at  that  point  of  his  rising.  Teach 
him  to  hold  his  position,  and  always  use 
the  same  word  for  whatever  feat  you  wish 
the  animal  to  perform — if  to  sit,  use  the 
word  "sit,"  and  if  to  lie  down,  use  the 
word  "down." 

4.  To  make  him  follow  you. — Take 
your  animal  to  the  stable,  and  there  place 
on  him  a  surcingle  and  a  bridle  with  short 
reins,  which  may  be  checked  up  a  little 
and  fastened  on  the  surcingle.  Then  lead 
him  about  the  yard  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes,  after  which  let  go  of  the  bridle, 
but  still  continue  to  caress  him,  at  the 
same  time  saying  constantly  "come."  If 
he  seems  to  rebel,  or  lags  behind,  give 
him  a  light  cut  behind  with  a  long  whip, 
but  in  doing  this  do  not  change  your  po- 
sition from  being  ahead  of  him.  Con- 
tinue this  plan  until  you  have  been  suc- 
cessful. 

5-  To  TEACH  HIM  TO  PICK  UP  A  HAND- 
KERCHIEF.— Place  on  the  ground  or  stand 
a.  white  cloth  handkerchief  containing  a 
quantity  of  oats  j  lead  the  horse  around 
the  yard,  and  when  he  comes  to  the  spot 
where  you  have  placed  the  handkerchief 
let  him  take  some  of  the  oats.  This  is 
the  first  and  most  important  lesson,  and 
its  object  is  to  fix  in  the  mind  of  the 
horse  a  connection  between  the  handker- 


chief and  the  oats.  Continue  this  prac- 
tice each  day  for  several ,  weeks  and  he 
will  soon  leam  to  stop  as  readily  in  a  trot  or 
gallop  as  in  a  walk.  After  you  feel  that 
so  far  is  a  success,  the  handkerchief  must 
be  doubled  over  and  tied  in  a  knot ;  the 
animal  shakes  it  to  get  at  the  grain,  but 
not  being  successful  he  takes  it  up  from 
the  ground,  which  is  just  what  you  want. 
When  the  horse  has  done  this  a  number 
of  times  and  finds  that  though  he  can 
shake  nothing  out,  but  yet  at  each  time 
he  receives  a  reward  of  a  handful  of  oats, 
he  may  be  trusted  to  perform  before  an 
audience.  The  last  step  is  to  persuade 
the  horse  to  carry  the  handkerchief  to 
his  master,  and  that  is  an  easy  task.  Of 
his  own  will  he  will  keep  hold  of  the 
handkerchief  until  the  same  is  taken  from 
his  mouth,  and  but  little  difficulty  will  be 
experienced  to  coax  him  to  walk  a  few 
steps,  when  he  knows  that  by  so  doing  he 
will  be  rewarded  with  a  handful  of  oats 
or  a  carrot  for  his  obedience. 

6.  Teaching  him  to  stand. — Take  the 
horse,  and  over  his  back  throw  a  strap, 
and  fasten  the  same  to  his  right  fore-foot. 
Lead  him  about,  and  when  you  wish  to 
stop  him  say  "whoa,"  and  at  the  same 
moment  pull  down  the  strap,  which  will 
throw  him  on  his  three  feet,  which  will 
bring  him  to  a  sudden  halt.  Then  put 
him  in  harness  with  the  foot-strap  on,  and 
drive  him  a  few  yards.  The  moment  he 
attempts  to  move  take  his  foot  and  say 
"whoa."  Get  into  the  carriage  and  out 
again;  rattle  the  thills  and  make  all 
kinds  of  noises.  Make  him  understand, 
by  pulling  his  foot  each  time  he  attempts 
to  move,  and  this  can  be  done  in  a  very 
short  time. 

7.  Taming,  preparations  for. — Have 
in  separate  bottles  a  quantity  of  finely 
grated  horse-castor,  and  oils  of  rhodium 
and  cummin.  Keep  the  bottles  well 
corked.  Place  some  of  the  oil  of  cum- 
min on  your  hand  and  approach  the  ani- 
mal on  the  windy  side.  He  will  then  move 
towards  you,  after  which  rub  some  of  the 
cummin  on  his  nose;  then  give  him  a 
small  quantity  of  the  castor  on  anything 
he  is  fond  of,  and  while  he  is  about  tak- 
ing it  watch  your  chance  and  get  on  the 
point  of  his  tongue  from  seven  to  ten 
drops  of  the  oil  of  rhodium.  He  is  then 
at  your  service,  and  will  do  almost  any- 
thing you  desire.     Follow  up  this  advan- 


13* 


HORSE—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


tage  by  all  the  attention  and  kindness 
possible,  and  you  will  soon  have  him  en- 
tirely under  your  control. 

HORSE.  Taming  and  Breaking,  Rarey's 
Flan. — The  apparatus  which  is  required 
is,  first  of  all,  an  ordinary  snaffle  or 
straight  bit  in  the 
mouth,  without 
which  nothing 
could  be  done 
with  any  vicious 
horse;  and  if  any 
animal  is  to  be 
"Rarey-fied,"  the 
preliminary  oper- 
ation is  to  get  this  into  the  mouth.  In 
vicious  animals,  however,  this  is  no  easy 
matter,  and  the  best  way  is  to  entice  the 
animal  up  to  a  wagon  loaded  with  hay ; 
under  which  the  operator  should  hide 
himself,  and  while  the  animal  is  busily 
eating,  he  should  slip  his  arm  through 
the   wheel,    and   quietly  and   cautiously 


'Fig.  28.— Rarey's  Leg  Strap.    No.  i 


buckle  the  leg  strap  (See  No.   1)  on  his 
leg. 

As  soon  as  this  is  done  the  horse  is  inno- 
cent of  all  mischief  except  with  his  teeth, 
for  he  cannot  kick  on  three  legs,  and  even 
his  mouth  may  be  kept  away  from  the 
operator  by  draw- 
ing on  the  off 
rein.  To  bring 
him  speedily  to 
submit  to  the 
power  of  the  oper- 
ator, the  other  leg 
must  also  be  con- 
fined, which  is 
effected  by  first  buckling  on  a  surcingle, 
as  represented  in  the  engraving  below,  and 
then  catching  the  off  fetlock  in  the  run- 
ning noose  of  leg-strap  No.  2,  which  is 
made  in  the  annexed  form.  Provided 
with  this  second  strap  in  his  pocket,  and 
having  already  applied  the  leg-strap  No. 
1,  and  the  surcingle  as  shown  below,  the 


Fig.  29. — The  Horse,  with  the  Leg  Strap  and  Surcingle  on. 


subject  under  manipulation  is  either  in- 
duced to  drop  his  off  foot  into  the  noose,  or 
it  is  slipped  round  his  ankle,  while  the  off 
rein  is  held  by  the  other  hand  to  keep 
the  teeth  off  the  operator.  As  soon  as 
this  loop  is  firmly  drawn  round  the  leg, 


surcingle  under  the  belly,  and  entire  con- 
trol of  the  horse  is  only  a  work  of  time. 
The  arrangement  of  these  straps  is  well 
shown  in  the  engraving,  where  the  horse  is 
sketched  ready  for  the  final  struggle. 
Up  to  this  time,  almost  every  horse  will 


the   other  end   is   slipped  through    the  |  be  tolerably  quiet  and  unresisting,  some 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


i3£ 


squealing  when  any  approach  is  made  to 
their  elbows  to  tighten  the  surcingle,  and 
others  when   the  strap  No.  2  is  slipped 
through  it.     Few,  however,  plunge  much ; 
and  if  they  are  made  to  hop  on  three  legs, 
they  are  able  to  go  on  for  so  long  a  time, 
without  producing  the  necessary  amount 
of  fatigue,  that  the 
operator  would  be 
tired  before  his  pu- 
pil.     It    may    be 
observed  that  with 
a  violent  horse,  it 
is  always  better  to 
let    him    feel    his 
want  of  power  for 

doingmischief  with  Fig.  30.— Mr.  Rarey's  Strap, 

the  near  fore  leg  strapped  up,  and  the 
slight  degree  of  fatigue  which  a  few  min- 
utes' hopping  will  produce,  before  the 
second  strap  is  called  into  play,  especially 
if  the  operator  has  not  acquired  great 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  apparatus.  When 
this  is  done,  and  the  second  strap  is  ap- 


plied, and  slipped  through  the  surcingle, 
as  shown  in  figure  31,  taking  care  to  put 
a  stout  glove  on  the  right  hand,  the  left 
rein  is  taken  in  the  left  hand,  and  gently 
jerked — using,  if  necessary,  the  usual  slight 
stimulus   with  the  tongue,  to  make  the 
horse  move,  which  he  can  onlyjdo  by 
raising  the  off  fore 
leg  off  the  ground 
in  the  action  known 
as  hopping.      The 
moment    this    be- 
gins, the  right  hand 
firmly  draws  the  off 
leg  up  to  the  sur- 
cingle, and   keeps 
No.  2.  it  there,  when  the 

horse  must  either  bound  into  the  air 
on  his  hind  legs,  or  he  must  go  down 
on  the  ground,  supported  from  falling 
on  his  side  in  the  attitude  of  kneel- 
ing. To  avoid  mischief,  therefore,  the 
loose  box  or  yard  where  the  operation  is 
carried  on  should  be  thickly  bedded  with 


Fig.  31. — The  Horse  in  the  Power  of  his  Master. 


straw ;  for  no  knee-caps  are  stout  enough 
to  protect  the  joints  from  injury  on  hard 
ground ;  nor,  if  they  escape  being  bruised, 
will  the  shock  to  the  body  on  falling  be  at 
all  safe.  Even  straw  can  hardly  be  relied 
on,  if  the  floor  beneath  is  of  brick,  stone, 


pebbles,  or  hard  natural  soil ;  for  it  is  apt 
to  give  way  during  the  struggles  of  the 
horse,  and  allow  the  knees  to  reach  it 
without  the  intended  protection.  When, 
therefore,  there  is  no  tanned  riding-school, 
or  other  similar  surface,  at  command,  a. 


140 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


good  solid  bed  of  manure  (which  is  al- 
ways to  be  had  where  horses  are)  should 
be  spread  a  foot  thick  at  least,  and  over 
this  clean  straw  may  be  laid.  To  return 
to  the  subject  of  the  operation,  whom  we 
left  with  the  alternative  of  bounding  in 
the  air  on  his  hind  legs,  or  falling  on  his 
knees  in  the  annexed  attitude,  the  chief 
art  in  managing  this  part  of  the  process 
is  to  keep  firm  hold  of  the  strap  attached 
to  the  off  leg  close  to  the  surcingle ;  the 
hand  being  protected  by  the  glove,  can 
easily  prevent  it  from  slipping  through 
during  the  struggles  of  the  horse,  and  at 


the  same  time  serves  as  a. point cP appuiiox 
the  operator,  so  that  he  can  follow  the 
movements  of  the  bounding  animal  in 
whatever  direction  he  may  progress.  The 
operator  must  on  no  account  attempt  to 
stand  away  from  his  patient,  nor  must  he 
advance  before  the  girth-place ;  but  keep- 
ing close  to  this  he  is  in  no  danger,  pro- 
vided he  has  sense  and  the  ability  to  give 
way  if  the  horse  should  throw  himself 
down  towards  his  side.  The  rein,  being 
still  held  in  the  left  hand,  prevents  the 
horse  falling  away  from  the  operator,  and 
is  also  used  by  him  as  a  means  of  guiding 


Fig.  32. — The  horse  bounding  on  his  hind  legs. 


the  animal,  if  he  happens  to  progress  in  a 
direction  which  is  not  desired.  Nothing 
else  is  to  be  attempted  till  the  horse  has 
quite  exhausted  all  his  energies,  which 
those  possessed  of  high  courage  will  soon 
do;  but  low-bred  animals  are  very  apt  to 
turn  sulky,  and,  refusing  to  plunge,  re- 
main on  their  knees,  in  spite  of  every  kind 
of  stimulus  which  can  be  given  them  short 
of  severe  punishment  with  the  whip, 
which  is  to  be  avoided,  as  opposed  to  the 
principles  on  which  the  whole  process  is 
founded.  By  taking  time  with  these  brutes, 
they  may  always  be  made  to  tire  them- 
selves, for  the  kneeling  position  is  very 
irksome  to  them,  and  the  most  stubborn 
will  give  a  plunge  now  and  then  to  relieve 


themselves,  though  they  will  not  follow 
up  one  with  another  as  speedily  as  a  thor- 
oughbred. Sooner  or  later  (the  time  vary- 
ing from  ten  minutes  to  two  or  three  hours), 
the  tail  begins  to  tremble,  the  flanks 
heave,  and  a  profuse  perspiration  breaks 
out,  which  are  signs  that  the  horse  of 
himself  desires  the  recumbent  position, 
and  will  lie  down  of  his  own  accord,  if 
not  pulled  over  by  the  right  hand  of  the 
operator. 

Let  them  wait  till  the  horse  is  thor- 
oughly tired,  and  then  only  interfere  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  keep  him  leaning  to- 
wards their  side,  by  laying  hold  of  the 
right  rein  instead  of  the  left,  as  shown  in 
the  engraving  Fig.  32 ;  and  drawing  the 


HORSE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


141 


head  away  from  themselves.  Mr.  Rarey 
generally  used  the  right  hand  for  this 
purpose,  when  he  wished  to  throw  his 
patient  before  he  was  exhausted,  because 
he  could  in  that  way  employ  more  force ; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  his  dexterity  was 
such,  that  if  a  bound  was  made,  he  was 
always  ready  to  hold  the  strap  attached 
to  the  off  foot  before  the  horse  could  get 
fairly  on  his  hind  legs.  In  which  ever 
way  the  task  is  accomplished,  the  effect  is 
apparently  the  same — the  horse  lies  ex- 
tended on  his  side,  panting  and  sweating, 
in  the  most  exhausted  condition ;  but,  of 


course,  showing  more  of  these  symptoms 
of  distress  the  longer  he  has  been  kept 
resisting  the  restraints  put  upon  him. 
Now  comes  the  test  of  the  practical 
ability  of  the  operator ;  for  whereas  before 
he  had  only  plain  directions  to  carry  out, 
he  has  at  this  stage  to  judge  how  far  his 
efforts  are  successful.  If  he  takes  off  the 
straps  too  soon,  the  patient  is  patient  no 
longer,  but  rises  rapidly,  and  perhaps 
rewards  him  by  planting  a  severe  blow  on 
his  ribs.  It  is  here  that  Mr.  Rarey  dis- 
played his  great  skill  to  perfection.  Ap- 
parently by  intuition,  he  knew  when  his 


Fig.  33.— The  Horse  on  his  Knees,  about  to  fall  on  his  side. 


pupil  was  mastered;  but,  as  he  was  always 
ready  to  explain,  it  was  really  by  two 
symptoms  that  he  judged  whether  he  had 
gained  the  mastery  or  not.  One  of  these 
was  the  expression  of  the  eye,  which  it 
would  be  difficult  to  describe,  and  which 
experience  alone  could  adequately  con- 
vey to  those  who  wish  to  understand  it ; 
but  the  other,  being  readily  tested,  is 
within  the  reach  of  every  one.  This  con- 
sists in  the  entire  flaccidity  of  the  muscles 
of  the  neck  and  limbs  ;  and  until  this  is 
ascertained  to  have  been  obtained,  the 
straps  should  not  be  entirely  removed. 
Mr.  Rarey's  plan  of  proceeding  at  this 
stage  was  the  following.  A  second  or  two 
after  the  horse  went  down,  he  let  him 


raise  his  head,  and  then  dragged  it  down 
again  to  the  ground  by  the  mane.  On 
repeating  this  once,  twice,  or  thrice,  the 
animal  would  give  in  as  far  as  that  part 
was  concerned ;  and  being  rewarded  with 
a  pat  of  the  hand,  the  head  remained  still 
on  the  ground,  and  that  part  was" gentled.** 
Next  removing  the  leg  straps,  the  fore 
legs  were  separately  gently  rubbed  down- 
wards; and  on  being  lifted,  and  let  fail,  as 
if  dead,  they  also  were  passed  as  in  a  simi- 
lar satisfactory  state.  While  in  this  state, 
the  horse  lies  in  the  attitude  and  with  the 
expression  which  is  very  well  represented 
in  the  accompanying  sketch,  and  there  he 
will  gladly  lie  as  long  as  he  is  permitted 
to  do  so.     But  he  is  not  to  be  allowed  to 


142 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


recruit  his  powers ;  and  as  sodn  as  he  had 
gone  through  the  tricks  which  we  have  de- 
scribed, Mr.  Rarey  made  him  rise,  and 
then  showed  that  the  power  which  he  had 
gained  was  not  lost  as  soon  as  the  animal 
stood  on  his  legs  again.  Calling  for  a 
saddle,  it  was  in  every  case  shown  to  the 
horse,  and  put  first  on  his  head,  then  on 
his  neck,  and  finally  in  its  proper  place. 
The  animal  then  always  submitted  to  be 
mounted,  and  even  allowed  the  danger- 
ous plan  recommended  and  adopted  by 
Mr.  Rarey,  of  standing  close  to  the  hind- 
quarter  while  putting    the    foot    in  the 


stirrup  to  be  carried  out  without  kicking, 
which  before  the  "  Rareyfication"  most  ot 
the  vicious  brutes  operated  on  in  public 
would  probably  have  done. 

By  this  plan,  it  is  indisputable  that  any 
active  man,  of  good  temper,  but  possessed 
of  firmness  and  courage,  and  accustomed 
to  deal  with  horses,  may  gain  such  a  con- 
trol over  even  the  most  vicious,  that  he 
can  do  what  he  likes  with  them  in  doors. 
No  one  who  has  examined  into  the  mat- 
ter can  doubt  Mr.  Rarey's  power,  nor  can 
he  refuse  him  the  merit  of  improving 
upon  the  old  system  of  controlling  the 


Fig.  34.— The  Horse  Tamed. 


horse,  by  the  addition  of  the  second  leg 
strap,  which  adds  so  much  to  the  power 
of  the  human  arm,  that  the  most  violent 
and  muscular  horse  has  no  chance  what- 
ever. The  secret  lies  in  two  essential 
natures ;  first,  that  the  horse  must  never 
be  coerced  or  resisted,  unless  the  man  is 
certain  of  success  in  controlling  him;  and, 
secondly,  that  when  the  former  is  thor- 
oughly convinced  of  his  powerless  condi- 
tion, and  his  muscles  are  tired  out,  the 
latter  interferes  and  relieves  him  of  his 
trammels,  "  gentles"  him,  gives  him  kind 
words,  and  at  length  encourages  him  to 
rise.  The  effect  is  marvellous — the  most 
vicious  brute,  who  would  previously  tear 
any  man  to  pieces,  after  he  is  thus  first 


coerced,  and  then  "  gentled"  and  relieved, 
appears  to  grow  fond  of  his  master,  and 
follows  him  about  like  a  dog. 

MULE,  Splint  on. — To  remove  these 
bony  formations,  the  treatment  consists  in 
repeated  blistering.  Having  first  cut  the 
hair  short,  rub  a  little  of  the  following 
ointment  into  the  skin,  covering  the  splint 
every  night  until  a  free  watery  discharge  is 
produced  from  the  surface : 

Take  of  Biniodide  of  Mercury    -     -    2  drachms. 
Lard     -------      1  ounce. 

Mix. 

If,  after  an  interval  of  a  fortnight,  the 
splint  does  not  appear  much  reduced  in 
size  the  ointment  should  be  re-applied 
and  repeated  at  similar  intervals. 


HORSE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


H3 


COLTS,  Their  Care  and  Management. 

Much  harm  arises  from  improper  wean- 
ing. A  good  method  is,  when  the  colt 
is  four  or  five  months  old,  to  put  a  strong 
halter  upon  him,  place  him  in  a  stall,  and 
put  his  mother  in  an  adjoining  stall,  with 
a  partition  between,  so  arranged  that  they 
can  see  each  other,  and,  if  possible,  get 
their  heads  together.  The  first  day  let 
the  colt  nurse  twice — the  next  day  once. 
Feed  the  mare  upon  dry  hay  and  dry 
feed,  and  about  half  milk  her  two  or 
three  times  a  day  until  dry.  Feed  the 
colt  upon  new-mown  grass  or  fine  clover 
hay,  and  give  him  a  pint  of  oats  twice 
per  day,  and  in  about  two  weeks  you  will 
have  your  coit  weaned,  and  your  mare 
dry,  and  your  colt  looking  as  well  as 
ever.  When  he  is  one  year  old  he  has  as 
much  growth  and  development  of  muscle 
as  one  two  years  old  weaned  in  the  usual 
manner.  When  the  mare  becomes  dry,  colt 
and  mare  may  be  again  turned  in  pasture. 
An  opinion  generally  prevails  among  far- 
mers that,  from  the  time  the  foal  is  taken 
from  its  dam  up  to  coming  maturity,  it 
should  not  be  "pushed,"  as  the  saying  is, 
nor  fed  on  grain,  for  fear  it  would  injure 
one  so  young  and  tender.  This  accounts 
for  the  great  number  of  moping  or  spirit- 
less and  unthrifty  colts,  that  are  scarcely 
able  to  drag  one  leg  after  another.  Their 
very  appearance,  cadaverous  and  pitiful 
looks,  seem  to  convey  to  the  mind  of 
every  sensible  man  that  they  are  the  vic- 
tims of  a  wretched  system  of  starvation, 
which  enervates  thjp  digestive  organs,  im- 
pairs the  secretions  and  impoverishes  the 
blood.  Hence  the  deficiency  in  the  de- 
velopment of  bone  and  muscle.  The 
muscles  and  tendons,  being  so  illy  sup- 
plied with  material  for  growth  and  devel- 
opment, become  very  weak  and  afford  but 
little  support  to  the  bones  and  joints,  so 
that  the  former  become  crooked  and  the 
latter  weak — defects  which  no  after  feed- 
ing, no  skill  in  training  can  counteract. 
It  must  be  known  to  breeders  that  from 
the  time  of  birth  up  to  maturity,  colts  re- 
quire food  abounding  in  flesh-making 
principle,  nitrogenous  compounds — oats, 
corn,  etc.;  otherwise  they  must  naturally 
be  deficient  in  size,  symmetry  and  powers 
of  endurance.  Therefore  they  should 
be  regularly  fed  and  watered,  and  their 
food  should  consist  of  ground  oats,  wheat 
bran,  and  sweet  hay,  in  quantities  suffi- 


cient to  promote  their  growth.  Finally, 
proper  shelter  should  always  be  provided 
for  them.  They  should  not  be  exposed, 
as  they  often  are,  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
weather,  under  the  false  notion  of  making 
them  tough  and  hardy.  Equally  unwise 
is  it  to  confine  colts  to  close,  unventilated 
and  filthy  stables,  deprived  of  light,  exer- 
cise and  pure  air.  They  should  be 
groomed  every  day ;  a  clean  skin  favors 
the  vitalization  of  the  blood.  They 
should  be  permitted  to  gambol  about  as 
much  as  they  choose.  Exercise  devel- 
ops muscle,  makes  an  animal  active  and 
spirited,  and  increases  the  capacity  of  the 
lungs  and  chest.  By  the  above  means, 
and  proper  attention  to  the  principles  of 
breeding,  the  business  of  raising  colts 
may  become  both  creditable  and  profit- 
able. 

COLT,  to  Prevent  from  Jumping.  — 

Pass  a  good  stout  surcingle  around  his 
body;  put  on  his  halter,  and  have  the 
halter  strap  long  enough  to  go  from  his 
head  between  his  fore  legs,  then  through 
the  surcingle  and  back  to  one  of  his  hind 
legs.  Procure  a  thill  strap  and  buckle 
around  the  leg  between  the  foot  and  joint; 
fasten  the  halter  strap  in  this — shorter  or 
longer,  as  the  obstinacy  of  the  case  may 
require.  It  is  also  useful  to  keep  colts 
from  running  where  there  is  likely  to  be 
danger  from  the  result.  If  the  thill  strap 
should  cause  any  soreness  on  the  leg,  it 
may  be  wound  with  a  woolen  cloth,  and 
it  would  be  well  to  change  from  one  leg 
to  the  other  occasionally. 

COLT,  Callus  in. — This  is  considered  a 
sure  remedy: 

Take  of  Bitter  Sweet i  ounce. 

Skunk  Cabbage I     " 

Blood  Root i     " 

Steep  and  mix  with  lard ;    make  an  ointment 

and  apply  once  or  twice  a  day. 

HORSES,  Stables   for The   floor  of 

the  stable  should  be  level,  or  nearly  so. 
When  otherwise,  it  causes  the  horse  to 
hang  back,  because  the  incline  causes  his 
loins  and  hind  parts  to  ache  intolerably, 
and  he  hangs  back  in  order,  if  possible, 
to  get  his  hind  legs  beyond  the  gutter, 
diminishing,  by  many  degrees,  his  stand- 
ing up  hill.  The  best  bedding  is  straw — 
fine  shavings  from  a  planing  mill,  or  saw- 
dust (pine  saw-dust  being  the  best,  and 
oak  saw-dust  the  worst.)     They  should 


144 


HORSE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


be  allowed  to  stand  on  the  naked  floor  as 
little  as  possible. 

HORSE,  Stables,  to  Deodorize.— Saw- 
dust, wetted  with  sulphuric  acid,  diluted 
with  about  forty  parts  of  water,  and  dis- 
tributed about  the  stable,  is  a  good  de- 
odorizer. Keep  the  mixture  in  shallow 
earthenware  vessels. 

HORSE,  Blanketing. — In  reference  to 
blanketing  horses  in  winter  it  is  without 
doubt  true  that  blanketing  keeps  a  horse's 
coat  smoother  in  winter,  and,  therefore,  fine 
carriage  and  saddle  horses  will  continue 
to  be  blanketed,  no  matter  how  injurious 
it  may  be.  But  where  horses  are  kept 
more  for  service  than  show,  the  blanket- 
ing had  better  be  dispensed  with.  Keep- 
ing them  constantly  covered  makes  them 
tender  and  liable  to  take  cold.  It  is  far 
better  to  give  them  a  warm  stable  and 
plenty  of  straw  for  bedding  and  good 
food,  and  leave  the  blankets  to  be  used 
only  when  they  are  compelled  to  stand 
for  any  length  of  time  out  of  doors  on  a 
cold  winter's  day.  Also,  when  they  come 
in  from  work  steaming  hot,  they  should 
be  allowed  to  stand  a  short  time,  until 
they  are  partially  cooled  oft— then  put 
the  blankets  on  for  an  hour.  Be  careful 
and  not  delay  putting  on  the  blanket  un- 
til they  are  chilled. 

HORSE,  Poor,  how  to  Patten. — Many 
good  horses  devour  large  quantities  of 


hay  and  grain,  and  yet  continue  poor, 
and  the  more  they  eat  the  poorer  they 
appear  to  grow.  The  fault  is,  that  the 
food  is  not  properly  assimilated.  If  the 
usual  feed  has  been  unground  grain  and 
hay.  nothing  but  a  change  will  make  any 
desirable  change  in  the  appearance  of  the 
animal.  In  case  oil  meal  cannot  be  ob- 
tained readily,  mingle  a  bushel  of  flax- 
seed with  a  bushel  of  barley,  one  of  oats,, 
and  another  bushel  of  Indian  corn,  and 
let  it  be  ground  into  fine  meal.  This  will 
be  a  fair  proportion  for  all  his  feed.  Or 
the  meal  or  barley,  oats  and  corn,  in 
equal  quantities,  may  at  first  be  procured, 
and  ]{  of  all  cake  mingled  with  it  when 
the  meal  is  sprinkled  on  cut  feed.     Feed 

2  or  3  quarts  of  the  mixture  3  times  daily 
with  a  peck  of  cut  hay  and  straw.  If  the 
horse  will  eat  that  amount  greedily,  let 
the  quantity  be  gradually  increased,  until 
he  will  eat  4, 5  or  6  quarts  at  every  feeding 

3  times  a  day.  So  long  as  the  animal  will 
eat  this  allowance  the  quantity  may  be 
increased  a  little  every  day.  But  always 
avoid  the  practice  of  allowing  the  horse 
to  stand  at  a  rack  well  filled  with  hay. 
In  order  to  fatten  a  horse  that  has  run 
down  in  flesh,  the  groom  should  be  very 
particular  to  feed  the  animal  no  more 
than  he  will  eat  up  clean  and  lick  his 
manger  for  more.  Follow  the  above 
suggestions  and  the  result  will  be  satisfac- 
tory. 


CATTLE: 

DISEASES   AND  MANAGEMENT  OF. 


CATTLE,  Age  of,  How  to  Ascertain  by 
their  Teeth. — Tne  calf  is  usually  born 
with  two  fore  or  cutting  teeth,  and  at  a 
month  old,  the  whoie  eight  are  cut.  The 
age  is  then  guessed  at  by  the  wearing  down 
of  these  teeth,  until  the  calf  is  eight 
months  old,  when  tney  begin  to  become 
narrower  and  smaller.  At  eight  months 
the  two  centre  teeth  are  smaller  than  the 
rest;  and  from  that  time  until  eighteen 
months  the  others  gradully  diminish,  until 
the  whole  are  very  considerably  lessened 
in  size  and  stand  apart  from  each  Other. 

At  two  years  old  the  two  middle  teeth 
are  pushed  out,  and  succeeded  by  two 
permanent  ones ;  at  three  there  are  four 
permanent  teeth ;  six  at  four  years ;  and 
all  the  eight  at  five^  when  the  animal  is 
said  to  be  full-mouthed;  but  he  is  not 
actually  so  until  six  years  old,  when  all 
the  eight  are  level. 

A  good  judge  of  cattle  will  generally 
determine  the  age  with  considerable  ac- 
curacy for  many  years  after  that.  From 
six  to  nine  he  will  be  guided  by  the  wear- 
ing down  of  the  teeth,  and  after  that  by 
the  diminution  in  their  bulk,  as  in  the 
milk  teeth.  At  nine  the  two  middle  fore 
teeth  are  evidently  smaller  and  narrower 
than  the  rest;  at  ten  the  two  next  are  so; 
and  so  on  until  twelve,  when,  as  in  the 
steer  of  two  years  old,  the  teetn  again  be- 
gin to  stand  singularly  apart  trom  each 
other. 

CATTLE,  Age  by  the  Horns.— The 
surface  of  the  horn  continues  nearly 
smooth  until  the  expiration  of  the  second 
year  of  the  animal's  life,  when  a  wrinkle 
or  circle  of  thicker  horn  begins  to  be 
formed  around  the  base.  This  is  fully 
completed  in  a  twelvemonth,  and  another 
ring  then  begins  to  appear,  so  that  if  the 
perfect  rings  or  circles  are  counted,  and 
two  added  to  them,  the  age  of  the  beast 
is  supposed  to  be  ascertained.  These 
rings,  however,  are  not  always  clear  and 


distinct,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  remove  on* 
or  two  of  them  with  a  rasp,  at  least  to  the 
unpracticed  eye,  when  the  animal  begins 
to  be  unmarketably  old.  In  addition  to 
this,  a  well-known  fact  should  be  stated, 
that  if  a  heifer  takes  the  bull  at  about  two 
years  old,  the  first  ring  is  formed  a  twelve- 
month before  its  usual  time,  and,  conse- 
quently, she  would  always  appear  to  be, 
reckoning  by  her  horns,  a  twelvemonth 
older  than  she  really  is. 

After  all,  the  age, 'as  denoted  by  the 
horn,  can  only  be  calculated  in  the  cow; 
these  rings  do  not  begin  to  appear  in  the 
ox  or  bull  until  the  animal  is  five  years 
old,  and  then  they  are  frequently  too  con- 
fused to  be  accurately  counted. 

CATTLE,  Bleeding,  its  Utility,  and  in 
what  cases  Necessary.— Bleeding  is  a  most 
useful  and  powerful  remedy  in  the  cure  of 
inflammatory  complaints.  It  lessens  the 
quantity  of  blood  in  the  vessels,  and  di- 
minishes nervous  power.  The  following 
are  the  chief  diseases  in  which  bleeding  is 
required : 

i.  Where  animals  in  a  thriving  state- 
rub  themselves  until  the  hair  comes  off, 
and  the  spot  is  covered  with  a  dry  scab ;: 
while  at  the  same  time  the  eyes  appear 
dull,  languid,  red,  or  inflamed,  the  breath 
hot,  and  the  veins  puffed  up,  and  consid- 
erably larger  than  usual. 

2.  In  all  kinds  of  inflammatory  dis- 
eases, as  of  the  brain,  lungs,  kidneys, 
bowels,  eyes,  womb,  bladder,  shape,  and 
udder,  or  in  swelling  of  the  joints. 

3.  In  the  disease  called  blain,  and  in 
which  bleeding,  not  only  general  but  local. 
and  local  far  more  than  general,  has  the 
best  possible  effect,  the  tumefaction  usual- 
ly almost  immediately  subsiding,  and  the 
beast  speedily  recovering. 

4.  When  the  glands  or  kernels  between 
the  jaws,  or  those  of  the  throat,  are  en- 
larged, and  especially   if  they  are  on.'y 


(145) 


146 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


recently  affected,  immediate  recourse 
should  be  had  to  bleeding,  for  otherwise 
the  lungs  will  probably  become  diseased, 
and  dangerous  or  consumptive  hoose  will 
speedily  ensue. 

5.  In  bruises,  hurts,  wounds  upon  the 
head,  strains  in  different  parts,  and  all 
other  accidents  that  may  occur  to  the 
animal,  and  in  which  there  is  reason  to 
apprehend  considerable  inflammation, 
bleeding  will  be  proper. 

6.  In  violent  catarrh  or  cold,  bleeding 
is  employed;  but,  in  slight  cases,  a  few 
fever  drinks  will  restore  the  animal. 

7.  The  yellows,  when  attended  with 
feverish  symptoms,  or  constipation  of  the 
bowels,  requires  bleeding. 

The  manner  of  performing  this  opera- 
tion is  too  well  known  to  require  any  de- 
scription. 

The  Fleam  is  an  instrument  in  general 
use  for  oxen,  and  the  jugular  or  neck  vein 
is  that  which  is  mostly  opened.  Local 
bleeding  is,  however,  in  many  cases  par- 
ticularly serviceable.  In  inflammation  of 
the  eye,  the  eye-vein  is  frequently  cut ;  in 
foot-halt,  we  sometimes  bleed  at  the  toe ; 
and  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  or  ud- 
der, or  even  of  the  chest,  blood  is  advan- 
tageously taken  from  the  milk-vein. 

The  quantity  of  blood  that  it  may  be 
proper  to  take  away  at  one  time  cannot 
here  be  determined;  but  must  be  regulated 
by  the  size,  strength,  and  condition  of  the 
animal,  and  the  disease  under  which  he 
labors.  In  many  inflammatory  com- 
plaints, too  much  can  hardly  be  taken, 
provided  the  bleeding  is  stopped  as  soon 
as  the  patient  appears  likely  to  faint  or 
to  fall  down.  A  strong,  healthy  beast 
will  bear  the  loss  of  five  or  six  quarts  of 
"blood,  without  the  least  injury.  Larger 
■cattle,  that  are  attacked  with  inflamma- 
tory complaints,  will  profit  by  the  abstrac- 
tion of  a  greater  quantity ;  seven  or  eight 
quarts  may  be  taken  away  with  decided 
advantage :  but  when  it  is  necessary  to 
repeat  the  bleeding,  the  degree  of  fever 
and  the  strength  of  the  beast  will  regulate 
the  quantity.  The  blood  should  flow  from 
a  large  orifice,  for  sudden  depletion  is  far 
more  powerful  in  its  operation,  than  when 
the  blood  is  suffered  slowly  to  trickle 
down.  The  blood  must  never  be  allowed 
to  fall  upon  the  ground,  but  should  be  re- 
ceived into  a  measure,  in  order  that  the 
quantity  taken  may  be  known.     No  ab- 


solute quantity  of  blood  should  ever  be 
prescribed,  but  when  extensive  bleeding 
is  demanded,  the  stream  should  flow  until 
the  pulse  falters,  or  intermits,  or  the  ani- 
mal begins  to  heave  violently,  or  threatens 
to  fall,  or  other  circumstances  show  that 
the  system  is  sufficiently  affected.  The 
beast  should  not  be  permitted  to  drink 
cold  water  immediately  after  bleeding, 
nor  to  graze  in  the  field :  the  former  has 
sometimes  induced  troublesome  catarrh, 
and  the  latter  may  cause  the  orifice  to 
open  again.  If  this  operation  is  per- 
formed in  the  summer  season,  it  will  be 
most  prudent  to  fetch  the  cattle  out  of 
the  pasture  towards  evening,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  bled;  and,  after  that,  to  let 
them  stand  in  the  fold-yard  all  night,  and 
drive  them  back  to  the  field  on  the  follow- 
ing morning. 

CATTLE,  Diarrhoea,  or  Purging.— 
Purging  is  produced  by  various  causes:  by 
change  of  food,  from  dry  to  green  meat, 
or  from  short  to  luxuriant  pasture;  by 
poisonous  plants,  bad  water,  or  unknown 
atmospheric  agency. 

It  is  not  always  to  be  regarded  as  a  dis- 
ease, nor  should  the  farmer  be  always 
anxious  to  stop  it.  It  may  be  an  effort  of 
nature  to  discharge  something  that  is  in- 
jurious ;  it  may  exist  while  the  beast  enjoys 
almost  perfect  health,  and  is  even  thriving. 

The  farmer  will  not  regard  an  occa- 
sional fit  of  purging  ;  he  will  only  attack 
it  if  it  is  violent,  or  if  it  continues  too  long. 
In  the  first  case  it  indicates  some  disor- 
dered state  of  the  bowels,  or  the  presence 
of  some  offending  matter  in  them,  and  he 
will  endeavor  to  remedy  this ;  not  as  is 
too  often  done  by  attempting  to  arrest  the 
discharge  as  speedily  as  he  can  —  not  by 
the  exhibition  of  astringent  medicine — 
but  by  giving  a  mild  dose  of  physic,  in 
order  to  assist  nature  in  her  effort  to  get 
rid  of  some  evil.  Nothing  so  much  dis- 
tinguishes the  man  of  good  sense  from 
the  mere  blunderer  as  the  treatment  of 
purging. 

From  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound 
of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given  with  the 
usual  quantity  of  ginger.  The  next  day 
he  may  probably  administer  a  little  as- 
tringent medicine.  The  Astringent  Drink 
(see  No.  17  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for)  will  be  effectual,  and  not  too 
powerful. 

In  the  second  case  also,  when  purging 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


H7 


has  long  continued,  and  the  animal  is  be- 
oinning  to  become  thin  and  weak,  the 
practitioner  must  begin  with  physic.  There 
is  probably  some  lurking  cause  of  intes- 
tinal irritation.  He  should  give  the  quan- 
tity of  Epsom  salts  just  recommended,  or 
perhaps  he  will  more  prudently  give  from 
half  a  pint  to  a  pint  of  castor  oil.  It  will 
usually  be  a  good  practice  to  give  a  rather 
smaller  dose  on  the  following  day,  and 
after  that  he  may  safely  have  recourse  to 
the  astringents.  The  animal  should  be 
brought  into  a  cow-house  or  enclosed 
yard,  where  it  can  be  sheltered  from  the 
weather,  and  kept  partly  or  altogether  on 
dry  meat. 

It  is  of  great  consequence  that  diarrhoea 
or  simple  purging  should  be  distinguished 
from  another  disease  with  which  it  is  too 
often  confounded.  They  are  both  char- 
acterized by  purging.  That  which  has 
been  just  considered,  is  the  discharge  of 
dung  in  too  great  quantity,  and  in  too 
fluid  a  form ;  but  that  which  will  form  the 
subject  of  another  chapter,  dysentery,  is 
the  evacuation  of  the  dung,  mingled  with 
mucus,  or  mucus  and  blood.  In  diarrhoea 
the  dung  is  voided  in  large  quantities,  and 
in  a  full  stream;  it  has  sometimes  an 
offensive  smell,  and  is  occasionally  bloody; 
but  dysentery  is  often  accompanied  by  a 
peculiar  straining;  the  dung  is  not  so  great 
in  quantity,  and  it  is  more  offensive,  and 
more  highly  charged  with  blood. 

The  one  is  an  accidental  thing — not 
always  to  be  considered  as  a  disease — and 
often  ceasing  of  itself  when  the  purpose 
for  which  nature  set  it  up —  the  expulsion 
of  some  acrid  or  injurious  matter  from  the 
alimentary  canal — has  been  accomplished; 
the  other  is  an  indication  of  an  inflam- 
matory affection  of  the  larger  intestines, 
difficult  to  be  controlled,  often  bidding 
defiance  to  all  means,  and  speedily  de- 
stroying the  animal.  Diarrhoea  occurs  at 
all  times  of  the  year,  and  particularly  after 
a  sudden  and  great  change  of  pasture; 
dysentery  is  a  disease  almost  peculiar  to 
the  spring  and  autumn  alone.  It  must  be 
confessed,  however,  that  diarrhoea  is  some- 
times the  precursor  of  dysentery  in  its 
worst  form. 

CATTLE,  Stone  in  the  Urinary  Passa- 
ges, or  Bladder. —  There  seems  to  be  a 
greater  disposition  to  the  formation  and 
retention  of  calculi,  or  stones,  in  the  uri- 
nary passage  of  the  ox  than  of  the  horse. 


The  manner  in  which  cattle  gather  then- 
food,  the  half-cutting,  and  half-tearing, by 
which  the  roots  of  a  portion  at  least  of  the 
herbage  are  taken  into  the  mouth  and 
swallowed,  and  the  propensity  which  al- 
most all  cattle  have  to  swallow  earth  in 
order  to  prevent  the  acid  fermentation  of 
the  food  in  the  paunch — these  things  ac- 
count for  the  more  frequent  collection  of 
sand  and  gravel  in  the  bladder  of  cattle 
than  of  horses. 

This  sand  and  gravel  is  the  foundation 
of,  or  the  preparation  for,  the  future  for- 
mation of  stone  in  the  bladder;  and  when 
the  stone  begins  to  form  it  is  far  more 
likely  to  be  detained,  and  to  accumulate 
in  size,  in  the  bladder  of  the  ox  than  that 
of  the  horse,  because  the  urethra  is  very 
much  smaller  and  more  curved  in  its 
course. 

Stone  in  the  bladder  may  be  suspected 
when  there  is  much  fever,  accompanied 
by  a  frequent  turning  of  the  head  and 
earnest  gaze  on  the  flanks;  when  the  hind 
limbs  tremble,  and  there  are  ineffectual 
endeavors  to  pass  urine,  or  it  is  evacuated  in 
small  quantities,  and  mingled  with  blood. 

The  suspicion  may  very  easily  be 
reduced  to  certainty,  by  examining 
the  bladder  with  the  hand  intro- 
duced into  the  rectum,  or  last  gut.  The 
bladder  of  the  ox,  as  has  already  been 
described,  lying  so  much  more  in  the 
pelvis  than  the  bladder  of  the  horse  does, 
the  stone  cannot  fail  of  being  felt  if  there 
is  one. 

The  presence  of  stone  in  the  bladder 
having  been  thus  proved,  that  farmer  will 
pursue  the  most  judicious  course  who 
sends  the  beast  immediately  to  the  butch- 
er, for  no  medicine  will  dissolve  it,  and 
the  animal  will  lose  condition  every  day. 

The  retention  of  a  small  calculus  in 
some  part  of  the  urethra  occurs  much  of- 
tener  than  is  generally  suspected.  The 
symptoms  would  be  nearly  the  same  as 
those  of  stone  in  the  bladder,  except  that 
the  stoppage  of  urine  would  be  more 
complete.  On  examination,  the  stone 
will  be  easily  felt,  and  generally  in  the 
double  curvature  ot  the  penis.  An  in- 
cision may  be  made  upon  it,  and  it  may 
be  thus  easily  extracted.  Two  or  three 
sutures,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cal- 
culus, having  been  passed  through  the 
edges  of  the  wound,  it  will  usually  heal 
in  a  few  days. 


148 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


CATTLE,  Seton,  Mode  of  Inserting  a. — 
The  seton  is  commonly  made  of  tow  and 
horse  hair  plaited  together,  or  cord  or 
coarse  tape  alone,  or  leather.  It  should 
be  tolerably  thick,  and  eight,  ten,  or 
twelve  inches  in  length.  Before  inserting 
the  seton,  it  should  be  dipped  in  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. The  seton  being  now  prepared, 
an  assistant  is  to  hold  the  animal,  while 
the  seton-needle,  with  the  cord  affixed  to 
it,  is  plunged  into  the  upper  edge  of  the 
brisket  or  dewlap,  and  brought  out  again 
towards  its  lower  edge:  the  space  between 
the  two  openings  should  be  from  four  to 
eight  inches.  The  seton  is  to  be  secured 
by  fastening  a  small  piece  of  wood,  or 
tying  a  large  knot  at  either  end  of  the 
cord.  Matter  will  begin  to  run  the  sec- 
ond day,  and,  after  that,  the  cord  should 
be  drawn  backwards  and  forwards  two  or 
three  times  every  day,  in  order  to  irritate 
the  parts,  and  by  this  means  increase  the 
discharge. 

When  setoning  is  had  recourse  to  in 
inflammatory  complaints,  the  cord  should 
be  dipped  in  the  following  blistering  oint- 
ment: 

Take  yellow  basilicon I  ounce 

Cantharides,    in   powder  -     -     3  drachms 
Spirit   of  turpentine      -      2  fluid  drachms 

This  ointment  will  be  found  to  act  effi- 
caciously and  quickly  in  stimulating  the 
parts  to  action,  and  hastening  on  the 
suppurative  process. 

The  root  of  the  common  dock  forms  a 
very  good  seton,  and  one  that  will  act 
speedily  and  powerfully ;  but  the  best  of 
all,  where  a  considerable  effect  is  intended 
to  be  produced,  is  the  root  of  the  black 
hellebore.  This  will  very  quickly  cause 
considerable  swelling  as  well  as  discharge. 

CATTLE,  Cold  and  Cough— Hoose. — A 
simple  cold,  attended  by  slight  cough  and 
discharge  from  the  nostrils,  is  easily 
removed.  Warm  housing,  a  few  mashes, 
and  the  cough  and  fever  will  usually 
succeed. 

(See  No.  1  Drink  in  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicine  for.) 

There  are  few  things,  however,  more 
dangerous,  if  neglected,  than  cough  or 
hoose ;  and  there  are  few  maladies  that 
are  so  often  neglected. 

The  farmer  will  go  into  the  cow-house, 
or  into  the  pasture,  again  and  again,  and 
hear  some  of  his  cows  coughing,  and  that 
perhaps  hardly,  or  hollowly,  or  painfully ; 


but,  while  they  continue  to  chew  the  cud, 
and  do  not  waste  in  flesh,  he  thinks  little 
about  it,  and  suffers  them  to  take  their 
chance. 

The  inflammation  is  slight ;  the  animal 
is  scarcely  ill  at  all ;  the  cough  remits  and 
returns,  with  or  without  his  observation. 
He  adds  to  it,  perhaps,  by  improper  treat- 
ment. He  exposes  the  beast  unnecessarily 
to  cold  or  wet;  or  he  crowds  his  cattle 
into  stables  shamefully  small  compared 
with  the  number  of  the  animals,  and  the 
air  is  hot  and  nauseous,  and  charged  with 
watery  fluid  thrown  off  from  the  lungs 
and  from  the  skin.  The  cough  increases, 
it  becomes  hoarse,  and  harsh,  and  painful; 
and  that  affection  is  established  which 
oftener  lays  the  foundation  for  consump- 
tion and  death  than  any  other  malady  to 
which  these  animals  are  exposed. 

That  farmer  is  inattentive  to  his  own 
interests  who  suffers  a  cough,  and  espe- 
cially a  hoarse,  feeble  cough,  to  hang 
about  his  cattle  longer  than  he  can  help. 
He  should  be  warned  in  time,  before  his 
cows  are  getting  off  their  feed,  and  becom- 
ing thin,  and  are  half  dry ;  for  then  it  will 
generally  be  too  late  to  seek  for  advice,  or 
to  have  recourse  to  medical  care :  the  dis- 
ease has  fastened  upon  a  vital  part,  and 
the  constitution  is  undermined. 

Cough  occasionally  assumes  an  epi- 
demic character — from  sudden  changes  of 
the  weather,  chiefly  and  particularly  in. 
the  spring  and  the  fall  of  the  year :  it  then 
spreads  over  a  great  part  of  the  country, 
and  is  often  particularly  severe. 

The  symptoms  of  epidemic  cold  or 
catarrh,  or  influenza,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  are  frequently  serious.  The  beast 
is  dull  and  heavy,  with  weeping  at  the 
eyes,  and  dry  muzzle ;  the  hair  looks  pen- 
feathered,  or  staring;  the  appetite  fails; 
the  secretion  of  milk  is  diminished ;  there 
is  considerable  heaving  of  the  flanks ;  the 
pulse  is  from  60  to  70,  and  the  bowels  are 
generally  costive  or  sapped. 

Cattle  that  have  been  tenderly  managed 
during  the  winter,  and  cows  after  calving,, 
are  very  subject  to  it,  especially  if  they 
have  been  poorly  fed,  or  driven  long  dis- 
tances, and  exposed  to  a  cold,  piercing 
wind. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  commence  the 
treatment  of  this  disease  with  bleeding. 
From  four  to  six  quarts  of  blood  should 
be  taken,  and  then  a  dose  of  physic   ad- 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


149 


ministered.  The  purging  drink  will  be  a 
good  purgative  medicine  in  such  a  case. 
(See  No.  2,  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for.) 

After  that  the  purging  drink  No.  1 
should  be  given  morning  and  night,  the 
drink  No.  2  being  repeated  if  the  bowels 
should  be  costive. 

It  will  be  proper  to  house  the  beast,  and 
especially  at  night ;  and  a  mash  of  scalded 
bran  with  a  few  oats  in  it,  if  there  is  no 
fever,  should  be  allowed.  It  is  necessary 
carefully  to  watch  the  animals  that  are 
laboring  under  this  complaint ;  and,  if  the 
heaving  should  continue,  or  the  muzzle 
again  become  or  continue  dry,  and  the 
breath  hot,  more  blood  should  be  taken 
away  and  the  purging  drink  repeated. 
At  the  close  of  the  epidemic  catarrh  the 
animal  will  sometimes  be  left  weak  and 
with  little  appetite.  It  should  be  well  as- 
certained whether  the  fever  has  quite  left 
the  beast,  because  listlessness  and  disin- 
clination to  move,  and  loss  of  appetite, 
and  slight  staggering,  may  result  as  much 
from  the  continuance  of  fever  as  from  the 
debility  which  it  leaves  behind.  If  the 
muzzle  is  cool  and  moist,  and  the  mouth 
not  hot,  and  the  pulse  sunk  to  nearly  its 
natural  standard,  or  rather  below  it,  and 
weak  and  low,  the  purging  drink  may  be 
ventured  on ;  but  No.  1  must  be  returned 
to  if  there  is  the  slightest  appearance  or 
increase  of  cold  or  fever.  (See  No.  3, 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

There  is  another  way  in  which  the 
worms  may  with  greater  certainty  be  got 
rid  of.  There  are  some  substances  which 
are  immediately  destructive  to  worms  when 
brought  in  contact  with  them.  Some  of 
these  medicaments  may  be  taken  into  the 
circulation  of  the  animal  with  perfect 
safety  to  him,  and  probably  death  to  the 
worms.  Among  those  which  most  readily 
enter  into  the  circulation  after  being  swal- 
lowed is  the  oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine. 
The  breath  is  very  soon  afterward  tainted 
with  its  smell,  which  shows  that  a  portion 
of  it  has  passed  into  the  lungs.  Therefore, 
when  other  means  have  failed,  and  the 
continuance  of  the  violent  cough  renders 
it  extremely  probable  that  worms  are  in 
the  air  passages,  the  turpentine  drink  for 
worms  may  be  resorted  to.  (See  No.  5, 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

This  may  be  repeated  every  morning 
without  the  slightest  danger;   and  even 


when  we  are  a  little  afraid  to  give  longer 
by  the  mouth,  it  may  be  thrown  up  in  the 
form  of  an  injection.  A  pint  of  lime  water 
every  morning,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
salt  every  afternoon,  have  also  been  ad- 
ministered with  advantage  when  worms 
are  present  in  the  windpipe. 

Should  the  case  appear  to  be  obstinate, 
the  exhibition  of  half  doses  of  physic  every 
second  or  third  day  will  often  be  useful, 
with  the  stimulating  drink,  morning  and 
night,  on  each  of  the  intermediate  days. 
(See  No.  6,  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for.) 

A  seton  in  the  dewlap  should  never  be 
omitted ;  and  if  the  disease  seems  to  be 
degenerating  into  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  the  treatment  must  be  correspond- 
ingly active. 

The  termination  of  hoose  that  is  most 
to  be  feared  is  consumption.  That  will 
be  indicated  when  the  discharge  from  the 
nose  becomes  purulent  or  bloody,  and  the 
breath  stinking,  and  the  cough  continues 
to  be  violent,  while  the  beast  feeds  badly, 
and  the  eyes  begin  to  appear  sunk  in  the 
head,  and  he  rapidly  loses  flesh.  The  best 
remedy  here,  so  far  as  both  the  owner  and 
the  animal  are  concerned,  is  the  pole-axe 
of  the  butcher ;  for  in  the  early  part  of  the 
disease  the  meat  is  not  at  all  injured,  and 
may  be  honestly  sold.  If,  however,  it  is 
wished  that  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
save  the  animal,  the  cough  and  fever 
drink  may  be  given  daily,  more  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  warmth  and  com- 
fort of  the  beast,  and  if  the  weather  is 
favorable  it  should,  after  a  while,  be  turned 
into  a  salt  marsh,  either  entirely  or  during 
the  day. 

CATTLE,  Influenaa  in. — (See  Cattle, 
Cold  and  Cough.) 

CATTLE,  Catarrh  in.  —  (See  Cattle, 
Cold  and  Cough.) 

CATTLE,  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. — 
When  common  catarrh  has  been  ne- 
glected, it  will  sometimes  run  on  to  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs,  or  the  beast  may 
be  attacked  with  this  disease  without  any 
of  the  previous  symptoms  of  catarrh.  This 
is  a  very  serious  complaint,  and  requires 
the  most  prompt  and  decisive  treatment. 

The  symptoms  are  dullness,  shivering, 
and  cough  that  is  particularly  sore;  the 
ears,  roots  of  the  horns,  and  legs  are  some- 
times cold,  but  not  invariably  so,  as  the 
quantity  of  cellular  membrane  about  the 


'5° 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


legs  is  often  sufficient  to  keep  them  warm 
in  spite  of  the  nature  of  the  complaint ; 
the  breath  and  mouth  are  hot ;  the  mouth 
is  generally  open,  and  there  is  a  ropy  dis- 
charge from  it;  the  beast  will  often  lie 
down,  and  can  scarcely  be  induced  to 
move ;  the  flanks  heave  very  laboriously, 
and  the  head  is  protruded,  showing  the 
great  difficulty  of  breathing.  The  pulse 
is  not  always  much  increased  in  number, 
but  is  oppressed,  and  can  sometimes 
scarcely  be  felt. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  caused  by 
the  perspiration  being  obstructed  from 
sudden  and  great  changes  of  the  weather, 
especially  when  accompanied  with  wet. 
Cattle  that  are  driven  long  distances,  and 
then  exposed  to  the  cold  and  damp  air  of 
the  night,  are  particularly  liable  to  it.  In 
most  cases  it  can  be  traced  to  the  cattle 
being  imprudently  exposed  to  cold ;  but 
when  the  cause  is  not  so  apparent,  it 
oftenest  attacks  those  that  are  in  good  con- 
dition. 

Young  cattle,  and  particularly  calves, 
are  more  subject  to  this  disease  than  older 
ones ;  and  in  them  it  must  be  principally 
attributed  to  their  being  in  a  state  of  ple- 
thora, that  is,  having  a  redundancy  of 
blood  in  their  systems. 

Sometimes  the  membrane  covering  the 
lungs  and  lining  the  chest  is  the  part  prin- 
cipally attacked;  the  disease  is  then 
termed  pleurisy,  and  is  in  this  form  often 
complicated  with  rheumatism,  but  it  is 
more  usual  for  the  substance  of  the  lungs 
to  be  affected  in  common  with  their  en- 
velopments. 

Copious  bleeding  is  the  remedy  most  to 
be  depended  on  for  subduing  the  inflam- 
mation, and  should  be  had  recourse  to  as 
soon  as  the  disease  is  discovered.  The 
beast  should  be  put  into  a  cool  cow- 
house well  littered,  and  immediately  bled. 
If  the  difficulty  of  breathing  and  other 
symptoms  are  not  much  relieved  in  six  or 
eight  hours  after  the  first  bleeding,  it 
should  be  repeated.  A  third  or  fourth 
bleeding  may  in  bad  cases  be  requisite. 
In  this  disease,  more  than  in  any  other, 
the  person  who  attends  the  cattle  should 
be  present  when  the  beast  is  bled.  It  is 
impossible,  by  looking  at  the  patient,  and 
considering  the  symptoms,  to  say  what 
quantity  of  blood  ought  to  be  taken  away; 
but,  as  a  general  rule,  and  especially  in  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs,  and  at  the  first 


bleeding,  the  blood  should  flow  until  the 
pulse  begins  to  falter,  and  the  animal 
seems  inclined  to  faint.  The  faltering  of 
the  pulse  will  regulate  the  quantity  of  the 
after-bleedings.  Little  bleedings  of  two  or 
three  quarts,  at  the  commencement  of  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs,  can  never  be  of 
service ;  from  six  to  eight  quarts  must  be 
taken,  or  even  more,  regulated  by  the  cir- 
cumstances that  have  been  mentioned,  and 
the  blood  should  flow  in  a  large,  full 
stream. 

A  seton  should  be  set  in  the  dewlap 
immediately  after  the  first  bleeding,  and 
the  purging  drink  No.  2  given.  Four 
drachms  of  nitre,  two  of  extract  of  bella- 
donna, and  one  of  tartarized  antimony, 
may  afterward  be  administered  twice  a  day 
in  a  drink. 

In  very  severe  cases,  the  chest  has  been 
fired  and  blistered  with  advantage. 

Warm  water  and  mashes  must  be  regu- 
larly given  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

When  the  beast  has  recoverd,  it  will  be 
proper,  as  much  as  possible,  to  avoid  all 
those  causes  which  induced  the  complaint. 
The  animal  should  for  a  short  time  be 
housed  during  the  night,  and,  if  the  weather 
is  very  unsettled,  kept  up  altogether  or 
turned  out  for  a  few  hours  only  in  the 
middle  of  the  day. 

CATTLE,  Pleurisy.— (See  Cattle,  In- 
flammation of  the  Lungs.) 

CATTLE,  Bheumatism,  or  Joint-Felon. 
— The  early  symptoms  of  this  complaint 
are  those  of  common  catarrh,  with  no 
great  cough,  but  more  than  usual  fever ; 
by  degrees,  however,  the  animal  shows 
some  stiffness  in  moving,  and  if  the  hand  is 
pressed  upon  the  chine  or  any  part  of  the 
back,  the  beast  will  shrink,  as  if  this  gave 
him  pain.  When  the  complaint  goes  no 
farther  than  this,  it  is  called  chine-fel- 
on in  many  parts  of  the  country ;  but 
generally,  in  two  or  three  days,  the  ani- 
mal appears  stiffer  in  the  joints  ;  these  af- 
terwards begin  to  swell,  and  are  evident- 
ly painful,  particularly  when  he  attempts 
to  move.  Sometimes  the  stiffness  ex- 
tends all  over  the  body,  and  to  such  a 
degree  that  the  beast  is  unable  to  rise 
without  assistance. 

This  is  generally  termed  joint-felon. 
Old  cows  are  very  subject  to  it,  and  es- 
pecially a  short  time  before  calving ;  but 
milch  cows  and  young  cattle  are  oftener 
attacked  by  it  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 


CATTLE— CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT. 


i?r 


It  is  mostly  occasioned  by  the  animal 
being  kept  in  a  state  of  poverty  during 
the  winter,  and  suddenly  exposed  to  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather  in  the  spring, 
or  to  the  inclemency  of  the  north  or 
northeasterly  winds,  especially  in  low  sit- 
uations. 

This  disease  sometimes  comes  on  sud- 
denly, and  is  present  in  a  very  acute  form, 
being  in  fact  a  severe  chill ;  these  acute 
symptoms  may  subside,  and  be  succeed- 
ed by  others,  milder  but  more  obstinate. 
Sometimes  abscesses  will  form  amongst 
the  muscles,  or  the  sheaths  or  bodies  of 
the  tendons;  and  the  capsular  ligaments 
of  the  joints  are  often  distended  with 
synovia.  These  symptoms  are  particular- 
ly unfavorable. 

As  soon  as  the  disease  makes  its  ap- 
pearance, the  beast  must  be  taken  to  a 
warm  cow-house  or  stable,  or  some  situa- 
tion sheltered  from  the  severity  of  the 
weather.  The  Sulphur  Purging  Drink 
No.  7  (See  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for),  should  then  be  given. 

The  bowels  having  been  gently  opened, 
Rheumatic  Drink  (See  No.  8,  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for,)  which  may 
cause  some  determination  to  the  skin, 
and  increase  the  insensible  perspiration, 
should  be  administered. 

If  there  should  be  much  fever  at  any 
period  of  the  complaint,  the  Sulphur 
Drink  must  be  exchanged  for  the  Purg- 
ing Drink,  No.  2.  and  three  or  tour 
quarts  of  blood  taken  away. 

If.  any  of  the  joints  should  continue 
swelled  and  painful,  they  should  be 
rubbed  twice  a  day,  or  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  each  time,  with  the  gently  stimulat- 
ing Rheumatic  Embrocation,  (See  No.  9, 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

Should  a  scaly  eruption  break  out  on 
the  joints,  or  any  part  of  the  legs,  after 
the  beast  has  apparently  recovered,  the 
Healing  Cleansing  Ointment  (See  No.  10, 
Domestic  Animalls,  Medicines  for,) 
will  generally  clear  cff  the  scurf,  heal  the 
cracks  or  sores,  and  cause  the  hair  to 
grow  again. 

If  stiffness  or  swelling  of  the  joints 
should  remain  after  the  inflammation  and 
tenderness  are  removed,  the  joints  should 
be  well  rubbed  morning  and  night  with  a 
gently  stimulating  Camphorated  Oil,  (See 
No.  11.  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  embrocation. 


When  a  beast  has  had  one  attack  ^i 
rheumatism,  he  will  be  always  subject  to  its 
return,  and  therefore  should  be  taken  more 
than  usual  care  of  in  cold,  variable  weather; 
and  should  he  appear  to  have  a  slight 
catarrh,  or  to  walk  a  little  stiffer  than 
usual,  he  should  be  housed  for  a  night  or 
two,  and  should  have  a  warm  mash,  and 
the  Cordial  Rheumatic  Drink;  (See  No. 
12,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for) 
which,  however,  would  be  very  improper 
in  hoose  or  cold,  or  rheumatism  connect- 
ed with  any  degree  of  fever. 

CATTLE,  Chine-Felon. — (See  Cattle, 
Rheumatism.) 

CATTLE,  Inflammation  of  the  Liver. — 
This  is  a  disease  to  which  cattle  are  often- 
er  subject  than  is  imagined,  and  particu- 
larly those  that  are  in  high  condition  and 
stall-fed:  the  symptoms,  however,  are 
usually  sufficiently  distinct  to  guide  the 
attentive  observer. 

When  the  milch  cow  is  attacked  there 
is  a  diminution  of  the  milk,  and  it  has  a 
ropy  appearance  and  saltish  taste  after 
being  separated  from  the  cream.  The 
animal  has  a  heavy  appearance,  the  eyes 
being  dull,  the  countenance  depressed, 
with  a  stiffened,  staggering  gait ;  the  ap- 
petite is  impaired,  and  the  membrane  of 
the  nostrils  and  the  skin  is  of  a  yellow- 
color.  Sometimes  the  respiration  is  much 
disturbed;  at  others  it  appears  tranquil; 
but  the  pulse,  though  unusually  quick- 
ened, is  rarely  hard  or  full.  The  bowels 
are  generally  constipated,  though  some- 
times purging  exists.  Rumination  is 
usually  disturbed,  and  occasionally  alto- 
gether suspended.  To  these  will  occa- 
sionally be  added  the  characteristic  symp- 
toms of  pain  on  pressure  on  the  edge  of 
the  short  ribs  on  the  right  side.  In  acute 
inflammation  of  the  liver  the  most  frantic 
pain  has  been  exhibited;  but  this  is  rarely 
the  case. 

A  high  degree  of  fever  will  indicate  the 
propriety  of  bleeding,  but  it  should  not 
be  carried  to  too  great  an  extent,  but 
may  be  repeated.  After  bleeding,  one  or 
two  drachms  of  calomel,  with  a  scruple 
of  opium,  and  two  drachms  of  ginger, 
may  be  given  in  gruel,  and  a  few  hours 
afterwards  twelve  ounces  of  Epsom  salts 
and  half  a  pint  of  linseed  oil.  The  cal- 
omel and  opium  may  be  repeated  twice  a 
day,  and  the  purgative  also  until  the  bow- 
els   are    sufficiently  operated    on.      If* 


*5* 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


however,  purging  be  present  from 
the  first,  a  tew  ounces  only  of  Epsom 
salts  should  be  given,  but  a  drachm  each 
of  calomel  and  opium,  repeated  twice  a 
day ;  and  if  the  purging  continue  the  case 
may  be  treated  as  one  of  diarrhoea.  (See 
Cattle,  Diarrhoea.)  The  sides  in  this 
disease  should  be  blistered,  and  setons 
may  also  be  inserted. 

Inflammation  of  the  liver  frequently 
leaves  after  it  a  great  deal  of  weakness, 
and  tonics  are  clearly  indicated.  The 
best  medicine  that  can  be  given  is  (See 
No.  13,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for.) 

No  hay,  and  light  corn,  should  be 
given  in  inflammation  of  the  liver;  but 
the  diet  should  consist  of  mashes  and 
green  meat. 

It  has  been  stated  that  fat  beasts,  or 
such  as  are  in  good  condition,  are  very 
liable  to  this  disease,  and  particularly 
those  that  have  been  fed  mnch  on  oil- 
cake. It  is  more  frequent  in  hot  than  in 
cold  weather,  and  in  store  cattle  that 
have  been  over-driven,  or  worried  in 
woodland  pastures  by  the  flies.  Sudden 
change  of  weather;  the  exposure  to  con- 
siderable cold,  of  a  well-fed  beast  that 
had  been  well  housed,  or  indeed  anything 
that  has  a  tendency  to  excite  fever,  will 
produce  inflammation  in  an  organ  that 
has  been  over-worked,  or  is  disposed  to 
disease  from  the  undue  secretion  of  bile 
in  the  rapid  accumulation  of  flesh  and  fat. 
Chronic  inflammation  of  the  liver  is  char- 
acterized by  symptoms  similar  but  more 
moderate  than  those  detailed.  The  de- 
bility gradually  increases,  and  death  often 
succeeds.  The  same  treatment  should 
be  pursued,  with  the  exception  of  bleed- 
ing. 

CATTLE,  the  Yellows,  or  Jaundice. — 
This  is  a  far  more  common  disease  than 
the  last,  and  almost  as  dangerous,  bedause, 
although  it  is  not  marked  by  any  acute 
symptoms,  or  accompanied  by  much  fever, 
it  creeps  on  insidiously,  and  fastens  itself 
on  the  constitution,  beyond  the  power  of 
medicine  to  eradicate  it ;  or  it  is  the  con- 
sequence and  the  proof  of  some  disease 
of  the  liver,  which  is  equally  difficult  to 
cure.  It  may  be  produced  by  inflamma- 
tion of  the  liver,  or  too  great  secretion  of 
the  bile,  or  stoppage  of  the  vessels 
through  which  the  bile  should  flow  into 
the  bowels.     If  its  passage  is  obstructed, 


it  is  thrown  back  again  upon  the  liver, 
and  there  taken  up  by  the  absorbents, 
and  carried  into  the  circulation,  and  com- 
municates a  yellow  color  to  the  blood ; 
and  as  the  blood,  by  means  of  capillary  the 
vessels,  is  carried  to  every  point  and  part 
of  the  body,  so  the  yellow  hue  of  the  dis- 
ease spreads  over  the  whole  ot  the  frame. 

This  obstruction  is  sometimes  effected 
by  the  undue  thickness  of  the  bile ;  some- 
times by  hardened  bile  or  gall-stones; 
and  in  not  a  few  cases  it  is  caused  by  a 
greater  secretion  ot  bile  than  can  find  its 
way  into  the  intestines,  and  which,  con- 
sequently, accumulates  in  the  liver,  until 
it  is  taken  up  by  the  absorbents,  and  car- 
ried into  the  frame  in  the  manner  that  has 
just  been  described. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  disease  there  is 
considerable  dulness  and  languor,  and  loss 
of  appetite.  The  cow  wanders  about  by 
herself,  or  is  seen  standing  by  the  side  of 
the  hedge  or  the  fence  in  a  most  dejected 
manner.  The  quantity  of  milk  is  gener- 
ally lessened ;  the  bowels  are  costive;  and 
the  fore-teeth  are  sometimes  loose :  milch 
cows  are  more  subject  to  it  than  oxen,  and 
particularly  in  the  latter  end  of  the  year. 
Sudden  change  of  weather  frequently 
gives  rise  to  it,  and  especially  if  the  ani- 
mal has  previously  exhibited  symptoms  of 
ill-health. 

The  treatment  and  the  hope  of  cure 
depend  upon  the  causes  and  degree  of 
the  disease,  and  which  should  be  most 
carefully  ascertained.  If  it  has  followed 
symptoms  of  fever,  probably  indicative  of 
inflammation  of  the  liver,  it  may  be  diffi- 
cult to  remove,  because  it  is  an  indication 
of  the  ravages  which  disease  has  made  in 
the  organ.  Should  the  pulse  be  strong 
as  well  as  quick,  moderate  bleeding  will 
be  judicious,  but  not  otherwise.  The 
bowels  should  then  be  freely  opened  by 
means  of  the  purging  drink  (No.  2),  and 
kept  open  by  half  doses  of  it  administered 
as  occasion  may  require.  In  this  disease, 
oftener  than  in  any  other  to  which  cattle 
are  subject,  stomachics  are  useful  to  rouse 
the  digestive  organs  to  their  proper  tone 
and  power.  Mingled  with  them,  or  at 
other  periods  of  the  day,  medicines  may 
be  given  which  are  supposed  to  have  a 
direct  effect  on  the  liver,  and  a  tendency 
to  restore  its  healthy  action;  therefore, 
while  the  tonic  drink  (No.  13)  is  given 
in  the  morning,  the  drink  for  the  yel- 


CATTLE— CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT. 


153 


lows  may  be  given  at  night  (See  No.  14 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.)  If, 
on  pressing  the  sides,  the  animal  evinces 
pain,  we  may  suspect  some  inflammation 
of  the  liver;  and  a  blister  on  the  sides, 
but  particularly  the  right  side,  will  be 
useful. 

After  the  yellowness  is  removed,  and 
the  beast  restored  to  health,  the  tonic 
drink  (No.  13)  should  be  given  twice  in 
the  week,  for  a  month.  This  will  con- 
tribute to  restore  the  weakened  appetite, 
and  particularly  will  bring  back  to  the  cow 
the  proper  flush  of  milk. 

CATTLE,  Inflammation  of  the  Brain  in. 
— This  is  not  a  very  frequent,  but  a  most 
frightful  disease.  It  is  commonly  known 
by  the  names  phrenzy  or  sough.  It  is  most 
prevalent  among  well-fed  cattle,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  summer  months.  In  the 
early  period  of  it  the  beast  is  dull  and 
stupid.  He  stands  with  his  head  protruded, 
or  pressed  against  something  for  support. 
He  refuses  to  eat,  ceases  to  ruminate,  and 
is  in  a  manner  unconscious  of  surround- 
ing objects.  Now  and  then  he  will  stand 
motionless  for  a  long  time,  and  then  sud- 
denly drop ;  he  will  start  up  immediately, 
gaze  around  him  with  an  expression  of 
wildness  and  fear,  and  then  sink  again 
into  his  former  lethargy.  All  at  once, 
however,  his  eyes  will  become  red,  and 
seemingly  starting  from  their  sockets ;  the 
countenance  will  be  both  anxious  and 
wild ;  the  animal  will  stagger  about,  fall- 
ing and  rising  again,  and  running  uncon- 
sciously against  everything  in  his  way :  at 
other  times  he  will  be  conscious  enough 
of  things  around  him,  and  possessed  with 
an  irrepressible  desire  to  do  mischief.  He 
will  stamp  with  his  feet,  tear  up  the 
ground  with  his  horns,  run  at  every  one 
within  his  reach,  and  with  tenfold  fury  at 
any  red  object;  bellowing  all  the  while 
most  tremendously,  and  this  he  will  con- 
tinue until  nature  is  quite  exhausted;  a  sud- 
den and  violent  trembling  will  then  come 
over  him,  he  will  grind  his  teeth,  and  the 
saliva  will  pour  from  his  mouth ;  he  will 
fall,  every  limb  will  be  convulsed,  and  he 
will  presently  die. 

Causes. — It  proceeds  most  commonly 
from  a  redundancy  of  blood  in  the  sys- 
tem, called  by  farmers  an  overflowing  of 
the  blood;  and  this  is  induced  by  cattle 
thriving  too  fast  when  turned  on  rich  pas- 
ture grounds,  or  their  being  fed  too  quickly 


in  order  to  get  them  into  condition  for 
show  or  sale.  It  is  sometimes  occasioned 
by  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  when  cattle 
have  been  turned  into  the  fields  where 
there  has  been  nothing  to  shade  them 
from  its  influence.  It  may  be  brought  on 
by  severe  contusions  on  the  head,  or  by 
the  cattle  being  harassed  and  frightende, 
when  driven  along  the  road,  or  through 
large  towns. 

The  chief  or  the  only  cure  is  bleeding. 
The  neck  vein  should  be  opened,  on  each 
side,  if  possible,  and  the  blood  should  be 
suffered  to  flow  until  the  animal  drops. 
It  is  absurd  to  talk  of  quantities  here ;  as 
much  should  be  taken  as  can  be  got,  or 
at  least  the  blood  should  flow  until  the 
violence  of  the  symptoms  is  quite  abated. 

To  this  a  dose  of  a  strong  physic 
drink  (see  No.  15  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for)  should  follow. 

If  the  violence,  or  even  the  wandering, 
should  remain,  another  bleeding  should 
take  place  six  hours  afterwards,  and  this 
also  until  the  pulse  falters,  and  the  purging 
should  be  kept  up:  dosec  of  1  ounce 
epsom  salts,  and  y^  drachm  each  of  calo- 
mel and  opium,  mixed  in  y2  pint  linseed 
oil,  should  be  given  twice  a  day. 

Although  it  is  very  difficult  to  produce 
a  blister  on  the  thick  skin  of  the  ox,  it 
should  be  attempted  if  the  disease  does 
not  speedily  subside.  The  hair  should  be 
closely  cut  or  shaved  from  the  upper  part 
of  the  forehead  and  the  poll,  and  for  six 
inches  on  each  side  down  the  neck,  and 
some  of  the  Blister  Ointment  (See  No.  16 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for,) 
well  rubbed  in. 

When  the  blister  is  beginning  to  peel 
off  green  elder  or  marshmallow  ointment 
will  be  the  best  application  to  supple  and 
heal  the  part.  A  little  of  it  should  be 
gently  smeared  over  the  blistered  surface 
morning  and  night. 

A  seton  smeared  with  the  above  oint- 
ment may  be  inserted  on  each  side  of  the 
poll  in  preference  to  the  application  of  a 
blister. 

Although  the  violence  of  the  disease, 
and  of  its  remedies,  will  necessarily  leave 
the  beast  exceedingly  reduced,  no  stimu- 
lating medicine  or  food  must  on  any  ac- 
count be  administered.  Mashes  and 
green  meat,  and  these  in  no  great  quanti- 
ties, must  suffice  for  nourishment,  or,  if 
the  animal,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  is 


*54 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


unable  to  eat,  a  few  quarts  of  tolerably 
thick  gruel  may  be  horned  down  every 
day;  but  ale  and  gin,  and  spices,  and 
tonic  medicines,  must  be  avoided  as  down- 
right poisons.  Even  the  treacle  and  the 
sugar  in  the  gruel  must  be  prohibited, 
from  their  tendency  to  become  acid  in 
the  debilitated  stomach  of  the  animal  re- 
covering from  such  a  complaint. 

Every  symptom  of  the  disease  having 
vanished,  the  beast  may  very  slowly  re- 
turn to  his  usual  food;  but,  when  he  is 
turned  out  to  pasture,  it  will  be  prudent 
to  give  him  a  very  short  bite  of  grass, 
and  little  or  no  dry  meat.  Nature  is  the 
best  restorer  of  health  and  strength  in 
these  cases ;  and  it  is  often  surprising  not 
only  how  rapidly  the  ox  will  regain  all 
he  has  lost,  if  left  to  nature,  and  not  fool- 
ishly forced  on,  but  how  soon  and  to 
what  a  considerable  degree  his  condition 
will  improve,  beyond  the  state  in  which 
he  was  before  the  complaint. 

The  ox  that  has  once  had  inflamma- 
tion of  the  brain  should  ever  afterwards 
be  watched,  and  should  be  bled  and  phys- 
icked whenever  there  is  the  least  appear- 
ance of  staggers  or  fever.  The  safest 
way  will  be  to  send  him  to  the  butcher  as 
soon  as  he  is  in  sufficient  condition. 

Sometimes  the  disease  does  not  run  its 
full  course.  There  is  but  a  slight  degree 
of  inflammation,  or  there  may  be  sudden 
determination  or  flow  of  blood  to  the 
head  from  some  occasional  cause,  and 
without  inflammation.  This  is  known  by 
the  name  of  Staggers  (which  see). 

CATTLE,  Phrenitis.  (See  Cattle, 
Inflammation  of  the  Brain.) 

CATTLE,  Staggers,  or  Swimming  in 
the  Head. — The  symptoms  are  heaviness 
and  dullness ;  a  constant  disposition  (See 
Cattle,  Inflammation  of  the  Brain) 
to  sleep,  which  is  manifested  by  the 
beast  resting  its  head  upon  any  con- 
venient place ;  and  he  reels  or  staggers 
when  he  attempts  to  walk.  If  this  dis- 
ease is  not  checked  by  bleeding,  purging, 
and  proper  management,  it  will  probably 
terminate  in  inflammation  of  the  brain  or 
inflammatory  fever. 

It  mostly  attacks  those  cattle  that  have 
been  kept  in  a  state  of  poverty  and  star- 
vation during  the  winter  season,  and  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  have  been  admitted 
into  too  fertile  a  pasture :  hence  is  pro- 
duced a  redundancy  of  blood  in  the  sys- 


tem, which,  on  the  slightest  disturbance, 
or  even  naturally,  gives  rise  to  the  dis- 
ease. 

The  cure  must  be  attempted  by  taking 
four,  five  or  six  quarts  of  blood  from  the 
animal,  according  to  the  size  and 
strength;  the  Physic  Drink  must  then  be 
administered,  and  Purging  Drink  No.  2 
continued  in  half  doses  every  eight  hours 
until  the  full  purgative  effect  is  produced. 
If  the  animal  is  not  relieved  in  the  course  of 
two  hours  from  the  first  bleeding,  the  op- 
eration must  be  repeated  to  the  same  ex- 
tent, unless  the  beast  should  become  faint; 
and  the  bowels  must  be  kept  in  a  loose  or 
rather  purging  state  by  No.  2.  As  soon 
as  the  bowels  are  opened,  the  Fever 
Drink  No.  i  should  be  given  morning, 
noon  and  night  until  the  patient  is  well. 
Nothing  more  than  a  very  little  mash 
should  be  allowed,  and  all  cordials  should 
be  avoided  as  absolutely  destructive  to 
the  beast. 

When  the  animal  appears  to  be  doing 
well,  he  must  very  slowly  be  permitted  to 
return  to  his  usual  food.  He  should  for 
some  weeks  be  put  into  short  and  scanty 
pasture ;  the  seton  should  be  continued 
in  the  dewlap,  and  occasional  doses  of 
Epsom  salts  administered. 

CATTLE  PLAGUE.— Chloride  of  cop- 
per is  now  extensively  used  in  Germany  as 
a  preventive  against  the  cattle  plague. 
The  mode  of  administering  the  specific 
is  as  follows:  A  solution  is  first  made  by 
dissolving  one  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  the 
green  crystallized  salts  in  spirits  of  wine. 
In  this  solution  a  pad  of  cotton  is  soaked 
for  a  little  while,  and  is  then  laid  on  a 
plate  and  set  on  fire  in  the  centre  of  the 
stable,  the  animals'  heads  being  turned  to- 
ward the  flame  so  as  to  make  them  breathe 
the  fumes.  The  operation  is  performed 
morning  and  evening,  and  a  spirit  lamp 
filled  with  the  solution  left  burning  in  the 
stable  every  night.  The  liquid  is  also  ad- 
ministered internally,  with  the  addition  of 
one-half  an  ounce  of  chloroform  for  the 
above  quantity,  a  teaspoonful  being  put 
into  the  animal's  drink  three  times  a  day. 

CATTLE,  Sore  Month  in. — Take  a  weak 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  say  1  to  5  drops 
to  the  ounce  of  water,  washing  the  mouth 
every  few  hours,  allowing  a  little  to  be 
swallowed,  and  following  this  with  mild 
tonics  and  food  that  will  not  irritate  the 
mouth. 


CATTLE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


CATTLB,  Dysentery,  Slimy  Flux  or 
scouring  Bot. — It  just  has  been  observed 
that  this  disease  is  most  prevalent  in  the 
spring  and  autumn,  particularly  in  low, 
wet  and  swampy  situations.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  fatal  diseases  to  which  oxen,  and 
dairy  cows  in  particular  are  subject,  and 
destroys  more  than  any  other  malady. 

It  begins  with  frequent  and  painful  ef- 
forts to  expel  the  dung,  which  is  thin, 
slimy,  stinking  and  olive-colored.  The 
animal,  as  appears  from  his  restless  state, 
suffers  much  pain,  frequently  lying  down 
and  soon  rising  again.  There  is  "lalso  a 
frequent  noise  in  the  intestines.  If  the 
disease  is  neglected,  or  improperly  treat- 
ed, the  beast  gradually  gets  thin,  although 
for  a  while  he  retains  his  appetite,  and 
continues  to  ruminate ;  at  length  he  evi- 
dently begins  to  get  weak,  rumination  is 
imperfectly  performed  and  the  food  passes 
from  him  half  digested.  As  this  disease 
is  often  the  consequence  of  a  previous  af- 
fection of  the  liver,  considerable  tender- 
ness will  be  discovered  on  the  spine,  a  lit- 
tle beyond  the  shoulders.  This  is  one  of 
the  methods,  and  a  very  good  one,  by 
which  the  farmer  endeavors  to  ascertain 
whether  a  beast  which  he  is  thinking  of 
purchasing  has  the  scouring  rot.  As  the 
disease  proceeds  the  dewlap  hangs  down 
and  has  a  flabby  appearance ;  the  dung 
runs  off  with  a  putrid  and  offensive  smell, 
and,  as  it  falls  upon  the  ground,  rises  up 
in  bubbles,  and  a  membranous  or  skinny- 
like  substance  is  often  seen  upon  it;  this 
is  occasioned  by  the  natural  mucus,  which 
was  given  to  defend  the  bowels,  being  dis- 
charged. In  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  mucus  that  mingles  with  the  faeces,  the 
whole  is  rendered  more  adhesive,  and  the 
bubbles  are  larger,  and  remain  longer  on 
the  dung.  When  this  is  the  case  the  dis- 
ease is  always  obstinate,  and  generally 
fatal.  The  hair  all  over  the  body  soon 
appears  pen-feathered  or  staring.  Fever- 
ish symptoms  also  accompany  the  com- 
plaint; the  eyes  become  dull  and  in- 
flamed, there  is  much  working  of  the 
flanks,  and  the  pulse  is  quick. 

The  causes  ot  this  dreadful  malady  are 
— taking  cold  at  the  time  of  calving; 
long  journeys  jj  exposure  to  sudden  vicis- 
situdes of  the  weather;  and,  after  being 
over-heated  in  traveling,  being  turned  into 
damp  pastures,  etc.  Poor  keep  is  a  very 
frequent  cause,  and  especially  when  con- 


nected with  exhaustion  from  constant 
milking;  and  it  is  more  especially  the 
consequence  of  the  cows  being  badly  fed 
in  the  winter.  Some  cold  wet  lands  are 
particularly  liable  to  give  the  rot;  yet 
where  the  land  and  treatment  are  similar, 
it  prevails  more  in  some  dairies  than  in 
others,  depending  much  on  the  breed  of 
the  cattle.  Old  cows  that  are  fed  on 
sanded  pastures  are  very  subject  to  this 
complaint. 

In  all  cases  the  animals  should  be 
taken  from  grass  and  put  into  a  large  cow- 
house, or  an  open  yard,  where  they  can 
be  sheltered  from  the  weather,  and  kept 
on  dry  food,  such  as  good  hay,  ground 
oats,  barley  and  beans.  An  equal  pro- 
portion of  each  of  the  three  last  articles 
and  of  linseed  cake  will  make  an  excel- 
lent food  for  cattle  laboring  under  dysen- 
tery. A  quantity  proportionate  to  the 
size  and  appetite  of  the  patients  should 
be  given  two  or  three  times  a  day,  or  if 
they  are  much  reduced  and  their  appetite 
is  quite  gone,  a  thick  gruel  should  be 
made  of  these  ingredients,  and  adminis- 
tered three  or  four  times  a  day. 

This  disease  consists  in  inflammation 
of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  large  in- 
testines. It  will  then  be  evident  that 
bleeding,  proportioned  to  the  suddenness 
and  violence  of  the  attack,  and  the  ap- 
parent degree  of  fever,  should  be  first  re- 
sorted to. 

If  the  eyes  are  inflamed,  with  heaving 
of  the  flanks,  and  painful  twitchings  ot 
the  belly,  accompanied  by  severe  strain- 
ing and  apparent  gripings  in  the  expul- 
sion ot  the  excrement,  the  abstraction  of 
blood  is  indispensable. 

The  purgative  drink  No.  2  should 
precede  the  use  of  every  other  medicine, 
in  whatever  state  the  bowels  may  be.  It 
will  prepare  for  the  safer  use  of  astring- 
ents. In  almost  every  case  there  will  be 
something  in  the  bowels,  which,  if  it  did 
not  cause  the  disease,  contributes  to  keep 
it  up.  The  proprietor  of  cattle,  and  he 
who  professes  to  treat  their  diseases, 
should  know  that  there  can  be  nothing 
more  dangerous  than  to  attempt  suddenly 
to  stop  a  violent  purging,  especially  one 
that  assumes  the  character  of  dysentery. 
Let  that  which  offends  in  the  bowels  be 
first  got  rid  of,  and  the  disease  will  some- 
times cease  of  itself,  or,  if  it  does  not, 


15* 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


astringents  may  then  be  administered 
with  safety. 

The  safest  and  the  most  effectual  astrin- 
gent mixture  for  the  scouring  rot  is  that 
which  was  recommended  for  diarrhoea. 
It  may  be  given  once  or  twice  in  the  day, 
according  to  the  violence  of  the  com- 
plaint. 

Ale  should  never  be  given  in  these 
cases.  The  astringents  may  be  com- 
menced twenty-four  hours  after  the  pur- 
gative has  been  administered. 

If  the  disease  does  not  speedily  yield 
to  this  treatment,  it  will  not  be  prudent  to 
continue  the  use  of  such  large  quantities 
of  astringent  medicines  for  any  consider- 
able time.  The  astringent  drink,  with 
mutton  suet  (see  No.  18  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicines  for)  may  then  be  given, 
and  continued  morning  and  night  for  five 
or  six  days. 

When  the  dysentery  is  stopped,  the 
beast  should  very  slowly  and  cautiously 
be  permitted  to  return  to  his  former  geeen 
food.  Either  during  the  night  or  the  day, 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  he 
should  be  confined  in  the  cow-house,  and 
turned  out  twelve  hours  only  out  of  the 
twenty-four.  Water  should  be  placed 
within  reach  of  the  animal,  in  the  cow- 
house, and,  if  possible,  in  the  field ;  for 
there  are  few  things  more  likely  to  bring 
on  this  disease,  or  more  certain  to  aggra- 
vate it,  than  the  drinking  of  an  inordinate 
quantity  of  water  after  long-continued 
thirst. 

These  precautionary  measures  should 
be  continued  for  a  considerable  time ;  for 
there  is  something  very  treacherous  in 
this  malady,  and  it  will  often  suddenly 
return  several  weeks  after  it  has  been  ap- 
parently subdued. 

In  those  cases,  and  they  are  much  too 
numerous,  which  totally  resist  the  influ- 
ence of  the  medicines  already  recom- 
mended, other  means  should  be  tried. 
The  Alum  Whey  has  sometimes  suc- 
ceeded. (See  No.  19  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicines  for.) 

This  may  be  administered  twice  every 
day. 

The  disease  may  not  yield  even  to  this. 
It  will  then  be  evident  that  it  is  the  con- 
sequence of  some  other  disease,  and,  prob- 
ably, of  the  liver,  the  vitiated  bile  secreted 
by  which  is  keeping  up  the  purging.  It 
is  almost  a  forlorn  hope  to  attack  such  a 


case;  but  the  beast  maybe  valuable,  and, 
at  all  events,  we  cannot  be  worse  off. 
The  only  medicine  that  can  have  power 
here  is  mercury,  for  it  seems  to  exert  its 
chief  influence  on  the  liver  and  the  dis- 
charge of  bile.  The  mildest,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  most  effectual,  form  in 
which  it  can  be  administered,  is  that  of 
the  blue  pill,  half  a  scruple  of  which  may 
be  given  morning  and  night,  rubbed  down 
with  a  little  thick  gruel.  There  is  very 
little  danger  of  salivation  :  yet  it  may  be 
prudent  to  give  half  a  pound  of  Epsom 
salts  every  fifth  or  sixth  day;  and  most 
certainly  to  give  them  every  second  day, 
and  discontinue  the  blue  pill,  if  the  mouth 
should  become  sore,  or  the  breath  stink- 
ing, or  there  should  be  a  more  than  usual 
discharge  of  saliva  from  the  mouth. 

In  many  cases  there  is  found  a  schirr- 
ous  state  of  the  third  and  fourth  stom- 
achs in  cattle  that  have  died  of,  or  been 
destroyed  for  this  disease. 

CATTLE,  Red-water  in The  nature 

of  this  disease  has  been  very  much  mis- 
understood. It  consists  of  a  discharge  of 
high-colored  urine,  and  therefore  has  been 
attributed  to  an  inflammatory  affection  of 
the  kidneys.  It  will  generally  be  found 
to  begin  in  another  organ,  the  liver,  and 
to  be  connected,  in  the  first  stage  at  least, 
far  more  with  disease  of  that  gland  than 
of  the  kidney. 

There  are  evidently  two  distinct  species 
of  red-water. 

One,  but  which  occurs  most  seldom, 
begins  with  decided  symptoms  of  fever. 
There  is  shivering,  succeeded  by  increased 
heat  of  the  body ;  the  muzzle  dry ;  work- 
ing of  the  flanks ;  urine  of  a  red  color, 
evidently  tinged  with  blood,  and  occasion- 
ally consisting  almost  entirely  of  blood, 
discharged  in  small  quantities,  and  fre- 
quently with  considerable  pain;  loss  of 
appetite.  As  the  disease  proceeds,  the 
animal  loses  strength  ;  the  bowels  become 
constipated  or  very  loose;  and  the  urine 
of  a  dark  color,  approaching  to  black. 

Very  early  in  the  complaint  the  loins 
become  exceedingly  tender,  and  the  ani- 
mal shrinks  when  they  are  pressed  upon ; 
some  heat  is  likewise  felt  there,  showing 
evidently  the  seat  and  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease. It  sometimes  proceeds  from  cold, 
particularly  when  beasts  are  turned  into 
low  pasture  grounds  at  the  spring  of  the 
year.  It  also  frequently  seizes  young  cattle 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


»57 


that  are  feeding,  or  in  good  condition ;  for 
a  fullness  of  blood  in  the  system  renders 
them  more  liable  to  the  complaint. 

Sometimes  inflammation  of  the  kidneys 
proceeds  from  external  injuries,  suah  as  a 
violent  bruise  across  the  loins,  in  conse- 
quence of  other  beasts  ramping  on  them, 
or  a  severe  blow  in  the  region  of  the  kid- 
neys. 

The  discharge  of  bloody  urine  may 
either  proceed  from  inflammation  01  the 
kidneys  or  a  rupture  of  some  of  the  blood- 
vessels, and  in  either  case  blood  is  dis- 
charged with  the  urine,  and  may  be  often 
detected  in  clots;  whilst  in  the  other  kind 
of  red-water,  although  the  urine  is  dark 
in  color,  it  does  not  contain  blood.  The 
former  disease  is  more  frequent  with  bulls 
and  oxen,  and  the  latter  with  milch  cows. 

When  the  kidneys  are  inflamed,  and 
the  animal  evinces  tenderness  on  pressing 
the  loins,  the  treatment  should  consist  of 
blood-letting,  purging,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  sheep-skins  and  stimulants  to  the 
loins.  But  in  some  cases  where  blood  is 
discharged  with  the  urine  without  any  in- 
flammatory appearances,  the  exhibition  of 
Astringents  and  Stimulants  (See  No. 
20  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for) 
have  effected  a  cure. 

True  Red  Water  is  a  disease  of  the  di- 
gestive organs,  principally  of  the  liver; 
and  the  dark  color  of  the  urine  is  owing 
to  the  presence  of  vitiated  bile,  probably 
loaded  with  carbon,  and  not  to  blood,  as 
used  to  be  supposed. 

The  more  frequent  causes  are  connect- 
ed with  the  nature  of  the  pasture.  There 
are  some  fanns  or  particular  parts  of  the 
farm,  where  red-water  is  almost  sure  to 
follow  when  cattle  are  turned  upon  them. 
Low  marshy  grounds  are  apt  to  produce 
it,  and  also  pastures  with  much  woodland, 
and  especially  in  the  latter  part  of  au- 
tumn', when  the  leaves  are  falling.  Some 
have  said  that  elm-leaves  are  apt  to  cause 
red-water ;  others  attribute  the  disease  to 
the  oak ;  and  many  more  to  some  of  the 
numerous  species  of  ranunculuses  that 
abound  in  our  marshy  and  woodland  pas- 
tures. The  truth  of  the  matter,  however, 
is,  that  no  one  knows  what  plant  is  most 
concerned  in  the  affair;  and  all  that  the 
farmer  can  do  is  to  observe  what  pas- 
tures most  frequently  produce  red-water, 
and  at  what  season  of  the  year,  and  to  use 


them  as  much  as  he  can  for  other  stock 
in  the  dangerous  seasons. 

A  removal  from  a  poor  to  a  luxuriant 
pasture,  or  from  a  low  marshy  situation  to 
a  dry  and  lofty  locality,  are  frequent 
causes  of  red-water;  and  it  often  occurs 
after  a  long  succession  of  dry  weather. 

Cows  that  are  dried  of  their  milk  are 
often  attacked  by  it,  when  put  into  luxu- 
rious pasture,  while,  perhaps,  it  does  not 
affect  those  that  are  still  milked.  The 
reason  of  this  is  plain  enough  :  the  super- 
fluous nutriment  not  being  carried  off  by 
the  udder  in  the  form  of  milk,  the  digest- 
ive organs  are  deranged,  and  the  secre- 
tions of  the  liver  become  vitiated. 

A  cow  that  has  once  had  an  attack  of 
red-water  is  very  liable  to  a  repetition  of 
the  complaint.  The  farmer  is  obliged  to 
take  a  great  deal  of  care  properly  to 
manage  the  change,  of  pasture  with  her, 
and,  notwithstanding  all  his  care,  she  will 
probabably  have  two  or  three  attacks  of 
the  disease  every  year.  It  will  behoove 
him  to  consider  how  far  it  is  prudent  to 
keep  such  an  animal.  No  beast  that  is 
subject  to  periodical  complaints  of  any 
kind  should  be  kept,  for  it  may  easily  be 
prepared  for  the  butcher,  and  disposed  of 
with  little  or  no  loss  to  the  farmer. 

The  symptoms  of  red-water  are  at  first 
purging,  which  is  usually  followed  by  con- 
stipation; the  appetite  is  impaired;  the 
pulse  and  breathing  quickened ;  and  the 
former,  though  bounding  at  the  heart,  is 
often  weak.  The  membranes  of  the  nos- 
trils and  eyelids  are  pale,  and  the  legs 
cold;  the  milk  is  diminished  and  rumina- 
tion ceases.  The  urine,  from  being 
brown,  often  becomes  black,  and  the  dis- 
ease is,  in  this  state,  often  denominated 
black-water. 

The  red  and  the  black  water  are  diseases 
that  require  prompt  and  careful  treat- 
ment; for,  although,  in  some  slight  cases, 
the  beast  does  not  seem  to  be  much  af- 
fected by  either,  and  works  or  yields  her 
milk  as  well  as  ever,  yet  ere  long  it  preys 
upon  the  constitution,  and  the  animal 
gradually  wastes  away. 

It  is  folly  to  wait  in  order  to  see  wheth- 
er nature  will  effect  a  cure.  Except  in 
beasts  suddenly  put  upon  more  than 
usually  rich  pasturage,  it  never  is  or  can 
be  a  salutary  discharge.  It  must  be  prey- 
ing upon  the  system  and  wasting  the 
strength,  and  the  sooner  it  is  got  rid  of 


158 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


the  better.  It  attacks  milch  cows  oftener 
than  others,  and  it  is  more  injurious  to 
them  than  to  others.  While  it  lasts  it 
often  materially  lessens  the  quantity  of 
milk,  and,  even  after  it  is  removed,  the 
animal  is  slow  in  returning  to  her  former 
strength. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  remove 
the  cause  of  the  disease.  The  pasture 
should  be  changed.  A  more  open  and  a 
drier  situation  should  be  found,  and 
where  the  grass,  although  succulent  and 
nutritious,  is  not  very  plentiful.  If  there 
is  considerable  fever,  or  the  animal  should 
appear  to  be  really  ill  from  the  discharge, 
she  should  be  taken  under  shelter,  and 
fed  on  mashes,  with  a  very  little  hay ;  or 
a  few  turnips  or  carrots  may  be  allowed 
her,  if  they  are  in  season. 

Bleeding  is  often  necessary  at  the  onset 
of  this  disease,  but  it  should  always  be 
practiced  with  moderation,  and  in  many 
cases  abstained  from  altogether.  About 
two  hours  after  bleeding  the  Stimulat- 
ing Drink,  No.  21,  (See  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicines  for,)  should  be  admin- 
istered. 

A  quarter  part  of  this  drink  may  be 
given  every  six  hours,  until  the  bowels 
are  freely  opened,  and  the  medicine  may 
be  assisted  by  clysters.  The  successful 
treatment  of  the  disease  very  much,  oral- 
together,  depends  on  early  and  thorough- 
ly opening  the  bowels.  If  this  is  early 
accomplished,  the  animal  will  almost  cer- 
tainly recover.  If  it  is  neglected,  or  the 
constipation  cannot  be  overcome  within 
the  first  two  or  three  days,  the  termination 
will  probably  be  fatal. 

When  the  bowels  are  properly  acted 
on,  mild  Stimulating  Drink  (See  No.  22 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for,) 
may  be  exhibited. 

If,  with  the  amendment  of  the  other 
symptoms,  the  urine  should  appear  black, 
a  diuretic — such  as  one  ounce  of  nitre — 
may  be  given  with  the  above  drink,  or 
even  the  more  powerful  stimulant,  spirit 
of  turpentine,  in  doses  of  one  or  two 
ounces. 

If,  after  the  bowels  have  been  well 
opened,  and  the  fever  is  somewhat 
abated,  the  discharge  of  blood  still  con- 
tinues, and  in  as  great  a  quantity  as  be- 
fore, it  will  be  right  to  have  recourse  to 
astringents,  yet  such  as  will  not  irritate 
and  stimulate  the  kidneys;     and  even 


these  should  be  administered  cautiously. 
Constipation  attended  the  early  and  most 
violent  stage  of  the  disease — some  remis- 
sion, at  least  in  the  fever  and  the  pain,  if 
not  much  diminution  of  discharge,  at- 
tended the  removal  of  the  constipation : 
it  must,  therefore,  be  dangerous  to  con- 
fine the  bowels  again.  The  Mild  Astrin- 
gent (See  No.  23,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for,)  will  be  as  efficacious  as 
any. 

This  may  be  given  morning  and  night, 
for  a  week,  cautiously  watching  the  state 
of  the  bowels,  and  suspending  the  astrin- 
gent, and  even  having  recourse  to  physic, 
if  the  bowels  should  again  be  confined. 

The  recovery  of  the  animal  is  denoted 
by  the  restoration  of  the  pulse  and  breath- 
ing to  the  natural  standard,  and  the  return 
of  the  appetite,  together  with  the  healthy 
appearance  of  the  urine.  It  is  essential, 
however,  to  exercise  the  greatest  caution 
with  regard  to  the  food  for  some  little 
time,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  digestive 
organs  have  been  greatly  impaired. 

CATTLE,  Black-Water.— See  Cattle, 
Red-Water. 

CATTLE,  Thrush.— See  Cattle,  Blain. 

CATTLE,  Black  Tongue. — See  Cattle, 
Blain. 

CATTLE,  Binderpest— Dr.  Hope,  in  a 
communication  to  the  British  Associa- 
tion, stated  the  result  of  certain  experi- 
ments upon  cattle  with  carbolic  acid  dur- 
ing the  prevalence  of  rinderpest  in  1867. 
Of  about  two  hundred  and  seventy  cows 
under  his  charge,  the  majority  were  at- 
tacked by  the  disease;  but  by  injecting  a 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  either  through 
the  mouth  or  rectum,  he  was  enabled  to 
save  one  hundred  and  eleven  of  them. 
The  remainder,  not  so  dealt  with,  died, 
or  had  to  be  slaughtered. 

COWS,  Puerperal  Fever.  —  See  Cows, 
Milk  Fever. 

CATTLE,  Cud  in,  Loss  of.— Loss  of 
Cud  is  a  species  of  indigestion,  and  may 
be  brought  on  by  the  animal's  eating 
greedily  of  some  food  to  which  it  has  un- 
accustomed. Loss  of  cud  and  loss  of 
appetite  are  synonymous :  The  following 
is  a  compound  for  loss  of  cud  : 

Golden  Seal,  powdered I  ounce. 

Caraway,  powdered 2      " 

Cream  of  Tartar %      " 

Mix.  Divide  into  six  powders  and  give  one 
every  four  hours  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  camo- 
mile tea. 


CATTLE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


J59 


COWS,  Garget  in,  or  the  Downfall  in 
the  Udder  of. — This  is  a  disease  of  the 
utmost  consequence  to  the  owners  of 
neat  cattle.  Young  cows  in  high  condi- 
tion are  most  liable  to  it,  especially  at  the 
time  of  calving.  Such  as  are  aged  are 
chiefly  subject  to  it  during  hot  and  sultry 
weather,  particularly  those  which  are 
fattened  for  the  shambles;  when  this  is 
the  case,  the  loss  is  considerable,  for  a 
summer's  keep  is  generally  thrown  away. 

This  disorder  makes  its  appearance  in 
one  or  more  quarters  of  the  udder,  which 
become  swollen,  hard,  hotter  than  usual, 
and  painful  when  pressed.  If  the  patient 
is  a  milch-cow,  the  secretion  of  milk  is 
lessened,  and  mingled  with  blood,  pus, 
and  corruption.  At  other  times  the  flow 
of  milk  is  totally  stopped,  and  the  tume- 
fied quarter  proceeds  to  a  state  of  sup- 
puration. It  not  unfrequently  happens 
that  the  hind  extremities,  at  the  same 
time,  become  swollen  and  inflamed,  espe- 
cially about  the  hip  joint,  hock,  and  fet- 
lock, which  disables  the  animal  from 
getting  up,  almost  from  moving. 

It  is  inflammation  of  one  or  more 
quarters  of  the  udder,  and  is  most  com- 
monly induced  by  the  animal  catching 
cold.  It  particularly  attacks  those  cows 
that  have  a  redundancy  of  blood  in  the 
system,  or  are  of  a  gross  habit  of  body. 
Young  heifers  are  not  always  exempt  from 
it. 

It  will  be  necessary,  as  soon  as  the 
downfall  is  discovered,  to  bring  the  ani- 
mal out  of  the  pasture,  and  take  away 
from  three  to  five  quarts  of  blood,  accord- 
ing to  her  size  or  strength.  If  she  is 
bled  at  night,  it  will  be  proper  on  the 
next  morning  to  give  her  the  purging 
drink,  No.  2,  or  if  a  stout  beast,  Physic 
Drink  No.  15 

The  cow  should  be  sparingly  fed  for  a 
day  or  two  on  mashes  with  a  little  hay, 
and  afterwards  turned  on  rather  short 
pasture.  As  this  is  a  disease  either  con- 
fined to,  or  most  violent  and  dangerous 
in,  cows  that  are  in  high  condition,  it  will 
be  quite  necessary  to  keep  the  patient  for 
a  while  on  spare  diet.  The  ground  oats, 
and  barley,  and  clover-hay,  and  oil-cake, 
that  are  sometimes  given,  cannot  fail  to 
aggravate  the  complaint. 

Mercurial  Garget  Ointment.  —  The 
ointment  should  be  well  rubbed  into  the 


affected  quarter,  immediately  after  milk- 
ing, but  it  must  be  carefully  washed  off 
again  with  warm  water  before  the  milk  is 
drawn. 

This  ointment  will  penetrate  into  the 
diseased  part  of  the  udder,  and  be  of 
very  great  service. 

In  obstinate  cases  the  Iodine  Ointment 
(see  No.  25  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for)  has  been  applied  to  the  in- 
durated udder  with  great  success. 

A  portion,  varying  from  the  size  of  a 
nut  to  that  of  a  filbert,  according  to  the 
extent  and  degree  of  the  swelling  and 
hardness,  should  be  well  rubbed  into  the 
affected  part  morning  and  night. 

It  may  sometimes  be  advisable  to  give 
the  hydriodate  internally,  and  from  eight 
to  twelve  grains  may  be  administered 
morning  and  night  in  a  little  gruel,  with 
very  good  effect. 

During  the  continuance  of  the  disease, 
the  bowels  must  be  kept  open  with  half- 
doses  of  Purging  Drink  No.  2.  The 
fever  drink,  No.  i,  will  also  be  useful, 
or  one  or  more  decidedly  diuretic,  as  Di- 
uretic Drink.  (See  No.  26  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

After  the  purulent  and  bloody  dis- 
charge has  ceased,  and  the  teat  seems  to 
be  free  from  inflammation,  and  nearly  of 
its  natural  size,  color,  and  softness,  it  will 
be  prudent  to  continue  the  ointment 
daily,  and  this  last  drink  occasionally  for 
two  or  three  weeks  at  the  least. 

Cases,  however,  will  occur,  either  neg- 
lected at  the  beginning,  or  the  beast 
being  too  fat,  and  very  much  disposed  to 
inflammation,  in  which  the  teat  and  the 
whole  quarter  will  long  continue  hard 
and  swelled,  and  tender,  and  will  get 
worse  and  worse.  The  whole  of  the 
affected  part  must  then  be  carefully  ex- 
amined, to  ascertain  whether  there  is 
matter  within,  and  whether  it  is  pointing, 
i.  e.,  whether  there  is  a  part  a  little  more 
prominent  and  softer  than  the  rest.  If 
this  is  detected,  it  should  be  freely  opened 
with  a  lancet  or  penknife,  the  matter  suf- 
fered to  flow  out,  and  the  wound  dressed 
with  Tincture  of  Aloes  or  Friar's  Balsam. 
Slight  incisions  with  a  lancet,  where  mat- 
ter cannot  be  detected,  will  often  be  ser- 
viceable. The  flow  of  blood  should  be 
encouraged  by  fomentations  with  warm 
water.     The  teats  are  sometimes  cut  off 


i6o 


CATTLE— D~T3EASES~AND  REMEDIES. 


in  obstinate  cases  of  this  kind;  but  that 
should,  if  possible,  be  avoided,  for  the 
quarter  will  be  lost,  and  there  will  be  a 
serious  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  milk 
as  long  as  the  cow  lives.  The  teat  may- 
be cut  deeply  in  order  to  let  out  the  mat- 
ter. This  wound  will  readily  heal  again, 
and  the  quarter  will  be  as  useful  as  ever. 

If  the  udder  appears  grangrenous,  it 
should  be  scarified  with  a  lancet,  and  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime  applied, 
whilst  the  strength  of  the  animal  should 
be  supported  by  tonic  medicine. 

When  the  cow  dies  it  is  generally  from 
mortification,  to  prevent  which  it  is  often 
necessary  to  remove  not  only  the  affected 
teat,  but  the  whole  of  the  quarter.  A 
skillful  man,  more  competent  than  a  com- 
mon cow-leach,  should  be  employed  for 
this  purpose. 

A  frequent  but  unsuspected  cause  of 
this  disease  is  the  hasty  and  careless  mode 
of  milking,  which  is  often  adopted.  A 
considerable  quantity  of  milk  is  left  in  the 
bag,  particularly  when  a  cow  gives  her 
milk  slowly.  This  is  not  only  a  loss  to 
the  farmer,  from  so  much  less  milk  find- 
ing its  way  to  the  dairy  room,  and  from 
the  quantity  of  milk  regularly  secreted  in 
the  udder  of  the  cow  gradually  diminish- 
ing; but  the  milk  curdles  in  the  teats  and 
produces  swellings,  and  lays  the  founda- 
tion for  garget. 

The  Sore  Teats,  to  which  some  cows 
are  subject,  is  a  very  different  disease,  and 
often  a  very  troublesome  one.  It  usually 
occurs  a  little  while  after  they  have  calved. 
If  it  happens  in  the  summer  the  animals 
are  so  badly  tormented  by  the  flies  that  it 
is  difficult  to  milk  them ;  and  the  discharge 
from .  the  cracks  and  wounds  passing 
through  the  hand  in  the  act  of  milking, 
and  mingling  with  the  milk,  renders  it  dis- 
gusting, if  not  unwholesome. 

The  ointment  for  Sore  Teats  will  gen- 
erally be  found  effectual.  (See  No.  27 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

A  little  of  this  should  be  rubbed  on  the 
teats  morning  and  night  after  milking; 
and  if  the  flies  tease  the  animal  much,  a 
small  quantity  of  aloes  or  assafcetida  may 
be  mixed  with  the  ointment.  The  latter 
is  the  more  effectual,  but  its  smell  is  very 
unpleasant. 

The  teats  are  sometimes  so  sore  that  it 
is  necessary  to  hobble  the  cow,  in  order 
to  make  her  stand;  but  this  is  seldom 


effectual ;  for  the  legs  of  the  cow  get  sore, 
and  she  kicks  worse  than  ever.  Kind- 
ness and  patience  are  the  best  remedies. 
It  is  never  of  any  use  to  beat  or  ill  use  a 
cow  for  this  fidgetiness  at  milking.  She 
will  either  at  the  time  do  mischief  in  re- 
turn, or  she  will  at  some  other  opportu- 
nity take  her  revenge. 

There  is  another  variety  of  disease  to 
which  the  udder  of  cows  is  liable,  some- 
what different  from  that  described,  termed 
Weeds.  It  is  attended  by  considerable 
fever  and  constitutional  disturbance,  com- 
mencing with  a  shivering  fit,  which,  after 
some  hours,  is  succeeded  by  a  hot  fit,  in 
which  all  the  symptoms  of  fever  are  pre- 
sent— the  cow  hangs  her  head  and  refuses 
to  feed,  and  the  udder  is  painful,  hot,  and 
swollen.  If  relief  is  not  soon  obtained, 
an  abscess  forms,  and  one  or  more  quar- 
ters become  cold,  black,  and  insensible; 
the  udder  becomes  disorganized,  and  the 
animal  is  lost. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  admin- 
ister a  Warm  Stimulant.  (See  No.  28 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

Sometimes  this  draught  alone  will  effect 
a  cure,  but  the  body  should  be  clothed 
and  the  cow  well  nursed.  On  the  follow- 
ing day,  if  the  bowels  are  constipated  and 
the  cow  appears  dull,  a  purgative  should 
be  given.  The  udder  must  be  fomented 
with  warm  water  for  an  hour  at  a  time, 
several  times  a  day,  and  if  it  is  much 
swollen,  it  should  be  suspended  with 
cloths  passing  over  the  loins.  It  may 
also  be  rubbed  with  a  liniment  composed 
of  hartshorn  and  oil.  It  is  of  much  im- 
portance that  the  fomentations  should  be 
as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  and  applied  in 
good  earnest  to  the  part  affected,  and  for 
a  long  time  together. 

COWS,  Sore  Teats.— See  Cow,  Garget. 

COWS,  Weeds.— See  Cow,  Garget  in. 

COW,  Before  and  during  Calving, 
Treatment  of  the. — It  is  an  old  and  true 
saying,  and  the  truth  of  it  is  nowhere 
more  evident  than  in  the  treatment  of  the 
milch  cow,  that  .the  prevention  of  an  evil 
is  better  than  the  cure.  The  difficulty  of 
calving,  and  the  mortality  afterwards,  are 
in  a  great  measure  to  be  traced  to  the  im- 
proper management  of  the  cow.  So  far 
as  the  udder  is  concerned,  there  is  a  plan 
usually  adopted,  and  a  very  necessary 
one — the  cow  is  dried  six  or  eight  weeks 
before  calving.     Two  reasons  are  given 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


161 


for  this :  the  first  is,  that  after  a  long  pe- 
riod of  milking,  the  strength  and  consti- 
tution of  the  cow  require  a  little  respite. 
A  more  important  reason,  however,  is, 
that  from  some  cause  that  has  never  been 
fully  explained,  the  mixture  of  the  old 
milk,  and  the  new  secretion  that  nature 
prepares  for  the  expected  calf,  produces 
frequently  great  irritation  and  inflamma- 
tion in  the  udder,  and  obstinate  garget  is 
apt  to  ensue. 

During  the  early  period  of  gestation  the 
animal  may,  and  should  be,  tolerably  well 
fed,  for  she  has  to  provide  milk  for  the 
dairy  and  nourishment  for  the  foetus ;  yet 
even  here  there  should  be  moderation 
and  care ;  but  when  she  is  dried  her  food 
should  be  considerably  diminished.  She 
should  not  be  too  fat  or  full  of  blood  at 
the  time  of  calving,  for  that  is  the  fre- 
quent cause  of  difficult  labor,  garget,  milk- 
fever,  and  death.  There  are  few  things  in 
which  the  farmer  errs  more  than  in  this. 
There  maybe  an  error  in  starving  her 
before  she  calves,  but  it  is  a  much  more 
dangerous  one  to  bring  her  in  too  high 
condition. 

Some  cows  are  apt  to  slink  their  calves, 
or  to  produce  them  dead  befor  their  time. 
This  generally  happens  about  the  middle 
of  their  pregnancy.  If  about  that  time  a 
cow  is  uneasy,  feverish,  off  her  food,  or 
wandering  about  in  search  of  something 
for  which  she  seems  to  have  a  longing,  or 
most  greedily  and  ravenously  devouring 
some  particular  kind  of  food,  she  should 
be  bled  and  physicked  with  Purging  Drink 
No.  2.  If  she  is  not  quieted,  she  should 
be  bled  and  physicked  again  in  the  course 
of  three  or  four  days.  She  should  be 
immediately  removed  from  the  other  cows; 
for  should  she  slink  her  calf  among  them, 
it  is  not  improbable  that  some,  or  even 
all,  of  the  others  will  do  the  same.  This 
is  not  easily  accounted  for,  but  it  is  per- 
fectly true.  The  cow  that  slinks  her  calf 
will  often  require  much  attention.  She 
should  always  be  physicked,  and  in  most 
cases  bled,  and  after  that  the  best  thing  to 
be  done  with  her  is  to  fatten  her  for  the 
butcher;  for  she  will  probably  do  the 
same  again,  and  teach  others  the  habit. 

When  the  ninth  calendar  month  has 
nearly  expired  (see  Cows,  Gestation  in,) 
the  cow  should  be  diligently  looked  after. 
She  should  be  brought  as  near  to  the 
house  as  can  be  conveniently  done ;  she 


should  lose  three  or  four  quarts  of  blood, 
unless  she  is  very  poor,  and  she  should 
most  certainly  be  physicked.  It  will  be 
better  if  she  can  be  separated  from  the 
other  cows ;  and,  although  it  may  not  be 
prudent  to  house  her  entirely,  there  should 
be  some  shed  or  shelter  into  which  she 
may  go. 

When  it  appears  that  labor  is  close  at 
hand,  she  should  be  driven  gently  to  the 
cow-house,  and  for  a  while  left  quite 
alone.  She  will  do  better  by  herself  than 
if  she  is  often  disturbed  by  one  and 
another  looking  in  upon  and  watching, 
her.  If,  however,  she  is  discovered  in 
the  act  of  calving  in  the  homestead,  she 
should  not  be  moved,  however  exposed 
may  be  her  situation.  It  would  some- 
times be  dangerous  to  drive  her  even  a 
hundred  yards. 

The  usual  symptoms  of  the  approach 
of  calving  are  uneasiness,  slight  lifting  of 
the  tail,  lying  down  and  getting  up,  the 
evident  labor-throe,  gentle  at  first,  and 
increasing  in  force,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  protrusion  of  the  membranes 
from  her  shape.  The  still  earlier  symp- 
toms, and  preceding  the  labor  by  a  few 
days,  are  enlargement  of  the  udder,  and 
redness  of  the  space  between  her  shape 
and  the  udder. 

The  labor  having  actually  commenced, 
the  membranes  will  more  and  more  pro- 
trude until  they  break,  and  the  fluid  by 
which  the  calf  is  surrounded  will  escape. 
If  her  pains  are  strong,  the  cow  should 
for  a  while  be  scarcely  meddled  with; 
but  if  an  hour  or  more  elapses,  and  no 
portion  of  the  calf  presents  itself,  the 
hand,  well  greased,  should  be  introdued, 
in  order  to  ascertain  the  situation  and 
position  of  the  calf.  The  natural  position 
is  with  the  fore-feet  presenting,  and  the 
muzzle  lying  upon  the  fore-legs.  If  the 
fetus  is  found  in  this  position,  and  ad- 
vanced into  the  passage,  some  time  longer 
should  be  allowed  to  see  what  nature  will 
do ;  and  the  strength  of  the  animal  may, . 
if  necessary,  be  supported  by  some  gruel, 
with  which  a  pint  of  warm  ale  has  been, 
mixed,  being  horned  down.  As  soon,, 
however,  as  the  throes  begin  to  weaken,, 
and  before  that,  if  no  progess  has  been 
made,  manual  assistance  must  be  ren- 
dered. 

Here  it  will  be  recollected  that  there 
are  two  objects  to  be  accomplished — the 


i6: 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


saving  of  the  lives  of  both  the  mother 
and  the  young  one,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, the  means  at  first  employed 
should  be  gentle.  The  hand  should  be 
introduced,  and  the  fore-legs  of  the  calf 
laid  hold  of  and  drawn  down,  the  efforts 
of  the  operator  being  employed  at  the 
moment  of  the  throes  of  the  mother.  If 
the  legs  are  brought  forward  a  little  way, 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  head  is  ac- 
companying them.  The  hand  will  some- 
times be  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  It 
the  head  cannot  be  moved  by  the  hand, 
a  cord  must  be  procured  with  a  slip  knot 
at  the  end,  which  is  to  be  passed  carefully 
into  the  passage,  and,  the  mouth  of  the 
young  animal  being  opened,  fastened 
Tound  his  lower  jaw.  The  end  of  this 
must  be  given  to  an  assistant,  who  should 
be  instructed  to  pull  gently,  but  firmly, 
;at  the  moment  of  the  throes,  while  the 
principal  operator  is  endeavoring  to  draw 
on  the  feet. 

Should  not  this  succeed,  it  will  appear 
that,  either  from  the  narrowness  of  the 
pelvis,  or  the  size  of  the  foetus,  there  will 
be  difficulty  and  danger  in  accomplishing 
its  extraction.  The  operator  must  then 
begin  to  think  less  of  the  safety  of  the 
calf,  and  endeavor  to  secure  that  of  the 
mother.  Two  other  large  cords  or  ropes 
must  be  procured,  and  one  fastened  round 
each  leg.  The  service  of  two  assistants 
will  now  be  required.  One  should  pull 
at  the  head,  and  the  other  the  feet,  while 
the  operator  ascertains  the  progress  that 
is  made ;  too  much  force,  however,  should 
not  immediately  be  used,  for  the  chance 
•of  saving  the  young  one  must  not  yet  be 
;given  up.  This  not  succeeding,  greater 
power  must  be  applied,  until  the  assist- 
ants begin  to  use  their  full  strength,  pull- 
ing steadily,  and  with  the  pains  of  the 
cow,  if  they  still  continue. 

In  the  natural  position  of  the  calf,  the 
young  one  is  almost  uniformly  extracted 
by  these  means,  and  its  life  is  preserved ; 
for  both  the  mother  and  her  progeny  will, 
without  serious  injury,  bear  the  employ- 
ment of  more  force  than  would  by  some 
l>e  thought  credible.  When  the  womb  is 
unable  to  discharge  its  contents,  and  the 
throes  are  diminishing,  or  perhaps  ceasing, 
much  benefit  may  be  derived  from  the 
administration  of  the  ergot  of  rye,  which 
appears  to  act  as  a  stimulus  specifically 
>on  the  uterus ;  two  drachms  of  this  med- 


icine, finely  powdered,  may  be  given  in  a. 
pint  of  ale,  and  repeated  several  times,  if 
required,  with  intervals  from  half  an  hour 
to  an  hour. 

The  foetus  is  not,  however,  always  pre- 
sented naturally,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
operator  to  ascertain  its  exact  position  in 
the  womb.  This  he  will  not  find  much 
difficulty  in  accomplishing. 

The  most  usual  false  position  is  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  head,  while  the  feet 
of  the  calf  are  bent  and  doubled  down 
under  his  belly,  and  remain  in  the 
womb.  A  cord  must  be  passed  as 
before  around  the  lower  jaw,  which  is 
then  pushed  back  into  the  womb.  The 
operator  now  introduces  his  hand,  and 
endeavors  to  feel  the  situation  of  the  feet. 
He  is  generally  able  to  find  them  out, 
and  to  fix  a  cord  round  each  pastern,  or 
at  least  about  the  knee,  and  then  he  can 
usually  bring  them  into  the  passage.  The 
head  is  next  to  be  brought  forward  again 
by  means  of  the  cord;  and,  the  three 
cords  being  afterwards  pulled  together, 
the  foetus  is  extracted.  Should  the  calf 
have  been  long  fixed  in  the  passage,  and 
be  evidently  much  swelled,  it  is  certainly 
dead ;  the  head  may  then  be  opened  in 
order  to  lessen  its  bulk,  and  the  extrac- 
tion accomplished  as  before. 

When  the  feet  present,  and  the  head 
is  doubled  under  the  rim  of  the  passage, 
the  case  is  more  difficult,  and  the  calf  is 
very  rarely  saved :  indeed  it  may  be  reck- 
oned to  be  dead  if  it  has  remained  in  this 
position  for  any  considerable  time.  Cords 
are  first  to  be  placed  round  the  feet ;  the 
hand  must  be  afterwards  passed  into  the 
womb,  and  the  situation  of  the  head  ex- 
actly ascertained,  and  the  cord  passed 
round  the  lower  jaw.  The  calf  being 
then  pushed  farther  back  into  the  womb, 
the  head  must  be  brought  into  the  pas- 
sage, and,  the  three  ropes  being  pulled 
together,  the  delivery  effected  as  quickly 
as  may  be,  without  the  exertion  of  more 
force  than  is  necessary. 

The  last  false  presentation  we  shall 
mention  is  that  of  the  breech,  the  tail  ap- 
pearing at  the  mouth  of  the  shape.  The 
hand  is  to  be  passed  into  the  uterus,  and 
the  cords  fastened  round  each  hock.  The 
calf  is  then  to  be  pushed  as  far  back  as 
possible  into  the  womb,  and  the  hocks, 
one  after  the  other,  brought  into  the  pas- 
sage, the  ropes  being  shifted  as  soon  as 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


163 


possible  to  the  fetlock.  With  the  exer- 
tion of  considerable  force,  the  calf  may 
now  be  extracted,  and  sometimes  without 
serious  injury. 

By  studying  these  cases  the  operator 
will  be  enabled  to  adapt  his  measures  to 
every  case  of  false  presentation ;  and  they 
.are  numerous.  Great  force  must  some- 
times be  used  to  effect  the  extraction  of 
the  calf.  The  united  efforts  of  five  or 
six  men  have  been  employed,  and  (al- 
though such  practice  can  scarcely  be  de- 
fended in  any  case),  a  horse  has  some- 
times been  attached  to  the  cords.  The 
fcetus  has  been  necessarily  destroyed,  but 
the  mother  has  survived :  too  often,  how- 
ever, she  has  evidently  fallen  a  victim  to 
this  unnecessary  violence.  If  by  the 
united  force  of  two  or  three  men  the 
foetus  cannot  be  brought  away,  any  ruder 
and  more  violent  attempt  must  always 
be  fraught  with  danger,  and  will  often  be 
fatal.  The  safer  way  for  the  mother — 
yet  that  is  attended  with  considerable 
risk — is  to  cut  off  some  of  the  limbs  of 
the  fcetus.  One  or  possibly  both  shoul- 
ders may  be  separated,  slipped,  and  then 
the  head  and  trunk  may,  without  much 
difficulty,  be  brought  away.  The  knife 
must  be  one  that  can  be  concealed  in  the 
hand,  and  that  is  hooked  at  the  end,  and 
rounded  and  thick  at  the  back;  but,  not- 
withstanding that,  there  is  much  danger 
of  wounding  the  womb,  which  is  forci- 
bly pressing  on  the  hand  of  the  operator. 

Labor  is  not  unfrequently  prevented  by 
the  diseased  state  of  the  entrance  or  neck 
of  the  womb,  which  becomes  hard  and 
scirrhus,  and  thus  prevents  the  calf  from 
escaping.  When  this  is  found  by  exami- 
nation to  be  the  case,  an  operation  should 
be  performed,  which  consists  in  dividing 
the  contracted  entrance  by  means  of  a 
small  knife  passed  up,  protected  by  the 
hand  and  ringers.  Considerable  care 
must  be  exercised  so  as  not  to  cut  too 
deeply ;  and  it  is  better  to  divide  the  stric- 
ture  "ghtly  in  several  places. 

From  the  violent  efforts  of  the  cow,  or 
from  unnecessary  artificial  violence,  the 
uterus,  the  calf-bed,  may  protrude,  and  be 
absolutely  inverted.  The  case  is  not  des- 
perate. The  part  must  be  cleaned  from 
blood  and  dirt,  and  supported  by  a  sheet; 
then,  the  operator  beginning  at  the  very 
fundus  or  bottom  of  the  womb,  it  may  be 
gradually  returned  by  the  union  of  some 


little  ingenuity  and  a  great  deal  of  pa- 
tience. The  animal  should  be  copiously 
bled  before  this  is  attempted,  in  order  to 
relax  the  passage ;  and  the  application  of 
cold  water  for  a  considerable  time  may 
contract  the  womb  itself,  and  render  its 
return  more  easy.  A  stitch  or  a  couple  of 
stitches  should  be  passed  through  the  lips 
of  the  shape,  in  order  to  prevent  a  repe- 
tition of  the  protrusion,  and  the  Anodyne 
Drink  (See  No.  29  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for,)  administered. 

If  the  cow  has  calved  unseen  and  un- 
attended, she  will,  like  every  other  quad- 
ruped, set  diligently  to  work  to  devour 
the  cleansing,  and  lick  the  new-born  ani- 
mal clean.  This,  however,  is  often  care- 
fully prevented  when  there  is  the  oppor- 
tunity of  so  doing.  The  calf  is  taken 
immediately  away,  and  the  cleansing 
thrown  on  the  dung-heap.  We  act  con- 
trary to  nature  in  this.  She  would  not 
have  given  to  herbivorous  animals  this 
propensity  to  eat  the  placenta,  had  not 
some  useful  purpose  been  effected  by  it. 
Cleanliness  was  one  object,  the  next  was 
either  to  support  the  strength  of  the  ani- 
mal, or  to  have  an  aperient  or  salutary  in- 
fluence on  her.  The  mother  and  the  young 
will  be  happier  if  they  are  left  to  pursue 
the  dictates  of  nature.  Many  a  cow  has 
fretted  herself  into  a  fatal  fever  from  the 
sudden  loss  of  her  little  one,  and  many 
a  calf  has  died  from  the  neglect  of  that 
cleanliness  which  the  mother  could  best 
effect. 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  cleansing  the  cow  after  calving, 
or  the  removal  or  expulsion  of  the  pla- 
centa. There  is  much  error  in  this.  The 
placenta  comes  away  with  the  calf;  and 
it  is  that  natural  discharge  from  the  womb, 
continued  during  several  days,  and  which 
is  observed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in 
all  quadrupeds,  that  gives  the  notion  of 
anything  being  retained.  Medicine,  never- 
theless, is  necessary  in  order  to  prevent 
that  access  of  fever  to  which  the  cow  in 
high  condition  is  liable ;  but  that  medi- 
cine should  be  administered,  not  in  the 
form  of  a  stimulating  cordial,  from  the 
false  supposition  that  the  animal  wants 
support  after  the  fatigue  and  pain  it  has 
undergone,  but  in  that  of  a  purgative,  in 
order  to  prevent  an  attack  of  fever  to 
which  the  animal  is  so  naturally  exposed 
after  parturition,  and  which  is  so  often 


164 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


hastened  and  aggravated  by  absurd  man- 
agement. 

The  mother  requires  little  care  after 
calving,  except  that  of  protection  from 
too  great  severity  of  weather,  and  this 
more  especially  if  she  had  been  much 
nursed  before  parturition.  A  warm  mash 
may  be  given  daily  for  a  little  while,  but 
otherwise  she  may  return  to  her  previous 
and  not  too  luxuriant  feed.  The  state  of 
her  udder,  however,  should  be  examined : 
if  it  is  at  all  hard,  she  should  be  milked 
twice  every  day,  and  the  calf  should  be 
put  with  her  several  times  in  the  day  at 
least,  if  not  altogether.  Perhaps  she  will 
not  let  it  suck,  especially  if  it  is  the  first 
calf,  on  account  of  the  soreness  of  her 
teats,  and  her  being  unaccustomed  to  the 
duties  of  nursing.  She  must  then  be  care- 
fully watched  at  sucking  time,  and  the 
bag,  if  it  is  very  hard,  and  kernelly,  and 
sore,  must  be  fomented  with  warm  water, 
or,  if  necessary,  the  Garget  Ointment, 
No.  24,  or  Ointment  for  Sore  Teats, 
No.  27  (Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for)  /nust  be  rubbed  into  the  part  princi- 
pally affected. 

COW,  Milk  Fever,  or  the  Drop.— This  is 
a  disease  almost  peculiar  to  cows  in  high 
condition  at  the  time  of  calving :  whether 
young  or  old,  all  are  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  it ;  they  are,  however,  rarely  attacked 
until  after  they  have  had  several  calves  : 
and  it  is  stated  that  the  short-horned 
breed  is  more  liable  to  it  than  others. 
Whenever  it  takes  place,  either  at  home  or 
in  the  field,  it  is  distressing  to  the  animal, 
as  well  as  troublesome  to  the  owner,  for 
the  beast  is  seldom  able  to  rise  during 
several  days.  The  puerperal  or  milk  fever 
is  most  frequent  during  the  hot  weather 
of  summer.  The  cows  most  liable  to  be 
attacked  by  this  fever  have  large  udders, 
that  have  been  full  of  milk  for  several 
days  before  calving.  It  is  a  very  danger- 
ous disease  when  severe,  and  often  proves 
fatal  even  under  the  most  judicious  treat- 
ment. 

The  milk  fever  most  commonly  appears 
about  the  second  or  third  day  after  calving, 
but  the  cow  is  occasionally  down  within  a 
few  hours  of  parturition.  It  is  first  recog- 
nized by  the  animal  refusing  her  food, 
looking  dull  and  heavy ;  then  follows  pro- 
trusion of  the  eye,  heaving  of  the  flank, 
restlessness,  and  every  symptom  of  fever. 
In  a  few  hours,  or  on  the  next  day  at  the 


latest,  the  cow  begins  to  stagger ;  is  weak 
in  the  loins ;  palsy  steals  over  the  whole 
frame ;  and  she  falls,  unable  to  rise  again. 
It  is  in  this  advanced  stage  that  the  com- 
plaint is  too  often  first  observed ;  the  pre- 
vious symptoms  are  not  taken  notice  ofr 
and  the  beast  is  almost  past  cure  before 
the  owner  is  aware  of  her  illness.  From 
this  seeming  palsy  of  the  hinder  limbs, 
and  sometimes  of  the  whole  frame,  the 
disease  is  very  appropriately  called  drop- 
ping after  calving. 

There  are  evidently  two  varieties  of 
this  disease,  one  being  considerably  more 
dangerous  than  the  other.  In  the  severer 
kind,  the  brain,  as  well  as  the  spinal  mar- 
row, is  affected,  whilst  the  milder  disease 
is  principally  confined  to  the  loins. 

In  the  former  kind,  we  first  notice  a 
staggering  gait,  the  breathing  then  be- 
comes irregular  and  disturbed,  the  eyes 
full  and  glassy,  and  the  pupil  dilated. 
The  animal,  after  reeling  about  ior  some 
time,  falls,  and  frequently  never  rises  again. 
She  then  becomes,  in  great  measure,  un- 
conscious; the  head  is  turned  on  one  side; 
sensation  appears  partially  lost,  so  that,  if 
liquids  are  given  with  the  horn,  they  often 
enter  the  windpipe  without  occasioning, 
coughing.  The  hind  legs  become  entirely 
paralyzed,  and  the  fore  ones  are  some- 
times affected  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
pulse  is  generally  very  quick,  but  weak ; 
the  appetite  is  altogether  lost ;  rumination 
ceases;  and  the  bowels  are  obstinately 
constipated.  If  the  animal  dies,  it  is  gen- 
erally within  forty-eight  hours  from  the 
commencement  of  the  symptoms,  and  in- 
deed sometimes  only  a  few  hours  after- 
wards. In  some  cases,  the  animal  will  lie 
in  a  state  of  insensibility ;  in  others,  she 
exhibits  considerable  pain  and  distress. 
The  cow  is  unable  to  discharge  either  her 
urine  or  dung,  the  nerves  influencing  these 
offices  being  paralyzed.  On  examining 
the  bodies  of  cows  that  have  died  from 
this  disease,  the  principal  mischief  has 
been  found  in  thebrainand  spinal  cord;  in 
the  latter,  chiefly  at  the  region  of  the  loins. 
The  womb,  in  the  greater  number  of  instan- 
ces, has  been  found  in  the  same  state  as  it 
usually  is  after  parturition ;  but,  in  some 
cases,  it  presents  the  appearance  of  the 
most  intense  inflammation.  In  such  cases, 
it  appears  that  the  inflammation  of  the 
womb  is  superadded  to  the  other  disease. 

In  the  milder  form  of  the  complaint  it 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


165 


Is,  to  a  greater  extent,  a  local  malady : 
the  spinal  cord  at  the  region  of  the  loins 
is  affected ;  but  the  brain  is  comparative- 
ly exempt;  and  thus,  though  the  hind 
extremities  are  paralyzed  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, yet  the  insensibility  is  by  no  means 
general,  and  consciousness  is  retained. 
In  both  the  severe  and  mild  form  the  di- 
gestive organs  are  altogether  deranged, 
and  in  fatal  cases  the  third  stomach  is 
found  loaded  with  hard,  indigestible  food, 
and  the  other  viscera  are  often  tound  in- 
flamed. 

The  cause  of  the  disease  has  net  been 
ascertained,  but  it  appears  connected  with 
a  high- state  of  condition,  and  is  best  pre- 
vented by  keeping  the  cow  short  of  food 
some  days  previous  to  her  calving. 

The  treatment  of  this  disease  must  be 
modified  according  to  the  severity  of  the 
symptoms,  and  the  fact  of  its  being  the 
milder  or  the  severer  affection.  It  is  im- 
portant also  to  ascertain  whether  the  se- 
cretion of  milk  has  ceased;  as  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  when  this  is  the  case  the 
disease  is  fatal,  and  when  not  so  the  cow 
recovers.  If  the  pulse  is  strong,  it  will 
be  proper  to  bleed  to  the  extent,  perhaps, 
of  four  or  five  quarts.  The  principal  ex- 
pectation of  relief,  however,  must  be 
placed  on  the  exhibition  of  strong  Purga- 
tive Drink.  (See  No.  30  Domestic  An- 
imals, Medicines  for.) 

One-half  of  this  draught  may  be  re- 
peated twice  a  day  until  the  bowels  are 
properly  opened.  In  the  severer  affec- 
tion it  will  be  proper  to  add  from  ten  to 
twenty  drops  of  the  croton  oil  to  the  first 
draught,  and  even  two  drachms  of  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  and  ten  grains  of  can- 
tharides  have  been  conjoined  with  advan- 
tage. It  is  of  importance  to  administer 
the  draught  slowly  and  carefully;  and 
when  the  cow  is  any  way  unconscious  it 
will  be  better  to  give  it  by  means  of 
Read's  syringe,  putting  the  tube  half  way 
down  the  neck,  so  as  to  prevent  any  of 
the  medicine  getting  into  the  windpipe, 
where  it  has  been  known  to  produce  fatal 
inflammation.  The  action  of  the  physic 
should  be  assisted  by  frequent  clysters, 
and  the  bladder  should  be  emptied  from 
time  to  time  by  a  catheter.  A  blistering 
liniment  should  be  rubbed  on  the  course 
of  the  spine :  in  the  milder  disease  it  may 
be  limited  chiefly  to  the  loins,  but  in  the 
severer  affection  it  should  extend  from  the 


head  to  the  tail,  and  be  often  repeated. 
It  is  astonishing  what  a  vast  quantity  of 
purgative  medicine  may  often  be  admin- 
istered in  this  disease  without  producing 
any  effect,  the  stomachs  being  in  such  a 
torpid  state. 

In  the  milder  disease,  the  treatment 
must  be  similar  in  its  nature,  though  not 
so  powerful  as  that  here  recommended; 
trie  croton  oil  may  be  dispensed  with,  and 
the  blistering  application  confined  to  the 
loins. 

The  cow  should  be  made  as  comforta- 
ble as  possible.  A  good  bed  of  straw 
should  be  got  under  her,  and  her  fore- 
quarters  should  be  considerably  raised,  so 
that  the  dung  and  urine  may  flow  away. 
It  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  as  soon 
as  the  cow  begins  thoroughly  to  purge 
she  gets  up  and  walks  about,  although 
still  continuing  for  a  while  in  a  very  weak 
state. 

In  order  to  make  her  as  comfortable  as 
possible,  the  cow  should  be  shifted  from 
side  to  side  twice  in  the  day ;  all  filth  of 
every  kind  should  be  carefully  removed,  a 
warm  cloth  thrown  over,  and  warm  gruel 
or  linseed  tea  frequently  offered  to  her 
with  mashes,  if  she  will  eat  them. 

It  will  be  a  very  bad  symptom  if  she 
begins  to  swell,  and  there  are  frequent 
belchings  of  very  foetid  gas.  If  the  di- 
gestive powers  are  thus  weakened  there 
is  but  little  hope.  The  Cordial  Drink, 
(See  No.  31  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for,)  should  then  be  given,  still 
continuing  the  purgative  medicine  if 
necessary. 

This,  in  the  form  of  a  ball,  will  proba- 
bly find  its  way  into  the  paunch.  Half 
the  quantity  of  the  above  ingredients 
should  also  be  given  morning  and  night 
as  a  drink,  in  a  pint  of  warm  ale,  and  the 
same  quantity  of  thin  gruel. 

If  the  cow  should  continue  to  swell, 
relief  must  be  obtained  by  means  of  the 
flexible  pipe  for  that  purpose ;  and  if  the 
proprietor  has  the  pump  which  should 
accompany  the  pipe,  some  gallons  of 
warm  water  in  which  a  little  ginger  has 
been  boiled  may  be  thrown  into  the 
paunch,  in  order  wash  out  a  portion  of 
its  contents.  Should  not  the  pipe  be  at 
hand,  an  opening  may  be  made  into  the 
paunch  at  the  flank  with  a  sharp-pointed 
knife,  in  the  usual  manner ;  or,  if  the  case 
is  becoming  absolutely  desperate,  the  op- 


1 66 


CATTLE—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


crator  will  be  justified  in  enlarging  the 
opening  so  as  to  admit  the  hand,  and 
gradually  take  out  the  greater  part  of  the 
undigested  food.  The  edges  of  the 
wound  should  then  be  brought  together 
and  held  by  two  or  three  stitches,  the 
divided  skin  and  the  wall  of  the  paunch 
being  included  in  each  stitch. 

There  is  one  thing  that  should  not  be 
omitted,  and  that  is,  the  attempt 
two  or  three  times  every  day,  to 
bring  back  the  milk,  by  diligently  strok- 
ing the  teats.  As  the  drying  up  ot  the 
milk  is  the  earliest  symptoms  of  the  at- 
tack of  the  disease,  so  the  return  of  it  is 
the  happiest  promise  of  recovery. 

If  the  cow  does  not  get  up  on  the 
third  or  fourth  day,  there  is  but  little 
chance  that  she  ever  will.  The  case, 
however,  should  not  be  abandoned,  for 
she  has  done  well  even  after  the  four- 
teenth day. 

If  the  udder  is  hard. and  knotty  the 
Camphorated  Oil,  No.  n,  should  be 
well  rubbed  over  it  twice  a  day ;  and  if  it 
is  very  hot  and  tender,  fomentations  of 
warm  water  should  be  used,  but  no  cold 
lotion  is  admissable  in  such  a  case. 

As  the  cow  is  frequently  unwilling,  and 
sometimes  unable,  to  take  sufficient  nu- 
triment herself,  some  nutritious  food 
should  be  horned  in ;  and  there  is  noth- 
ing better  than  good  thick  gruel.  Two 
or  three  quarts  given  four  times  every  day 
will  be  enough.  All  sweet  things,  which 
farmers  are  so  apt  to  give,  should  be 
omitted ;  the  food  in  the  paunch  is  suffi- 
ciently ready  to  ferment,  without  giving 
any  sugar. 

A  cow  laboring  under  milk  fever  should 
scarcely  ever  be  left.  She  naturally  gets 
very  tired  of  coughing  so  long,  and  some- 
times attempts  to  shift  herself,  and  would 
get  sadly  bruised  if  assistance  were  not 
afforded;  besides  which,  in  the  early 
stage  of  the  disease,  and  occasionally 
afterwards  there  is  some  affection  of  the 
brain,  and  the  animal  is  half  unconscious 
of  what  she  does,  and  would  beat  herself 
dangerously  about  if  care  were  not  taken 
of  her. 

We  must  again  repeat,  that  prevention  is 
better  than  cure ;  and  that  the  best  pre- 
ventive of  milk  fever  is  not  to  let  her  be 
.  i  too  high  condition,  but  to  take  four  or 
i.ve  quarts  of  blood  from  her,  and  give 


her  a  physic  drink  eight  or  ten  days  before 
the  expected  time  of  calving. 

COWS,  Milk  Mirror  in.  —  The  Milk 
Mirror  of  Guenon  is  the  upward-growing 
hair  on  the  back  part  of  the  under  and 
the  inside  of  the  hind  legs.  An  examina- 
tion of  any  cow  will  show  that  the  line 
where  the  hair  meets  the  downward- 
growing  hair  of  the  immediately  adjacent 
parts  of  the  body,  is  well  defined  by  what 
is  called  a  "  quirl,"  and  the  hair  included 
within  the  quirl,  and  covered  by  the  up* 
ward-growing  hair,  is  the  Milk  Mirror. 
The  shape  of  the  mirror  is  very  different 
in  different  races,  and  generally  assumes: 
one  of  two  or  three  different  forms.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  size  of  the  mirror  bears 
a  pretty  constant  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  the  yield  of  milk,  and  constitutes  per- 
haps the  simplest  indication  of  the  gen- 
eral dairy  qualities  of  any  individual 
animal. 

The  great  value  of  Guenon's  system 
depends  on  the  fact  that  in  calves  which, 
neither  by  the  texture  of  their  hides  nor 
the  conformation  of  their  bodies,  nor,  in- 
deed, by  any  of  the  general  marks  on 
which  we  depend  in  the  selection  of  dairy 
animals,  give  an  indication  of  their  future 
milking  qualities,  it  is  possible  by  a  sole 
dependence  on  the  character  of  the 
escutcheon  to  predict  with  considerable 
certainty  their  future  usefulness  for  the 
dairy. 

CATTLE,  Colic  in. — Colic  is  occasioned 
by  a  want  of  physiological  power  in  the 
organs  of  digestion,  so  that  the  food,  in- 
stead of  undergoing  a  chemico-vital  pro- 
cess, runs  into  fermentation,  by  which 
process  carbonic  acid  gas  is  evolved. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  is  evidently 
in  pain,  and  appears  very  restless;  it 
occasionally  turns  its  head,  with  an 
anxious  gaze,  to  the  left  side,  which  seems 
to  be  distended  more  than  the  right; 
there  is  an  occasional  discharge  of  gas 
from  the  mouth  and  anus. 

Treatment. — Give  the  following  car- 
minative : 

Powdered  aniseed,  half  a  teaspoonful, 

"  cinnamon,  "  " 

To  be  given  in  a  quart  of  spearmint  tea,  and 
repeated  if  necessary. 

CATTLE,  Vermin  on.  —  See  Cattle, 
Mange. 
CATTLE,     Warbles.  —  See     Cattle,. 

Mange. 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


i6f 


CATTLE,  Hoove,  Eoven,  or  Blown. — 
This  disease  is  a  distention  of  the  rumen, 
or  first  stomach,  by  the  gas  which  is  ex- 
tracted from  certain  substances  under- 
going the  process  of  fermentation  within 
it.  The  herbage  is  hastily  gathered  at 
first,  and  received  into  the  rumen,  in  order 
to  undergo  there  a  process  of  maceration, 
by  means  of  which  it  may  be  more  per- 
fectly ground  down,  and  all  its  nutritive 
matter  extracted  when  it  is  subjected  to  a 
second  mastication. 

The  rumen  has  been  described  as  divid- 
ed into  various  compartments,  and  its 
coats  containing  a  strong  muscular  struc- 
ture. By  the  action  of  these  muscles  the 
food  is  made  slowly  to  traverse  these 
compartments  in  the  order  in  which  it  was 
received ;  and  the  journey,  in  the  ordinary 
state  of  health,  occupies  sufficient  time  for 
the  herbage  to  be  to  a  certain  degree 
macerated  or  softened,  but  not  for  that 
process  of  fermentation  to  be  set  up,  to 
which  all  vegetables  are  liable. 

Supposing  an  ox  to  be  suddenly  turned 
into  new  and  luxuriant  pasture,  he  sets  to 
work,  and  gathers  the  herbage  rapidly 
and  greedily ;  so  much  so  that  the  stomach 
is  unable  to  propel  forward  the  different 
portions  of  food  as  they  are  received,  but 
becomes  overloaded  and  clogged,  and  at 
length  ceases  altogether  to  act  upon  its 
contents.  The  food  remains  longer  in 
the  stomach  than  nature  designed  that  it 
should,  and  it  begins  to  ferment;  and 
while  fermenting,  throws  out  a  quantity  of 
gas,  which  distends  the  stomach  almost 
or  quite  to  bursting.  Thence  arises  the 
danger  of  sudden  change  of  pasture  from 
an  inferior  to  a  better  quality,  and  the 
numerous  cases  of  distension  of  the 
stomach  and  death  which  occur  when  the 
fog-grass  is  plentiful  and  succulent,  or  the 
beast  has  without  preparation  or  care  been 
turned  upon  clover  or  turnips. 

Some  animals,  however,  are  subject  to 
hoove,  but  in  a  slighter  degree,  without 
this  change  of  pasture.  Many  a  weakly 
cow  has  occasional  swellings  of  the  paunch 
where  there  has  been  little  or  no  change 
of  food.  The  stomach,  also,  is  subject  to 
disease — it  sympathizes  with  disease  of 
every  other  part;  and  one  of  the  first  and 
most  frequent  results  of  an  unhealthy  state 
of  it  is  the  production  of  an  acid,  which 
wonderfully  accelerates  and  increases  the 
process  of  fermentation  and  the  develop- 


ment of  gas.  Hence  it  is  that  distension 
of  the  stomach  is  an  accompaniment  of 
almost  every  malady  to  which  cattle  are 
liable.  No  case  of  difficult  parturition, 
or  of  dropping  after  calving,  or  of  milk 
fever,  occurs  without  some  degree  of  dis- 
tension of  the  paunch,  either  from  the 
stomach  being  so  weakened  as  to  be 
unable  to  force  the  food  along,  or  from  its 
secreting  this  unnatural  and  unhealthy 
acid,  so  favorable  to  the  progress  of  fer- 
mentation. 

The  symptoms  of  hoove  are  sufficiently 
known.  The  beast  seems  to  swell,  and 
that  to  an  enormous  extent ;  the  breath- 
ing is  very  laborious,  and  the  animal  is- 
evidently  in  great  distress,  and  threatened 
with  immediate  suffocation,  from  the  pres- 
sure of  the  distended  stomach  against  the 
diaphragm  diminishing  the  cavity  of  the 
chest,  and  rendering  it  impossible  for  the 
lungs  to  expand.  The  difficulty  ot  breath- 
ing increases  with  the  distension  of  the 
stomach  and  the  pressure  on  the  lungs, 
and  the  animal  is  inevitably  lost  if  relief 
is  not  soon  obtained. 

This  relief  consists,  and  can  alone  con- 
sist, in  relieving  the  stomach  from  the 
distension.  But  how  is  this  to  be  accom- 
plished ?  Medicine  seems  to  be  almost 
or  quite  thrown  away.  If  a  drink  is 
given,  not  a  drop  of  it  will  find  its  way 
into  the  paunch,  the  entrance  to  which  is 
so  firmly  closed  that  it  seems  scarcely  pos- 
sible that  even  a  ball  should  now  break 
through  the  floor.  A  very  stimulating, 
drink,  passing  into  the  fourth  stomach,, 
and  exciting  it,  may,  by  sympathy,  induce- 
the  paunch  to  act ;  yet  it  is  difficult  to* 
conceive  how  that  viscus  can  possibly  act 
while  its  fibres  are  put  thus  violently  upon 
the  stretch. 

Something  might  have  been  done  by 
way  of  prevention.  If,  when  the  cattle 
had  been  turned  into  the  fresh  pasture, 
they  had  been  carefully  watched,  and  re- 
moved again  to  the  straw-yard,  before  the 
paunch  had  been  too  muqh  gorged,  and 
this  had  been  repeated  two  or  three  times, 
the  appetite  would  have  been  blunted  and 
hoove  prevented. 

Some  fanners,  an  hour  or  two  before 
they  have  turned  such  cows  as  are  of  a. 
greedy  disposition  into  a  fresh  pasture, 
give  them  a  cordial  drink.  The  stomach 
is  stimulated  by  this,  and  induced  to  con- 
tract in  time  upon  its  contents ;  and  this- 


i68 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


contraction  has  reminded  the  animal  of 
the  necessary  process  of  rumination,  or 
has  rendered  it  almost  impossible  for  him 
to  continue  to  feed  until  some  portion  of 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  has  been  re- 
turned and  remasticated. 

If  the  farmer  will  adopt  such  a  plan, 
the  Cordial  Drink,  No.  46,  is  as  good  as 
any  that  can  be  given.  (See  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

I  must  confess,  however,  that,  although 
I  would  not  absolutely  condemn  such  a 
practice,  I  would  much  rather  trust  to 
simpler  and  more  effectual  precautions. 
I  would  take  care  that  the  change  of  food 
should  not  be  too  sudden  nor  too  great. 
If  there  was  an  evident  difference  in  the 
nutritive  quality  of  the  two  pastures,  I 
would  be  carefully  on  the  watch,  and  re- 
move the  beast  to  shorter  grass,  before 
material  mischief  could  be  effected. 

Suppose,  however,  that  the  mischief  is 
•done ;  the  stomach  is  distended,  and  the 
animal  is  evidently  threatened  with  imme- 
diate suffocation.  Nothing  but  mechani- 
cal means  will  now  be  of  avail. 

Some  drive  the  animal  about.  This  is 
sadly  cruel  work;  for  he  seems  to  be 
scarcely  able  to  move,  and  appears  as  if 
he  would  be  suffocated  every  moment. 
This  has,  however,  been  sometimes  suc- 
cessful, especially  if  the  beast  is  made  to 
trot;  for,  by  the  motion  and  shaking  of 
the  stomach  thus  produced,  the  roof  of 
the  paunch  has  been  forced  a  little  open, 
and  a  portion  of  the  air  has  escaped,  and 
some  of  the  food  with  it,  and  the  stomach 
has  been  relieved  from  a  part  of  its  dis- 
tension, and  has  been  enabled  to  act 
upon  the  remaining  food,  and  the  process 
of  rumination  has  recommenced.  It  is, 
however,  dangerous  work;  for  in  the  act 
of  moving  with  the  stomach  so  distended, 
either  it  or  the  diaphragm  upon  which  it 
is  pressing,  is  in  danger  of  being  ruptured. 

Some  have  resorted  to  an  operation. 
Midway  between  the  last  rib  and  the 
haunch-bone,  the  distended  paunch  will 
be  felt  pressing  against  the  flank.  A 
lancet  or  a  pocket-knife  has  been  plunged 
into  the  animal  at  that  spot,  which  has 
passed  through  the  skin  and  the  wall  of 
the  belly,  and  entered  the  paunch.  The 
vapor  has  then  rushed  out  with  a  hissing 
noise,  and  steamed  up  four  or  five  feet 
high,  and  some  of  the  contents  of  the 
\bowels  have  been  forced  up  with  the  gas, 


and  the  flanks  have  fallen,  and  the  beast 
has  evidently  become  less,  and  has  been 
so  much  relieved  that  he  has  begun  to 
ruminate,  and  has  done  well.  The  wound 
is  left  open  for  a  while,  that  any  newly- 
formed  gas  may  escape;  it  then  soon 
heals  of  itself,  or  would  almost  immedi- 
ately if  its  edges  were  brought  together 
by  a  slip  of  adhesive  plaster. 

It,  however,  too  frequently  happens, 
that,  although  present  relief  has  been 
obtained,  and  the  beast  has  ruminated 
and  eaten,  it  has  in  a  lew  days  begun  to 
show  symptoms  of  indisposition,  and  has 
become  feverish,  and  drooped,  and  died. 
We  account  for  this  by  some  of  the  gas, 
and,  perhaps,  a  portion  of  the  food,  get- 
ting into  the  belly,  between  the  paunch 
and  the  flank,  and  falling  down  among 
the  intestines,  and  causing  irritation  and 
inflammation  there. 

Some  have  adopted  even  rougher  and 
more  effectual  methods  of  remedying  the 
evil.  They  have  not  contented  them- 
selves with  simply  puncturing  the  paunch, 
but  they  have  cut  a  hole  into  it  through 
the  flank  large  enough  to  introduce  the 
hand ;  and  so  they  have  not  only  liberated 
the  air,  but  have  taken  out  the  fermeDting 
food  by  pailfuls.  They  have  even  gone 
so  far  as  to  pour  in  water,  and  fairly  wash 
the  paunch  out.  They  have  then  brought 
the  edges  of  the  wound  together  by  pass- 
ing a  few  stitches  through  it,  and  includ- 
ing the  substance  of  the  flank  and  the 
wall  of  the  paunch  in  each  stitch,  and 
afterwards  covered  the  wound  with  ad- 
hesive plaster,  and  it  has  readily  healed, 
and  no  bad  consequence  has  ensued.  In 
desperate  cases,  as  when  the  paunch 
seems  to  be  filled  with  a  mass  of  food 
that  will  continue  to  ferment,  and  cannot 
be  got  rid  of  either  by  rumination  or  by 
physic,  this  bold  mode  of  treatment  nay 
be  adopted.  The  paunch  has  few  blood- 
vessels, and  little  sensibility,  and  will  bear 
great  injury  without  any  fatal  conse- 
quence. But  this  expedient  has  not 
always  succeeded.  Inflammation  has 
ensued,  and  carried  the  animal  off.  Be- 
sides this,  the  paunch,  being  suspended 
by  these  stitches,  and  afterwards  hanging 
thus  from  the  flank,  is  kept  permanently 
out  of  its  place,  and  is  unable  freely  and 
fully  to  contract  afterwards  upon  its  con 
tents :  thus  inflammation  has  ensued ;  and 
the  subsequent  want  of  condition  :n  some 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


169 


xj{  these  animals,  and  the  difficulty  of 
fattening  them  thoroughly,  is  easily  ac- 
counted for. 

Some  farmers  go  a  little  more  judici- 
ously to  work.  They  thrust  a  flexible 
stick,  or  a  cart-whip,  down  the  throat, 
and  through  the  floor  of  the  passage 
beneath,  and  the  roof  of  the  paunch, 
and  thus  enable  some  of  the  gas  to 
escape;  and  this,  perhaps,  would  be 
effectual,  if  the  stick  could  be  kept  there 
long  enough,  and  the  stomach  did  not 
close  around  it. 

CATTLE,  Inflammation  of  the  Bowels, 
with  Costiveness. — Inflammation  of  the 
bowels  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon  dis- 
ease among  neat  cattle,  and  frequently 
proves  fatal  to  them  from  injudicious  treat- 
ment. It  is  a  complaint  easily  recogniz- 
able on  account  of  the  peculiar  symp- 
toms by  which  it  is  attended. 

The  animal  is  continually  lying  down 
and  getting  up  again  immediately,  and, 
when  up,  he  strikes  at  his  belly  with  the 
hind  feet.  The  bowels  are  obstinately 
constipated :  the  dung,  if  any  is  voided, 
is  in  small  quantities — hard,  covered  with 
mucus,  and  that  sometimes  streaked  with 
blood — and  the  urine  is  generally  voided 
with  difficulty.  The  pulse  is  quicker  than 
natural,  and  there  is  much  heaving  at  the 
flanks. 

It  is  distinguished  from  colic  by  the 
great  degree  of  fever  that  evidently  at- 
tends it,  the  muzzle  being  dry  and  the 
mouth  hot.  The  animal  becomes  speed- 
ily weak,  he  falls  or  throws  himself  down 
suddenly,  and  when  he  rises  he  does  it 
with  difficulty,  and  he  staggers  as  he 
walks.  The  lowness  and  weakness  ap- 
pear more  speedily  and  decidedly  than  in 
almost  any  other  disease. 

The  attack  is  sudden,  like  that  of  colic. 
The  animal  quits  his  companions  and 
hides  himself  under  the  hedge.  If  he  is 
in  the  plow,  he  all  at  once  becomes  deaf 
to  the  voice  of  the  driver,  and  insensible 
to  the  goad.  He  trembles  all  over — his 
skin  becomes  hot — his  back  and  loins  are 
tender — his  ears  and  horns  are  hot.  Ev- 
erything indicates  the  highest  degree  of 
local  inflammation  and  general  fever. 

The  disease  mostly  arises  from  sudden 
exposure  to  cold;  and  especially  when 
cattle  go  into  rivers  or  ponds  after  being 
heated  and  fatigued.  It  is  sometimes  pro- 


duced by  change  of  pasture  and  feeding 
too  much  on  dry  and  stimulating  diet. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done,  and  that 
which  admits  of  no  delay,  is  to  bleed ; 
from  six  to  eight  quarts  of  blood  at  least  j 
should  be  taken  away.  Immediately  after- 
ward the  Physic  Drink  (see  No.  1 5  Do- 
mestic Animals,  Medicines  for,)  should 
be  administered,  and  its  effect  promoted 
by  half  doses  of  Purging  Drink,  No.  2, 
given  every  six  hours.  This  is  a  very 
dangerous  disease,  and  the  measures  pur- 
sued must  be  of  the  most  decisive  kind. 
The  symptoms  succeed  each  other  rapidly, 
and  if  one  day  is  suffered  to  pass  without 
proper  means  being  taken,  the  beast  is 
irrecoverably  lost. 

The  third  stomach  or  manyplus  will 
generally  be  found,  after  death,  choked  up 
with  dry  food,  hardened  between  the 
leaves  of  which  that  stomach  is  composed. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  wash  this  well  out 
before  the  proper  path  to  the  fourth 
stomach  can  be  opened.  In  order  to 
effect  this,  plenty  of  thin  gruel,  or  water 
with  the  chill  taken  off,  should  be  given ; 
or,  if  the  beast  will  not  drink  it,  several 
quarts  of  it  should  be  horned  down.  Clys- 
ters of  warm  water  or  thin  gruel,  with  a 
purging  powder  dissolved  in  them,  should 
likewise  be  administered. 

After  having  bled  the  animal  once  co- 
piously, and,  if  the  fever  has  not  subsided, 
a  second,  or  even  a  third  time,  the  farmer 
should  in  this  disease  of  high  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels,  and  strangly  obstinate 
costiveness,  found  his  only  hope  of  saving 
the  animal  in  producing  purging,  and  to 
this  purpose  his  whole  attention  should  be 
directed. 

If  it  should  not  be  accomplished  after 
the  third  dose  of  the  medicine,  a  pound  of 
common  salt  may  be  given.  The  water 
or  other  liquid  which  the  beast  will  prob- 
ably be  induced  to  drink  will  assist  in 
purging  him.  Should  not  this  succeed,  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  castor  oil  must  be  ad- 
ministered. 

The  patience  of  the  attendants  will 
sometimes  be  almost  worn  out  —  they 
must,  however,  persist.  Clysters,  numer- 
ous, and  in  great  quantity,  must  be  ad- 
ministered. The  Epsom  salts  and  the 
castor  oil  will  not  do  harm  in  whatever 
quantities  they  are  given ;  it  will  not  be 
prudent,  however,  to  repeat  the  common 
salt.     During  the  whole  of  this  time  the 


170 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


cordial  drink  of  the  cow-leech  must  be 
avoided  as  a  dose  of  poison. 

The  farmer  or  the  attendant  must  not 
be  deceived  by  the  passage  of  a  little 
liquid  dung  in  a  small  stream,  for  that 
shows  that  there  is  yet  much  hardened 
faeces  clinging  round  the  intestines,  and 
which  must  be  removed,  and,  therefore,  he 
must  pursue  the  measures  recommended 
until  the  dung  is  expelled  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  in  a  large,  full  stream, 
and  without  much  straining.  There  has 
generally  been  something  more  than  usual 
wrong  in  the  food  or  management  when 
this  sad  constipation  is  observed.  Either 
the  animal  has  been  kept  too  much 
and  too  long  on  dry  food,  or  he  has  been 
turned  into  fresh  pasture  (and  particularly 
in  the  antumn)  in  which  there  are  oak- 
trees  or  some  astringent  vegetables.  The 
cause  must  be  removed,  or  the  disease 
will  return. 

The  state  of  the  bowels  of  a  beast  that 
has  once  been  sapped,  should  be  observed 
for  some  time  afterward,  and  gentle  aperi- 
ents occasionally  administered ;  cold  water 
should  not,  for  a  little  while,  be  permitted, 
and  strict  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
diet. 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels,  however, 
will  in  a  few  cases  occur  without  all  this 
costiveness,  and  yet  produced  by  nearly 
the  same  causes.  The  other  symptoms 
.are  the  same,  but  the  danger  is  not  so 
great.  The  beast  should  be  bled  and 
physicked,  kept  moderately  warm,  and 
have  warm  water  with  bran  mashes. 

CATTLE,  The  Blain,  Etc.,  Etc.— This 
is  by  no  means  an  unfrequent  disease,  and 
is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  blain, 

HAWKES,  or  GARGYSE. 

The  animal  appears  dull  and  languid, 
the  eyes  red  and  inflamed,  with  tears 
trickling  from  them.  A  swelling  begins 
about  the  eyes,  and  occasionally  appears 
on  other  parts  of  the  body;  but  the 
characteristic  symptom  is,  that  there  are 
generally  blisters  under  the  tongue,  or  at 
the  back  part  of  the  mouth ;  the  pulse  is 
quicker  than  natural;  there  is  more  or 
less  heaving  of  the  flanks ;  and  the  bow- 
els are  sometimes  constipated.  When  the 
complaint  is  not  checked  at  the  outset, 
there  is  often  a  copious  flow  of  saliva 
from  the  mouth,  mixed  often  with  a  puru- 
lent, bloody,  stinking  discharge ;  the  beast 
becomes  extremely  weak  and  reduced, 


and  is  in  danger  of  being  suffocated  by 
the  great  and  rapid  enlargement  of  the 
tongue. 

Causes. — Those  cattle  are  the  most 
subject  to  this  complaint  that  are  in  high 
condition,  and  feeding  on  rich  pasture 
grounds.  It  appears  in  many  cases  to  be 
brought  on  by  a  redundancy  of  blood  in 
the  system,  or  from  the  beast  taking  cold 
while  in  that  state.  It  is  most  prevalent 
in  the  summer  months,  especially  when 
the  weather  is  hot  and  sultry,  but  it  occurs 
at  all  times  of  the  year,  and  in  pastures 
of  every  kind,  yet  oftenest  in  low,  marsby 
situations. 

This  is  a  disease  which  must  not  be 
trifled  with  for  a  moment.  We  have  known 
it  prove  fatal  in  the  course  of  one  day ; 
and  when  neglected  at  the  beginning  it 
has  speedily  assumed  a  malignant  char- 
acter, which  baffled  every  attempt  to  ar- 
rest its  progress. 

The  remedy,  ancLoften  a  very  expedi- 
tious one  for  this  disease,  is  to  cut  deeply,, 
and  from  end  to  end,  the  bladders  that 
will  be  found  along  the  side  of  and  under 
the  tongue.  They  will  appear  to  be  filled 
with  a  glutinous  matter,  and,  although 
there  may  not  be  much  bleeding  from 
them  at  first,  considerable  bloody  fluid 
will  gradually  ooze  out,  the  swelling  of 
the  mouth  and  head  will  subside,  and  the 
beast  will  be  very  much  relieved.  All  the 
curious  operations  of  thrusting  sticks  and 
tar  down  the  throat  have  this  for  their 
object,  to  break  these  bladders,  but  which 
is  most  easily  and  completely  effected  by 
the  knife. 

If,  however,  much  fever  has  accom- 
panied the  enlargement  of  the  tongue,  it 
will  be  prudent  to  take  away  five  or  six 
quarts  of  blood,  and  to  give  a  physic 
drink,  and  particularly  if,  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing the  operation,  the  beast  should 
continue  to  be  feverish.  The  mouth  may 
likewise  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  the 
chloride  of  lime  in  water,  in  the  propor- 
tions of  one  drachm  of  the  chloride  to  a 
quart  of  water,  while  the  mouth  is  very 
offensive ;  and  with  equal  parts  of  tincture 
of  myrrh  and  water  afterward,  in  order  to 
promote  the  healing  of  the  ulcer. 

If  the  fever  continues,  the  Fever  Drink 
No.  1  may  be  given  morning  and  night, 
and  the  bowels  kept  open  by  the  Purg- 
ing Drink  No.  2,  or  Sulphur  Purging 
Drink  No.  7. 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


171 


Should  considerable  weakness  and  loss 
of  appetite  remain  when  the  fever  seems 
to  be  subdued,  the  Tonic  Drink  (see  No. 
32,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for,) 
may  be  given. 

This  may  be  repeated  daily,  or  twice  a 
day,  as  circumstances  may  require. 

It  will  sometimes  happen  that  the  ani- 
mal will  for  some  days  refuse  to  eat,  on 
account  of  the  soreness  of  the  mouth. 
Thin  gruel  should  always  be  placed  within 
his  reach,  and  plenty  of  thick  gruel  ad- 
ministered with  the  horn. 

The  person  that  has  to  attend  on  cattle 
that  have  the  blain  should  take  care  that 
none  of  the  discharge  from  the  mouth 
comes  in  contact  with  any  sore  place,  for 
very  troublesome  ulcers  have  been  pro- 
duced by  this  means.  If  there  is  any  fear 
that  a  sore  place  has  been  thus  inocu- 
lated, the  lunar  caustic  should  be  applied 
to  it. 

CATTLE,  Blood,  Blood-striking,  Black- 
leg, Quarter  Evil,  or  Black  Quarter. — The 
disease  which  we  are  now  to  describe  is 
indicated  by  these  curious  names,' and  a 
great  many  more,  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  Very  few  of  these  names,  how- 
ever, are  misplaced,  for  they  indicate  some 
variety,  or  symptoms,  or  stage  of  this 
dreadful  malady.  It  would  be  much 
better  recognized  by  the  title  of  Inflam- 
matory fever.- 

Its  attack  is  confined  almost  entirely  to 
animals  that  are  in  high  condition,  or 
rapidly  improving;  we  should  say,  too 
high  condition,  and  too  rapidly  improv- 
ing. In  some  instances  the  disease  will 
give  some  warning  of  its  approach,  but, 
generally,  the  beast  appears  to  be  to-day 
perfectly  well,  and  to-morrow  he  will  be 
found  with  his  head  extended,  his  flanks 
heaving,  his  breath  hot,  his  eyes  protrud- 
ing, his  muzzle  dry,  his  pulse  quick  and 
hard — every  symptom,  in  short,  of  the 
highest  state  of  fever.  He  utters  a 
low  and  distressing  moaning ;  he  is  al- 
ready half  unconscious ;  he  will  stand  for 
hours  together  motionless,  or  if  he  moves, 
or  is  compelled  to  move,  there  is  a  pecu- 
liar staggering  referrable  to  the  hind  limbs, 
and  generally  one  of  them  more  than  the 
other :  by  and  by  he  gets  uneasy,  he  shifts 
his  weight  from  foot  to  foot,  he  paws 
faintly,  and  then  lies  down.  He  rises, 
but  almost  immediately  drops  again.  He 
now  begins  to  be,  or  has  already  been, 


nearly  unconscious  of  surrounding  ob- 
jects. 

There  are  many  other  symptoms  from 
which  the  different  names  of  the  disease 
arose.  On  the  back  or  loins,  or  over  one 
of  the  quarters,  there  is  more  or  less  swell- 
ing; if  felt  when  it  first  appears  it  is  hot, 
and  tender,  and  firm,  but  it  soon  begins 
to' yield  to  the  touch,  and  gives  a  singular 
crackling  noise  when  pressed  upon.  One 
of  the  limbs  likewise  enlarges,  sometimes 
through  its  whole  extent,  and  that  enor- 
mously. It,  too,  is  at  first  firm,  and  hot 
and  tender,  but  it  soon  afterwards  be- 
comes soft  and  flabby,  or  pits  when  press- 
ed upon,  /.  e.,  the  indentation  of  the  finger 
remains.  When  examined  after  death,, 
that  limb  is  full  of  red  putrid  fluid :  it  is 
mortified,  and  seems  to  have  been  putre- 
fying almost  during  the  life  of  the  beast. 
Large  ulcers  break  out  in  this  limb,  and 
sometimes  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  and 
almost  immediately  become  gangrenous; 
pieces  of  several  pounds  in  weight  have 
sloughed  away;  three-fourths  of  the  udder 
have  dropped  off,  or  have  been  so  gan- 
grenous that  it  was  necessary  to  remove 
them,  and  the  animal  has  been  one  mass 
of  ulceration.  The  breath  stinks  horribly; 
a  very  offensive,  and  sometimes  purulent 
and  bloody  fluid  runs  from  the  mouth ; 
the  urine  is  high-colored  or  bloody,  and 
the  fasces  are  also  streaked  with  blood, 
and  the  smell  from  them  is  scarcely  sup- 
portable. 

In  this  state  the  beast  will  sometimes 
continue  two  or  three  days,  at  other  times 
he  will  die  in  less  than  twelve  hours  from 
the  first  attack.  In  a  few  instances,  how- 
ever, and  when  the  disease  has  been  early 
and  properly  treated,  all  these  dreadful 
symptoms  gradually  disappear,  and  the 
animal  recovers. 

It  is  to  a  redundancy,  or  overflowing 
of  the  blood,  the  consequence  of  the  sud- 
den change  from  bad  to  good  living,  that 
this  diease  most  commonly  owes  its  origin. 
It  is  most  prevalent  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  spring  and  in  the  autumn ;  and  very 
often,  at  these  seasons  of  the  year,  proves 
destructive  to  great  numbers  of  young 
cattle  in  different  parts  of  the  States.  It 
is  sometimes,  however,  seen  in  the  winter 
and  the  early  part  of  spring,  when  the 
cattle  are  feeding  on  turnips.  Some  situa- 
tions are  more  subject  to  this  complaint 
than  others.     It  is  most  frequent  in  low,. 


I72 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


marshy  grounds,  and  pastures  situated  by 
the  side  of  woods. 

It  is  a  disorder  of  high  condition  and 
over-feeding.  The  times  of  the  year  and 
the  character  of  the  cattle  prove  this.  It 
occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  the  spring, 
Avhen  the  grass  is  most  luxuriant  and  nutri- 
tive, and  in  the  autumn,  when  we  have  the 
second  flush  of  grass;  and  the  animals 
attacked  are  those  principally  that  are 
undergoing  the  process  of  fattening,  and 
that  have  somewhat  too  suddenly  been 
removed  from  scanty  pasturage  and  low 
feeding  to  a  profusion  of  herbage,  and 
that  of  a  nutritious  and  stimulating  kind. 
The  disease  sometimes  occurs  when  the 
cattle  have  been  moved  from  one  pas- 
turage to  another  on  the  same  farm;  but 
more  so  when  they  have  been  brought 
from  poor  land,  at  a  distance,  to  a  richer 
soil.  There  are  in  the  latter  case  two 
preparatory  causes — the  previous  poverty, 
and  the  fatigue  and  exhaustion  of  the 
journey. 

This  disease  rarely  admits  of  cure,  but 
fortunately  it  may  in  general  be  prevented. 
If  the  malady  is  discovered  as  soon  as  it 
makes  its  appearance,  the  beast  should  be 
immediately  housed,  and  then  from  four 
to  eight  quarts  of  blood  taken  away,  ac- 
cording to  the  age  and  size.  Two  hours 
after  bleeding  give  the  Purging  Drink 
No.  2  which  will  be  found  of  a  proper 
strength  for  young  cattle  from  the  age  of 
one  two  years. 

The  bleeding  should  be  repeated  in 
three  or  four  hours,  if  the  animal  is  not 
materially  relieved ;  and  a  third  bleeding 
must  follow  the  second,  if  the  fever  is 
unabated.  There  must  be  no  child's  play 
here ;  the  disease  must  be  knocked  down 
at  once,  or  it  will  inevitably  destroy  the 
beast.  The  physic  likewise  must  be  re- 
peated until  it  has  had  its  full  effect. 

As  soon  as  the  bowels  are  well  opened 
the  Fever  Drink,  No.  i,  should  be  admin- 
istered, and  repeated  morning,  noon  and 
night,  all  food  except  a  little  mash  being 
removed. 

At  the  first  appearance  of  the  disease 
the  part  principally  affected  should  be  fo- 
mented several  times  in  the  course  of  the 
day  with  hot  water,  and  for  at  least  an 
hour  each  time.  For  this  purpose  there 
should  be  two  or  three  large  pieces  of 
flannel  in  the  water,  that  after  one  of 
►them  has  been  applied  thoroughly  hot 


and  dripping  to  the  part  affected,  another 
equally  hot  may  be  ready  when  this  gets 
cold. 

As  soon  as  the  fever  begins  evidently 
to  subside,  and  the  beast  is  more  himself, 
and  eats  a  little,  the  fever  medicine  must 
not  be  pushed  too  far.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  this  is  a  case  of  highly  in- 
flammatory disease,  which  soon  passes 
over,  and  is  often  succeeded  by  debility 
almost  as  dangerous  as  the  fever.  The 
ox,  therefore,  must  not  be  too  much  low- 
ered; but,  the  fever  abating,  mildest 
Tonic  Drink  (See  No.  33  Domestic  An- 
imals, Medicines  for,)  should  be  given. 

If  this  does  not  bring  back  the  fever 
it  may  be  safely  continued  once  every 
day  until  the  ox  is  well;  or  the  quantities 
of  the  gentian  may  be  increased,  and  the 
emetic  tartar  lessened,  and  at  length  alto- 
gether omitted,  the  nitre  being  still  re- 
tained. 

A  seton  (of  black  hellebore  root  if  it 
can  be  procured)  should  be  inserted  into 
the  dewlap;  and,  if  the  beast  can  be 
moved,  it  should  be  driven  to  much  scan- 
tier pasture. 

Should  not  the  disease  be  discovered 
until  there  is  considerable  swelling,  and 
a  cracking  noise  in  some  tumefied  part,  a 
cure  is  seldom  effected.  Bleeding  at  this 
stage  of  the  complaint,  can  seldom  be  re: 
sorted  to,  or,  at  least,  one  moderate  bleed- 
ing only  should  be  practiced,  in  order  to 
subdue  any  lurking  fever  that  may  re- 
main. If  a  cure  is  in  these  cases  at- 
tempted the  Tonic  Drink  should  be 
given,  which  may  invigorate  the  system 
by  its  cordial  and  tonic  powers,  and  pre- 
vent the  mortification  extending. 

The  swelled  parts  should  be  frequently 
bathed  with  equal  portions  of  vinegar  and 
spirits  of  wine,  made  as  hot  as  the  hand 
will  bear;  or,  if  ulceration  seems  to  be 
approaching,  slight  incisions  should  be 
effected  along  the  whole  extent  of  the 
swelling,  and  the  part  bathed  with  spirit 
of  turpentine,  made  hot. 

If  ulceration  has  commenced,  accom- 
panied by  the  peculiar  fcetor  that  attends 
the  disease,  the  wounds  should  be  first 
bathed  with  the  Disinfectant  Lotion 
(No.  34,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for.) 

.  The  hot  spirit  of  turpentine  should  be 
applied  immediately  after  this,  and  con- 
tinued in  use  until  either  the  mortified 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


i73 


parts  have  sloughed  off,  or  the  sore  begins 
to  have  a  healthy  appearance.  The  tinc- 
ture of  aloes  or  Friar's  balsam  may  then 
follow. 

Since  so  little  can  be  done  in  the  way 
of  cure,  we  next  anxiously  inquire  wheth- 
er there  is  any  mode  of  prevention.  The 
account  which  we  have  given  of  the  dis- 
ease immediately  suggests  the  prevention, 
viz.,  to  beware  of  these  sudden  changes 
of  pasture ;  now  and  then  to  take  a  little 
blood  from,  or  to  give  a  dose  of  physic 
to,  those  beasts  that  are  thriving  unusu- 
ally rapidly,  and,  whenever  the  disease 
breaks  out  on  the  farm  to  bleed  and  to 
purge,  and  remove  to  shorter  and  scan- 
tier feed  every  animal  that  has  been  ex- 
posed to  the  same  exciting  causes  with 
those  that  have  been  attacked.  The  far- 
mer should  be  particularly  watchful  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  spring  and  the 
beginning  of  the  autumn ;  he  may  thus 
save  many  a  beast,  and  the  bleeding  and 
the  physic  will  not  arrest  but  rather  assist 
their  improvement.  He  who  will  not  at- 
tend to  a  simple  rule  like  this  will  de- 
serve the  loss  that  he  may  experience. 

CATTLE,  Murrain,  or  Pestilential  Fe- 
ver.— The  treatment  would  be,  first,  and 
the  most  important  thing  of  all,  to  sepa- 
rate the  diseased  from  the  sound :  to  re- 
move every  animal  that  seemed  to  be  in 
the  slightest  degree  affected  to  some  iso- 
lated portion  of  the  farm  where  contact 
Avith  others  would  be  impossible.  It 
would  be  imprudent  to  remove  those  that 
appeared  to  be  unaffected,  because  it 
would  be  impossible  to  know  that  the 
virus  did  not  lurk  in  their  veins,  and 
thus  the  poison  might  be  conveyed  to 
other  parts  of  the  farm.  The  sick  only 
should  be  taken  away,  and  that  as  speed- 
ily as  possible. 

In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  propriety  of 
bleeding.  The  fever  which,  according  to 
every  account,  characterizes  the  first  at- 
tack, should,  if  possible,  be  subdued; 
otherwise  its  prolonged  existence  would 
aggravate,  if  it  did  not  cause,  the  subse- 
quent debility.  The  animal  should  be 
bled,  in  proportion  to  his  size,  condition, 
and  the  degree  of  fever;  he  should  be 
bled,  in  fact,  until  the  pulse  began  to 
falter  or  he  began  to  stagger.  The  blood 
should  be  taken  in  as  full  a  stream  as 
possible,  that  the  constitution  might  be 


more  speedily  and  beneficially  affected. 
When  the  blood  flows  slowly,  a  quantity 
may  sometimes  be  taken  away  before  the 
animal  begins  to  feel  it,  the  loss  of  which 
would  afterwards  produce  alarming  de- 
bility ;  but  if  the  blood  flows  freely,  the 
beast  will  show  symptoms  of  faintness — 
the  effect  we  wish  to  produce — before 
one-fourth  ot  the  quantity  is  drawn  that 
would  be  lost  if  it  ran  in  a  slow  stream. 
We  want  to  attack  and  subdue  the  fever, 
without  undermining  the  strength  of  the 
frame. 

Then  we  should  with  great  propriety 
administer  a  brisk  purgative.  If  fetid 
and  obstinate  purging  so  soon  follows, 
we  should  be  anxious  to  get  rid,  if  we 
can  do  so,  of  a  portion  of  the  offending 
matter ;  and  therefore  a  pound  or  twenty 
ounces  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given 
in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  thin  gruel. 

Next,  as  it  is  a  disease  so  much  and  so 
early  characterized  by  debility,  we  should 
attend  to  the  diet.  Green  succulent  grass 
would  scarcely  be  allowed,  because  it 
would  probably  not  a  little  increase  the 
purging ;  but  mashes  of  bran,  with  a  little 
bean-meal,  carrots,  or  sweet  old  hay, 
should  be  given  in  moderate  quantities. 
The  animal  should  be  coaxed  to  eat ;  for 
it  is  necessary  that  the  constitution  be 
supported  against  the  debilitating  influ- 
ence of  such  a  disease.  The  animal 
should  not  be  at  first  drenched,  for  this 
might  produce  nausea  and  disguSt  for 
food;  but  if  two  or  three  days  should 
pass,  and  the  beast  should  obstinately  re- 
fuse to  eat,  plenty  of  warm  thick  gruel 
must  be  forced  upon  him.  As  for  medi- 
cine, we  scarcely  know  what  to  advise. 
The  fact  stands  too  clearly  upon  record, 
that  nineteen  animals  out  of  twenty, 
seized  with  the  murrain,  have  died.  That 
on  which  we  should  put  most  dependence 
would  be  the  Drink  for  Murrain.  (See 
No.  33,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for.) 

This  may  be  repeated  every  six  hours, 
until  the  purging  is  considerably  abated ; 
but  should  not  be  continued  until  it  has 
quite  stopped. 

The  purging  being  abated,  we  must 
look  about  for  something  to  recall  the 
appetite  and  recruit  the  strength,  and  we 
do  not  know  anything  better  than  the 
Tonic  Drink  for  Murrain.  (See  No.  36, 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 


174 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


There  cannot  be  a  more  proper  means 
adopted  than  a  seton  in  the  dewlap,  made 
with  the  black  hellebore  root.  The  mouth 
should  be  frequently  washed  with  a  dilute 
solution  of  the  chloride  of  lime.  The 
ulcerated  parts,  if  they  are  fetid,  should 
have  the  same  disinfectant  applied  to 
them,  and  the  Avails  ana  ceiling,  and 
every  part  of  the  cow-house  should  be 
washed  with  it. 

One  caution  should  be  used  with  re- 
spect to  the  food ;  while  the  beast  should 
be  coaxed  to  eat,  in  order  to  support  him 
under  the  debilitating  influence  of  the 
disease,  it  is  only  on  the  supposition  that 
he  ruminates  his  food.  Until  he  begins 
again  to  chew  the  cud,  we  are  only  inju- 
riously overloading  the  paunch  by  enticing 
the  animal  to  eat.  Until  rumination  is 
re-established,  the  food  should  consist  of 
gruel,  or  any  other  nutritive  fluid,  and 
should  be  so  administered  that  the  greater 
part  of  it  may  pass  on  into  the  fourth 
stomach,  without  entering  the  first.  When 
the  animal  appears  to  be  recovering,  he 
should  be  gradually  exposed  to  cool  and 
open  air,  and  very  slowly  permitted  to 
return  to  his  usual  food. 

When  the  disease  is  quite  subdued,  the 
cleansing  of  the  cow-house  should  be 
seriously  undertaken,  and  thoroughly  ac- 
complished. Let  every  portion  of  filth 
and  dung  be  carefully  removed,  the  walls, 
and  the  wood-work,  and  the  floor  care- 
fully washed  with  water,  or  soap  and 
water,  and  then  every  part  washed  again 
with  a  lotion,  in  the  proportion  of  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  the  chloride  of 
lime,  in  powder,  to  a  bucket  of  water. 
This  will  be  better  than  any  fumigation 
that  can  be  possibly  applied.  Should, 
however,  the  chloride  of  lime  not  be  at 
hand,  then  the  simple  and  cheap  Fumi- 
gation (See  No.  37,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for),  on  which  very  consider- 
able dependence  can  be  placed,  may  be 
resorted  to. 

The  salt  should  be  put  in  an  earthen 
vessel,  and  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
cow-house,  and  the  oil  of  vitriol  gradu- 
ally poured  upon  it.  They  should  be 
stirred  well  together  with  a  stick,  and  the 
person  preparing  the  thing  should  retreat 
as  quickly  as  he  can,  to  prevent  himself 
from  suffering  by  the  fumes  of  the  chlo- 
ride, closing  the  door  carefully  after  him, 
every  window  and  aperture  having  been 


previously  closed.  In  a  few  hours  he 
may  enter  the  cow-house  again,  and  re- 
move the  vessel  without  any  serious  in- 
convenience. 

CATTLE,  Horn  Ail  in,  or  Hollow  Horn. 
— If  the  animal  is  chill,  shivering,  or  has 
a  rough,  staring  coat,  and  if  the  horn  is 
unnaturally  cold,  give  an  injection  of 
three  quarts  of  warm  water,  repeating  it 
if  it  is  thrown  off.  Administer  by  the 
mouth  several  quarts  of  warm  gruel,  con- 
taining six  or  eight  ounces  of  whisky, 
brandy  or  gin;  or,  if  attainable,  four 
ounces  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  or  five 
drachms  of  carbonate  of  ammonia. 
Blanket  the  patient  warmly  from  head  to 
tail,  and  actively  hand-rub  the  limbs.  A 
good  plan  is  to  heat  dry  bran,  salt,  and 
sand  in  a  stove;  put  it  in  a  long, 
ljroad  bag,  and  lay  it  along  the  beast's 
spine  from  shoulder  to  rump;  or  wring  a 
thick  rug  out  of  very  hot  water,  lay  it  over 
the  animal's  back  from  head  to  tail,  cover  it 
with  several  dry  rugs  or  buffalo-skins,  and 
bind  them  closely  to  the  skin  with  sur- 
cingles, that  the  heat  may  be  retained. 
The  limbs,  meanwhile,  may  be  actively 
rubbed  and  then  tied  up  in  warm  flannel 
bandages,  loosely  applied,  so  as  not  to 
impede  the  circulation.  In  half  an  hour 
the  patient  will  usually  be  in  a  glow  of 
warmth  and  covered  with  perspiration. 
The  coverings  must  be  removed  gradu- 
ally, one  by  one,  and  the  damp  one 
quickly  replaced  by  an  ample  dry  one, 
after  one  and  a  half  to  two  hours.  Dan- 
gerous inflammations  in  the  chest,  abdo- 
men, etc.,  may  often  be  warded  off  by 
these  measures,  when  taken  in  the  initial 
stage ;  and  though  a  little  more  trouble- 
some than  the  gimlet  surgery,  it  has  the 
compensating  claims  of  being  at  once 
rational  and  successful. 

Real  horn-ail  is  a  disease  of  very  rare 
occurrence,  but  it  may  sometimes  exist. 
Matter  collects  inside  of  the  horn,  and 
even  in  the  forehead,  in  larger  quantity  than 
can  be  readily  discharged  through  the 
nostrils.  It  may  be  recognized  by  the 
discharge  from  the  nose  of  whitish  or 
yellowish  matter,  and  sometimes  pure 
blood ;  by  the  heat  and  tenderness  of  the 
root  of  the  horns  and  forehead ;  by  the 
hanging  head,  the  partially  closed  eyes, 
great  dullness  and  listlessness ;  and  by 
the  absence  of  a  hollow  sound  when  the 
forehead  is  gently  tapped  with  the  tip  of 


CATTLE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


i7S 


the  middle  finger.  Boring  the  horn  with 
a  gimlet  or  sawing  off  must  not  be  em- 
ployed as  a  remedy.  "The  treatment 
should  be  absolute  rest,  a  dose  of 
opening  medicine,  a  semi-liquid,  more 
stimulating  diet,  the  application  of  cold 
water,  or  even  hot  fomentations,  steadily 
maintained,  to  the  forehead,  steaming  the 
nostrils  by  hot  water  vapor,  and,  in  obstinate 
cases,  opening  the  cavity  in  the  interval 
between  the  eyes,  and  syringing  it  out 
daily  with  a  mild  astringent  lotion  until  a 
healthy  action  has  been  established." 
The  operation  of  opening  the  forehead 
should  be  performed  by  a  veterinary 
surgeon. 

CATTLE,  Glands,  Inflammation  of.— 
There  are  numerous  glandular  bodies  dis- 
tributed over  the  animal  structure.  Those 
to  which  the  reader's  attention  is  called 
are,  first,  the  parotid,  situated  beneath  the 
enr;  secondly,  the  sub-lingual,  beneath 
the  tongue ;  lastly,  the  sub-maxillary,  sit- 
uated just  within  the  angle  of  the  jaw. 
They  are  organized  similar  to  other 
glands,  as  the  kidneys,  etc.,  possessing 
arteries,  veins,  lymphatics,  etc.,  which  ter- 
minate in  a  common  duct.  They  have 
also  a  ramification  of  nerves,  and  the 
body  of  the  gland  has  its  own  system  of 
arterial  vessels  and  absorbents,  which  are 
enclosed  by  a  serous  membrane.  They 
produce  a  copious  discharge  of  fluid 
■called  saliva.  Its  use  is  to  lubricate  the 
mouth,  thereby  preventing  friction;  also 
to  lubricate  the  food  and  assist  digestion. 

Inflammation  of  either  of  these  glands 
may  be  known  by  the  heat,  tenderness, 
enlargement  and  difficulty  of  swallowing. 
They  are  usually  sympathetically  affected, 
as  in  hoose,  catarrh,  influenza,  etc.,  and 
generally  resume  their  natural  state  when 
th2se  maladies  disappear. 

Treatment.  —  In  the  inflammatory 
stage  warm  teas  of  marshmallows,  or  slip- 
pery elm,  and  poultices  of  the  same,  are 
the  best  means  yet  known  to  reduce  it ; 
they  relax  constricted  or  obstructed  or- 
gans, and  by  being  directly  applied  to  the 
parts  affected,  the  more  speedily  and  ef- 
fectually is  the  object  accomplished.  Two 
or  three  applications  of  some  relaxing 
poultice  will  be  all  that  is  needed,  after 
which  apply : 

Olive  Oil,  or  Goose  Grease -  - 1  gill. 

Spirits  of  Camphor I  ounce. 

Oilof  Cedar I     " 

"Vinegar Vz  g2t 


Mix.  To  be  rubbed  around  the  throat  as  occasion 
may  require.  All  hard  or  indigestible  food  will 
be  injurious. 

CATTLE. — Inflammation  of  the  Blad- 
der.— This  disease  does  not  often  occur 
in  cattle,  except  from  eating  acrid  and 
poisonous  herbs,  or  when  cows  are  near 
their  time  of  calving.  In  the  first  case, 
there  are  frequent  and  violent,  but  in- 
effectual, efforts  to  stale.  There  is  true 
and  proper  inflammation  of  the  neck  of 
the  bladder.  This  may  be  occasioned  by 
cold,  but  is  more  frequently  produced  by 
the  animal  having  fed  on  healthy  pas- 
tures, and  on  the  hot  and  stimulating 
plants  that  abound  there.  The  broom  is 
a  frequent  cause  of  this  disease. 

It  is  of  much  consequence  to  be  en- 
abled to  distinguish  this  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bladder  itself.  In  the  early 
stage  of  inflammation  of  the  neck  of  the 
bladder  no  urine  will  be  voided,  while  it 
will  be  discharged  much  more  frequently 
than  usual,  and  apparently  in  larger 
quantities  in  true  inflammation  of  the 
bladder;  and  when  at  length,  in  inflam- 
mation of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  urine 
is  voided,  it  is  after  much  straining,  and 
is  evidently  and  forcibly  squeezed  out 
from  the  over-distended  but  closed  vessels. 
The  most  certain  way,  however,  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  one  from  the  other,  is  to 
introduce  the  hand  into  the  rectum ;  the 
distended  bladder  will  then  be  plainly 
felt  below.  It  may  sometimes  be  detected 
by  examination  of  the  outside  of  the 
belly. 

The  course  to  be  pursued  is  sufficiently 
plain — the  bladder  must  be  emptied,  or 
more  fluid  will  pour  into  it  until  it  actually 
bursts.  For  some  time  before  the  fatal 
termination  of  the  complaint  in  the  rup- 
ture of  the  bladder,  not  only  the  constant 
straining,  but  the  heaving  of  the  flanks, 
the  quickness  of  the  pulse,  the  loss  of 
appetite,  the  cessation  of  rumination,  and 
the  shivering  fits,  will  sufficiently  indicate 
the  extent  of  the  danger.  The  better 
way  of  emptying  the  bladder  is,  if  possi- 
ble, to  relax  the  spasm  of  its  neck.  It  is 
the  spasmodic  action  of  the  sphincter 
muscle  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  that  is 
the  cause  of  the  obstruction.  A  very 
large  bleeding  will  sometimes  accomplish 
this;  but  it  must  be  a  large  one,  and 
continued  until  the  animal  is  exhausted 
almost  to  fainting. 


176 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


To  bleeding,  physic  should  succeed,  in 
order  to  lower  the  system,  and  relax  the 
spasm;  but  no  medicine  must  be  given 
that  would  in  the  slightest  degree  increase 
the  flow  of  urine.  Sulphur,  or  aloes,  or 
both  combined,  would  be  indicated  here. 

Should  not  the  flow  of  urine  be  re- 
established, mechanical  means  must  be 
resorted  to.  Here  a  skilful  practitioner 
should  be  consulted.  The  water  may  be 
readily  drawn  from  the  cow  by  a  catheter; 
but  in  the  ox,  from  the  curvature  of  the 
penis,  this  would  be  a  very  difficult  affair. 
Some  have  recommended  to  cut  down 
upon  the  penis,  behind  the  bag,  and  lay 
open  the  urethra,  and  so  pass  a  catheter 
into  the  bladder ;  but  this  will  produce  a 
wound,  difficult  to  heal  from  the  passage 
and  excoriation  of  the  urine.  Others 
would  puncture  the  bladder  through  the 
rectum,  and  others  through  the  belly; 
but  both  operations  may  be  accompanied 
and  followed  by  various  unpleasant  cir- 
cumstances. 

The  farmer,  nevertheless,  having  fully 
ascertained  the  nature  of  the  case,  may 
often  evacuate  a  great  portion  of  the  urine 
in  a  very  simple  way.  The  bladder  of 
the  ox  lies  more  in  the  pelvis  than  does 
that  of  the  horse — it  is  more  easily  felt 
than  in  the  horse — it  is  more  readily 
pressed  upon  by  the  hand — and  the 
muscle  at  the  neck  of  the  bladder  is  much 
weaker;  so  that  the  hand  being  intro- 
duced into  the  anus,  and  gentle  pressure 
made  upon  the  bladder,  a  great  quantity, 
or  almost  the  whole,  of  the  urine  may  be 
forced  out,  without  danger. 

A  catheter  may  be  introduced  into  the 
bladder  of  a  cow  without  difficulty. 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder  itself  is  a 
disease  more  frequent,  and  from  the  same 
causes,  namely,  cold  and  acrid  herbs. 
Here  the  animal  should  be  bled  and 
physicked,  and  fomented  across  the  loins, 
and  every  diuretic  medicine  carefully 
avoided.  The  Drink  for  Inflammation  of 
the  Bladder  may  be  administered  with 
good  effect,  after  the  bleeding  and  purg- 
ing. (See  No.  42,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for.) 

It  should  not,  however,  be  forgotten, 
that  in  cows  that  are  near  parturition 
this  discharge  of  urine  is  not  unfrequent, 
and  arises  from  irritation  of  the  bladder, 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  fetus,  or 
from  sympathy  with  the  uterus,  now  much 


excited,  and  not  from  actual  inflamma- 
tion. When  she  has  calved,  this  will 
gradually  cease;  or  a  dose  of  salts, 
followed  by  one  or  two  of  the  powders 
just  recommended,  will  afford  immediate 
and  considerable  relief.  In  some  cows 
this  incontinence  of  urine  has  been  pro- 
duced by  the  retention  of  a  dead  calf  in 
the  womb  beyond  the  natural  period, 
and  it  being  at  the  same  time  in  a  state 
of  putrefaction.  The  mingled  influence 
of  long-continued  pressure,  and  of  prox- 
imity to  a  large  body  in  a  state  of  de- 
composition, will  occasionally  produce  a 
state  of  extreme  irritability.  The  animal 
should  have  warm  mashes  once  or  twice 
daily. 

CATTLE,  Eye,  Diseases  of  the.— Oxen 
are  very  apt  to  receive  injuries  about  the 
eye,  as  wounds  penetrating  into  the  orbit 
of  the  eye,  or  even  fractures  of  the  orbit. 
The  principal  thing  is  to  prevent  or  abate 
inflammation,  by  fomentations  or  poul- 
tices, and  a  little  physic,  and  to  leave  na- 
ture pretty  nearly  to  herself.  Either  from 
injury  or  from  a  disposition  in  the  bullock- 
to  throw  out  tumors  of  every  kind,  there 
are  frequently  bony  enlargements  about 
the  eyes  of  oxen.  It  will  be  easily  seen 
how  far  they  are  a  nuisance  to  the  ani- 
mal, or  impede  the  sight;  and  if  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  them,  the  aid  of  a 
professed  practitioner  on  cattle  should  be 
obtained,  as  an  important  vessel  may  be 
divided,  or  a  sad  blemish  left. 

Soft,  fungous  tumors  sometimes  grow 
out  of  the  orbit,  or  from  the  bone  around. 
These  can  only  be  got  rid  of  by  the  use 
of  the  knife,  and  that  should  be  placed  in 
a  skilful  hand ;  but  even  in  the  most  skil- 
ful hands,  the  knife  often  fails;  or,  rather, 
there  is  a  disposition  to  reproduction  in 
these  tumors,  which  it  is  impossible  to 
repress. 

The  eyelids  of  the  ox  are  very  subject 
to  disease.  Sometimes  there  is  scaliness 
around  the  edges ;  sometimes  a  row  of 
pustules  resembling  the  stye  of  the  hu- 
man being:  both  of  these  diseases  are- 
frequently  a  great  source  of  annoyance. 
They  appear  early  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  and  continue  during  the  summer 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  autumn,  and 
disappear  as  winter  comes  on.  A  solu- 
tion of  white  vitriol,  in  the  proportion  of 
a  drachm  to  a  pint  of  water,  will  often  be 
a  useful  application.      If  this  fails,  the 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


*77 


nitrated  ointment  of  quicksilver  may  be 
smeared  over  the  lid,  taking  care  that 
none  of  it  gets  into  the  eye.  It  will,  how- 
ever, be  necessary  at  times  to  prepare  for 
the  use  of  these  by  washing  the  part  with 
a  goulard  lotion  for  a  few  days. 

Young  oxen  are  subject  to  warts,  which 
are  frequently  sadly  teasing.  They  would 
probably  disappear  after  a  while,  but,  in 
the  meantime,  they  are  unsightly,  and 
much  annoy  the  animal  by  getting  be- 
tween or  within  the  lids.  They  may 
either  be  clipped  off  with  the  scissors, 
touching  the  root  afterwards  with  the  lu- 
nar caustic,  that  the  wart  may  not  be  re- 
produced ;  or — the  best  way  when  prac- 
ticable— they  may  be  removed  by  tying  a 
ligature  of  fine  strong  silk  tightly  round 
the  pedicle,  or  root. 

The  eye  itself  is  not  unfrequently  in- 
flamed, and  sometimes  very  acutely.  The 
horse  has  a  little  shovel,  concealed  in  the 
inner  corner  of  the  eye,  which  he  is  ena- 
bled to  protrude  whenever  he  pleases 
over  the  greatest  part  of  the  eye,  and  by 
aid  of  the  tears  to  wipe  and  wash  away 
the  dust  and  gravel  which  would  other- 
wise lodge  in  the  eye  and  give  him  much 
pain.  When  the  haw  is  swelled  in  dis- 
ease, the  ignorant  farrier  too  often  cuts  it 
away,  not  knowing  that  it  is  the  mere  ef- 
fect of  inflammation,  and  that  a  little 
cooling  lotion  would  probably  abate  that 
inflammation,  and  lessen  the  swelling, 
and  restore  the  part  to  its  natural  size  and 
utility.  The  ox  has  something  of  the 
same  contrivance,  but  it  is  not  so  mova- 
ble or  so  effectual;  and,  when  he  travels 
over  a  dusty  road  in  the  heat  of  summer, 
he  sadly  suffers  from  the  small  particles 
of  dirt  and  the  insects  that  are  contin- 
ually flying  into  his  eye.  This  is  unob- 
served by  the  careless  driver,  and  inflam- 
mation is  established,  and  the  eye  weeps, 
and  becomes  dim,  and  sometimes  blind- 
ness follows. 

This  portion  of  the  eye,  or  this  third 
eyelid,  seems  to  be  peculiarly  subject  to 
disease.  Little  swellings  and  ulcers,  and 
fungous  growths  appear  upon  it;  and  a 
fungous,  like  that  just  described,  springs 
up  and  almost  covers  the  eye.  This  is 
sometimes  in  a  manner  epidemic  on  va- 
rious farms. 

But  from  other  causes,  and  of  the  na- 
ture of  which  we  know  little,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  eye  is  produced,  and  goes  and 


comes  as  in  the  horse,  time  after  time,  the 
attack  being  gradually  more  severe,  and 
the  intervals  between  the  attacks  shorter, 
until,  as  in  the  horse,  the  inflammation 
extends  to  the  internal  part  of  the  eye, 
and  the  lens  becomes  opaque,  and  cata- 
ract ensues,  and  the  ox  is  incurably  blind. 

All  these  must  be  dealt  with  as  other 
inflammations  are.  In  order  to  combat 
general  inflammation  of  the  eye,  bleeding, 
physicing  and  fomentations  are  the  prin- 
cipal weapons  employed.  The  blood 
should  be  taken  from  the  jugular,  for 
that  is  supplied  by  veins  coming  from  the 
inflamed  parts.  If  the  bleeding  is  ever 
local,  the  lid  should  be  turned  down,  and 
the  lining  membrane  lightly  scarified.  A 
few  drops  of  blood  thus  obtained  will 
often  do  a  great  deal  of  good.  The  fo- 
mentation having  been  continued  for  a  day 
or  two  the  Sedative  Eye  Lotion  (See  No. 
43,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  should  be  used,  a  few  drops  of  it 
being  introduced  into  the  eye  two  or 
three  times  every  day. 

There  cannot  be  a  better  sedative  in 
the  early  stage  of  inflammation  of  the 
eyes. 

In  many  cases  this  alone  will  effect  the 
temporary  or  perfect  removal  of  the  in- 
flammation; but  should  the  eye  not  im- 
prove ,  or  should  it  appear  to  become  in- 
sensible to  the  influence  of  the  tincture, 
try  the  other  Sedative  Eye  Lotion.  (See 
No.  44,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for.) 

The  inflammation  being  subdued  by 
the  one  or  the  other  of  these  applica- 
tions, or  even  bidding  defiance  to  them, 
and  assuming  a  chronic  form,  the 
Strengthening  Lotion  for  the  Eye,  (See 
No.  45,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  a  lotion  of  a  different  character 
must  be  had  recourse  to. 

When  the  inflammation  runs  high,  the 
transparent  part  of  the  eye  is  apt  to  ul- 
cerate, and  a  fungous  substance  sprouts, 
and  sometimes  protrudes  through  the 
lids.  This  should  be  lightly  touched 
with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or,  if 
if  is  very  prominent,  it  should  be  cut  off, 
and  the  base  of  it  touched  with  the 
caustic. 

A  seton  in  the  dewlap  will  always  be 
beneficial  in  inflammation  of  the  eye,  and 
it  should  either  be  made  of  the  black. 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


hellebore  root,  or  a  cord  well  soaked  in 
turpentine. 

Of  one  circumstance  the  breeder  of 
cattle  should  be  aware — that  blindness  is 
an  hereditary  disease,  and  that  the  prog- 
eny of  a  bull  that  has  any  defect  of  sight 
is  very  apt  to  become  blind. 

If  the  case  is  neglected,  inflammation  of 
the  eye  will  sometimes  run  on  to  cancer, 
and  not  only  the  eye,  but  the  soft  parts 
around  it,  and  even  the  bones,  will  be  af- 
fected. 

When  this  termination  threatens,  the 
globe  of  the  eye  will  usually  turn  to  a 
bottle-green  color,  then  ulceration  will 
appear  about  the  center  of  it,  and  either 
the  fungous  of  which  we  have  spoken 
will  sprout,  and  the  eye  will  become  of 
three  or  four  times  its  natural  size,  or  it 
will  gradually  diminish  and  sink  into  the 
orbit.  The  fluid  discharged  from  it  will 
be  so  acrid  that  it  will  excoriate  the  parts 

•  over  which  it  runs,  and  the  lids  will  be- 
i  come  swollen  and  ulcerated. 

The  radical  cure,  and  the  most  humane 
method  to  be  adopted  with  regard  to  the 
animal,  is  to  remove  the  eye.  Here  the 
assistance  of  a  veterinary  practitioner  will 
be  indispensable. 

If  the  owner  does  not  think  proper  to 
adopt  this  method,  let  him  at  least  try  to 
make  the  poor  beast  as  comfortable  as  he 
can.  The  part  should  be  kept  clean,  and 
when  there  appears  to  be  any  additional 
inflammation,  or  swelling,  or  pain,  the 
eye  should  be  well  fomented  with  a  de- 

•  coction  of  poppy-heads.  Let  none  of 
the  stimulating  ointments  or  washes  of 
;the  farrier  be  used.  This  would  be 
^cruelly  punishing  the  animal,  when  no 
;good  purpose  could  possibly  be  effected. 

Sometimes  the  centre  of  the  eye  is  not 
150  much  affected  as  the  haw  at  the  inner 
corner  of  it.  When  that  part  merely 
enlarges  from  the  inflammation,  or  the 
eye  generally,  the  digitalis  or  the  Goulard 
wash  will  usually  abate  the  swelling ;  and 
he  would  be  both  ignorant  and  cruel  who 
would  remove  it  on  account  of  simple 
enlargement  accompanying  inflammation; 
ibut  when  it  becomes  hard  and  schirrous, 
and  especially  if  fungous  granulations 
begin  to  spring  from  it,  the  case  assumes 
a  different  character.  No  sedative  or 
other  lotion  will  lessen  the  schirrous  or 
the  fungous  tumor.  It  must  be  removed 
by  an  operation — it  must  be  cut  away. 


The  method  of  accomplishing  this  by  a 
skillful  practitioner  is  not  difficult.  The 
beast  must  be  thrown,  and  the  head  held 
firmly  down  by  an  assistant.  The  opera- 
tor then  passes  a  curved  needle,  armed 
with  a  double  strong  silk,  through  the 
body  of  the  tumor,  and,  drawing  a  por- 
tion of  the  silk  through  it,  gives  the 
needle  and  the  end  of  the  silk  to  be  held 
by  another  assistant.  He  pulls  the  silk 
gently,  but  firmly,  until  he  draws  the 
tumor  as  far  as  possible  from  the  corner 
of  the  eye,  so  that  the  attachment  of  its 
base  may  be  seen.  The  operator  then 
with  a  knife  dissects  it  out,  or  with  a  pair 
of  scissors  snips  it  off.  No  bleeding  of 
any  dangerous  consequence  will  follow, 
and  the  blood  that  is  lost  will  abate  the 
inflammation,  and  ease  the  pain  which 
the  animal  had  previously  endured.  The 
removal  by  ligature  is  a  slow  and  not 
always  effectual  method  of  proceeding; 
for  it  may  not  be  possible  to  apply  it 
accurately  around  the  very  base  of  the 
tumor,  and  then  the  enlargement  will 
probably  be  reproduced.  It  is  also 
necessary  to  tighten  the  ligature  every 
day,  or  every  second  day,  and  at  each 
time  the  contest  with  the  beast  must  be 
renewed  if  this  mode  of  removing  the 
tumor  is  adopted. 

CATTLE,  Choking.  —  Cattle  are  ex- 
tremely liable  to  become  choked  when 
feeding  on  turnips  or  other  roots,  and 
many  are  in  consequence  destroyed.  A 
round  object,  such  as  a  potato,  is  more 
likely  to  occasion  suffocation  than  a  more 
irregular  body,  as  it  produces  greater 
pressure  on  the  windpipe,  and  is  embraced 
more  closely  by  the  oesophagus.  The 
appearances  attending  choking  can 
scarcely  be  mistaken.  The  animal  evinces 
great  distress,  tries  to  bring  up  the  ob- 
structing body,  slavers  at  the  mouth,  pokes 
its  nose,  and  draws  up  the  neck.  After 
awhile  the  abdomen  swells  from  the  in- 
flation of  the  paunch  with  gas.  Sometimes 
the  beast  will  die  in  a  very  short  time, 
but  the  urgency  of  the  case  depends 
much  on  the  situation  and  the  size  of  the 
obstructing  body. 

If  the  rumen  is  so  distended  as  to 
threaten  immediate  suffocation,  it  will  be 
proper  to  puncture  it ;  but  this,  if  possi- 
ble, should  be  avoided.  It  will  next  be 
desirable  to  ascertain  the  situation  of  the 
obstruction.     Sometimes  it  will  be  found 


CATTLE— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


179 


that  the  body  is  impacted  at  the  back  of 
the  mouth  or  beginning  of  the  oesophagus; 
in  these  cases  by  using  a  balling-iron  the 
object  can  frequently  be  removed  by 
passing  up  the  hand. 

If,  however,  the  substance  is  situated 
low  down  the  tube,  it  will  be  desirable  to 
force  it  onwards.  For  this  purpose  half 
a  pint  of  oil  should  be  given  to  lubricate 
the  passage  as  much  as  possible,  and  then 
the  beast,  being  properly  secured,  and  a 
gag  placed  in  the  mouth,  a  flexible  tube 
or  red,  with  a  knob  at  the  end,  should  be 
carefully  passed  down  the  oesophagus 
until  it  reaches  the  body ;  a  steady  pres- 
sure should  now  be  employed  to  force  it 
onwards;  but  this  should  be  done  pa- 
tiently, so  as  not  to  injure  the  parts.  By 
alternately  resting  and  trying  again,  the 
object  will  generally  be  removed. 

If  the  object  is  situated  near  the 
mouth,  but  not  sufficiently  so  as  to  be 
reached  by  the  hand,  it  can  best  be  re- 
moved by  means  of  an  instrument  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Simonds,  and  which  is 
constructed  so  as  to  embrace  the  obstruct- 
ing body  by  a  forceps,  concealed  in  the 
bulb  at  the  end  of  the  tube,  and  thus  to 
remove  it  upwards  by  the  mouth. 

After  forcing  the  object  into  the 
stomach  it  will  be  desirable  to  let  the 
probang  remain  a  short  time,  if  the 
animal  is  hoven,  to  afford  an  exit  for  the 
gas ;  and  this  may  be  assisted  by  pressing 
the  flank. 

No  solid  food  should  be  allowed  for 
several  days  afterwards,  as  there  is  great 
danger  of  a  repetition  of  the  choking 
until  the  muscles  entirely  recover  their 
tone.  Sometimes,  after  all  attempts  of 
removing  the  body  by  the  methods  before 
described  have  failed,  it  will  be  proper  to 
do  so  by  means  of  an  operation  which 
has  been  performed  with  success;  and 
this  consists  in  making  an  incision  through 
the  skin  into  the  oesophagus,  sufficiently 
large  to  extract  the  body.  Great  ca"re 
must  be  exercised,  so  as  not  to  injure  the 
important  nerves  and  blood-vessels  situ- 
ated near  the  part.  The  beast  should  be 
cast  for  the  operation,  and  the  wound 
carefully  sewed  up  afterwards,  and  for 
several  days  the  food  should  consist 
principally  of  gruel. 

CATTLE,  Locked-jaw.  —  Fortunately 
this  is  not  a  very  frequent  disease  among 
cattle ;  but  it  is  a  very  fatal  one  when  it 


does  occur.  If  the  attendant  is  careful, 
he  will  observe  the  symptoms  of  this 
malady  one  or  two  days  before  it  is 
thoroughly  and  incurably  established. 
There  will  be  a  stiffness  of  gait  in  the 
beast — he  will  walk  unusually  wide  be- 
hind— there  will  be  difficulty  of  turning — 
permanent  cocking  of  the  tail,  except 
when  that  is  interrupted,  or  accompanied 
by  a  singular  tremulous  motion  of  it. 
The.  animal  can  scarcely,  and,  after 
awhile, not  at  all, bend  his  neck  to  graze; 
but  he  will  stand  with  his  head  protruding, 
and  his  ears  stiffened,  and  unnaturally 
fixed  in  a  somewhat  backward  direction. 
Rumination  gradually  ceases,  or  is  per- 
formed slowly  and  painfully.  At  length 
the  jaws  become  firmly  closed,  and  the 
neck  perfectly  stiff.  The  eyes  are  strangely 
fixed,  and  with  some  degree  of  squinting, 
and  the  expression  of  the  countenance  is 
peculiarly  anxious.  The  breathing  is 
considerably  affected,  and  there  is  much 
labor  of  the  flanks. 

The  animal  will  linger  on  in  this  dread- 
ful way  for  eight,  or  nine,  or  ten  days, 
almost  every  muscle  of  the  body  being 
painfully  cramped,  and  the  poor  creature 
unable  to  take  a  morsel  of  food,  until  at 
length  it  dies,  exhausted  by  the  violent 
contraction  of  the  muscles  and  by  starva- 
tion. 

The  usual  cause  of  locked  jaw  is  some 
neglected  or  unobserved  wound,  particu- 
larly in  the  feet.  Working  oxen,  there- 
fore, are  most  subject  to  it.  Several 
weeks  sometimes  pass  between  the  inflic- 
tion of  the  wound  and  the  appearance  of 
this  disease.  Working  oxen  that  have 
been  exposed  to  cold  and  wet,  after  being 
heated  in  drawing,  frequently  have  locked 
jaw.  It  has  been  said  that  locked  jaw  is 
occasionally  produced  by  eating  some 
poisonous  plants.  We  much  doubt  the 
accuracy  of  this;  and  in  many,  and 
probably  the  majority  of  instances,  the 
cause  is  altogether  unknown. 

The  treatment  is  indicated  by  the 
nature  of  the  disease.  It  is  a  most  vio- 
lent action  of  the  nerves  of  motion, 
either  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the 
frame.  The  most  likely  means  to  quiet 
this  is  the  loss  of  blood,  and  that  in  a 
large  quantity.  Therefore,  the  ox  should 
be  bled  as  soon  as  the  complaint  is  dis- 
covered, and  bled  until  his  pulse  falters, 
and  he  staggers,  and  threatens  to  fall. 


iSo 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


The  bleeding  will  usually  relax  the  mus- 
cles of  the  jaw  to  a  certain  degree,  and 
for  a  little  while ;  and  advantage  must  be 
taken  of  this  to  give  the  Strong  Physic 
Drink.  (See  No.  47,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for.) 

Generally  the  jaw  will  be  now  suffi- 
ciently relaxed  to  permit  the  introduction 
of  the  thin  neck  of  a  claret  bottle  into 
the  mouth. 

The  bowels  having  been  opened,  those 
medicines  must  be  resorted  to  which  have 
the  readiest  and  most  powerful  effect  in 
quieting  the  nervous  system.  These  are, 
as  it  regards  cattle,  the  Anodyne  Drink 
for  Locked  Jaw.  t^See  No.  48,  Domes- 
tic Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

This  medicine  should  be  administered 
three  or  four  times  every  day,  care  being 
taken  that  the  bowels  are  kept  open, 
either  by  means  of  aloes  or  Epsom  salts. 

The  bleeding  should  be  repeated  on 
the  second  day,  if  the  animal  is  not  evi- 
dently relieved;  and  as  much  blood 
should  be  again  taken  as  the  patient  can 
bear  to  lose. 

The  stable  or  cow  house  should  be 
warm,  and  the  animal  covered  with  two 
or  three  thick  rugs.  If  considerable  per- 
spiration can  be  excited,  the  beast  is  al- 
most sure  to  experience  some  relief. 

While  all  this  is  done  to  lower  the  ac- 
tion of  the  nervous  system,  the  strength 
of  the  beast  must  be  supported.  He  will 
not,  or  rather  he  cannot  eat ;  but  he  often 
looks  very  wistfully  at  his  food.  Let  a 
good  mash,  a  little  at  a  time,  and  moister 
than  usual,  be  placed  before  him,  a  por- 
tion of  which  he  will  try  hard  to  suck  up. 
If  he  manages  this  tolerably  well  he  needs 
not  to  be  forced  with  gruel  or  any  other 
nutriment ;  but  if  his  jaws  are  too  firmly 
fixed  for  this,  the  small  end  of  the  pipe 
of  Read's  pump  should  be  introduced 
into  the  mouth,  and  as  much  thick  gruel 
pumped  down  as  the  attendant  pleases. 
When  the  poor  animal  has  been  hungry 
two  or  three  days  through  utter  impossi- 
bility of  eating,  he  will  gladly  enough 
submit  to  this  operation,  and  almost  offer 
himself  for  it. 

It  will  be  almost  labor  in  vain  to  en- 
deavor to  stimulate  the  skin,  or  to  raise  a 
blister.  Two,  three  or  four  setons  in  the 
dewlap  have  been  useful;  and  benefit  has 
been  derived  from  shaving  the  back  along 
the  whole  course  of  the  skin,  and  cauter- 


izing it  severely  with  a  common  firing-iron. 
If  it  should  be  found  impracticable  to 
administer  either  food  or  medicine  by  the 
mouth,  they  must  be  given  in  the  form  of 
clysters.  Double  the  usual  quantity  of 
the  medicine  must  be  given,  on  account 
of  the  probable  loss  of  a  portion  of  it, 
and  the  small  quantity  that  the  absorb- 
ents of  the  intestines  may  take  up ;  but 
too  much  gruel  must  not  be  injected, 
otherwise  it  will  probably  be  returned.  A 
quart  will  generally  be  as  much  as  will  be 
retained,  and  the  clyster  may  be  repeated 
five  or  six  times  in  the  course  of  the  day. 

Should  the  progress  of  the  disease 
have  been  rapid,  and  the  symptoms  vio- 
lent ;  or  should  it  be  found  to  be  impossi- 
ble to  give  medicine  by  the  mouth,  or 
cause  them  to  act  by  injection,  the  most 
prudent  thing  will  be  to  have  recourse  to 
the  butcher.  The  meat  will  not  be  in  the 
slightest  degree  injured,  for  it  is  a  disease 
that  is  rarely  accompanied  by  any  great 
degree  of  fever. 

CATTLE  TEACHEA,  Inflammation  of 
the. — See  Cattle,  Throat,  Inflamma- 
TrON  of  the. 

CATTLE,  Bronchitis  in. — Bronchitis 
consists  in  a  thickening  of  the  fibrous 
and  mucous  surfaces  of  the  trachea,  and 
generally  results  from  maltreated  hoose  or 
catarrh. 

Symptoms. — A  dry,  husky,  wheezing 
cough,  laborious  breathing,  hot  breath 
and  dry  tongue. 

Treatment. — Warm  poultices  of  slip- 
pery elm  or  flaxseed,  on  the  surface  of 
which  sprinkle  powdered  lobelia.  Apply 
them  to  the  throat  moderately  warm ;  if 
they  are  too  hot  they  will  prove  injurious. 
In  the  first  place,  administer  the  follow- 
ing drink : 

Powdered  Liquorice 1  ounce 

Powdered  Elecampane %     " 

Slippery  Elm 1      " 

Boiling  water  sufficient  to  make  it  of  the  con- 
sistence of  thin  gruel. 

If  there  is  any  difficulty  in  breathing, 
add  half  a  teaspoonful  of  lobelia  to  the 
above,  and  repeat  the  dose  night  and 
morning.  Linseed  or  marshmallow  tea  is 
a  valuable  auxiliary  in  the  treatment  of 
this  disease.  The  animal  should  be  com- 
fortably housed,  and  the  legs  kept  warm 
by  friction  with  coarse  straw. 

CATTLE,  "  Blasting."  —  See  Cattlk 
Hoove. 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


181 


COWS,  Foot-rot  in. — This  disease 
makes  its  appearance  sometimes  between 
the  claws  of  the  foot,  often  in  the  heel, 
and  extending  up  the  leg,  causes  extreme 
lameness,  loss  of  flesh  and  loss  of  milk. 
It  often  runs  through  a  whole  dairy,  and 
its  appearance  is  becoming  every  year 
more  common.  Make  an  ointment  of 
lard  and  red  precipitate,  one  part  of  the 
latter  to  four  of  the  former,  to  be  applied 
to  the  affected  parts  and  rubbed  in ;  or  in 
bad  cases,  when  the  disease  is  in  the  heel 
and  upon  the  leg,  worked  in  by  holding  a 
hot  iron  near  the  foot.  The  foot  should 
be  cleaned  before  the  application,  by 
washing  well  with  soap  and  soft  water. 
One  application,  if  thorough,  will  gener- 
ally effect  a  cure ;  but  if  all  parts  are  not 
reached  by  the  ointment,  a  second  applica- 
tion should  be  made  in  forty-eight  hours. 

CATTLE,  Pleuropneumonia,  Cure  of.— 
Sir  W.  Miles  writes  to  the  Wincanton  Bet- 
ty Sessions,  Somerset  county,  in  England, 
that  after  having  had  the  pleuro-pneumo- 
nia  in  his  herd  for  nearly  eighteen  months, 
he  has  arrested  its  progress  by  causing  the 
herd  to  inhale  carbolic  acid  night  and 
morning,  which  stopped  the  disease.  The 
acid  was  mixed  with  water,  and  sprinkled 
with  a  watering  pot  on  saw-dust,  put  un- 
der the  fore  feet  of  the  cattle  when  tied 
up.  Cures  are  also  reported  by  causing 
the  cattle  to  inhale  the  fumes  ef  sulphur. 

COW,  to  Dry  of  Her  Milk.— It  is  often 
necessary  to  dry  up  the  milk  when  cows 
are  wanted  speedily  to  fatten,  and  this  is 
now  and  then  found  to  be  a  difficult  mat- 
ter, especially  with  large  and  gross  beasts. 
If  the  flow  of  milk  is  suffered  to  con- 
tinue it  may  overload  the  udder,  and  pro- 
duce inflammation  of  it,  or  garget,  or  gen- 
eral fever,  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
or  foul  in  the  foot. 

The  best  time  to  dry  the  cows  is  very 
early  in  the  spring,  when  they  are  eating 
dry  meat.  A  good  dose  of  physic,  fol- 
lowed by  mild  astringent  drinks,  will 
usually  settle  the  business,  especially  if 
she  is  moderately  bled  before  the  physic 
is  given.  Alum  in  the  form  of  whey  (see 
Alum  Whey,  No.  19),  or  dissolved  in 
water,  will  be  the  most  effectual,  as  well 
as  the  safest  astringent.  Six  drachms  will 
be  the  medium  dose.  The  cow  may  be 
milked  clean  when  the  astringent  is 
given,  and  then  turned  on  some  dry  up- 
land pasture. 


Two  days  afterwards  she  should  be  ex- 
amined, and  if  the  udder  is  not  overload- 
ed, nor  hard  nor  hot,  the  milking  may  be 
discontinued;  but  if  the  udder  is  hard 
and  full,  and  especially  if  it  is  hot, 
she  should  be  fetched  home,  cleanly 
milked,  and  another  astringent  drink 
given.  The  third  drink,  if  it  is  necessary 
to  give  one,  should  be  en  aperient  one, 
and  after  that  the  Diuretic  Drink,  No. 
26,  every  second  day. 

The  milking  should  only  be  resorted  to 
if  the  state  of  the  udder  absolutely  re- 
quires it,  for  every  act  of  milking  is  but 
encouraging  the  secretion  of  milk. 

COWS,  Holding  Back  the  Milk.— Lay- 
ing a  wet  rag  on  the  back  of  the  cow 
that  holds  back  her  milk  is  a  very  good 
remedy.  Another  writer  says  a  weight 
laid  on  the  back — as  a  bag  of  earth  or 
sand,  or  a  chain  in  the  bag — will  make  her 
give  her  milk.  As  all  the  remedies  in 
vogue  for  the  vice  relate  to  an  applica- 
tion to  the  back  there  may  be  something 
in  it. 

CATTLE,  the  Mange. — Mange  may  be 
generated  either  from  excitement  of  the 
skin  itself,  or  through  the  medium  of  that 
sympathetic  influence  which  is  known  to 
exist  between  the  skin  and  organs  of  di- 
gestion. We  have  it,  appears  to  me,  an 
excellent  illustration  of  this  in  the  case  of 
mange  supervening  upon  poverty — a  fact 
too  notorious  to  be  disputed,  though 
there  may  be  different  ways  of  theorizing 
on  it. 

Mr.  Blanie  says:  "  Mange  has  three 
origins — filth,  debility  and  contagion." 

The  most  effectual  application  is  Mange 
ointment,  No.  54,  of  which  sulphur  is  the 
principal  ingredient.  Some  mercurial 
ointment,  however,  must  be  added,  but  in 
no  great  quantity,  for  cattle  will  lick  them- 
selves, and  salivation  may  ensue.  There 
is  nothing  so  injurious  to  the  milk,  or  to 
the  fattening  of  the  beast,  as  salivation, 
even  in  a  slight  degree. 

This  should  be  well  rubbed  in  with  the 
hand  daily,  wherever  there  is  mange,  the 
hair  being  carefully  separated  where  the 
affected  part  is  covered  by  it.  No  possi- 
ble danger  can  happen  from  the  pro- 
longed use  of  this  ointment  if  the  animal 
is  not  exposed  to  severe  cold. 

Alterative  medicine  will  materially 
assist  the  cure,  and  may  be  given  without 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


injury  to  the  milk,  and  without  any  pre- 
caution being  needed.  (See  Alterative 
Drink,  No.  55,  Domestic  Animals,  Med- 
icines for.) 

Connected  with  mange,  generally  ac- 
companying it,  and  often  producing  it,  are 
lice.  The  presence  of  these  vermin  ar- 
gues extreme  negligence,  and  is  an  abso- 
lute disgrace  to  the  farmer.  They  rap- 
idly spread  from  cow  to  cow ;  the  slight- 
est touch  transfers  some  of  them  from 
one  beast  to  another;  they  are  crawling 
continually  in  the  stable  or  on  the  the  pas- 
ture; and  although  they  are  never  originally 
bred  in  the  skin  of  a  diseased  animal, 
yet  in  one  that  has  been  half-starved  or 
mangy,  and  whose  coat  clings  to  the 
skin,  and  will  not  come  off  when  nature 
usually  sheds  it,  these  vermin  find  too  fa- 
vorable a  shelter.  They  are  both  the 
consequence  and  the  cause  of  mange,  and 
other  affections  of  the  skin.  Myriads  of 
them  are  sometimes  found  on  the  poor 
beast,  teazing  it  almost  to  death. 

The  mange  ointment  above  recom- 
mended will  often  be  effectual  in  destroy- 
ing them,  or  should  it  not  be  sufficiently 
powerful,  a  weaker  kind  of  mercurial 
ointment  for  vermin  (See  No.  56,  Domes- 
tic Animals,  Medicines  for,)  may  be 
applied. 

Some  prefer  a  lotion.  The  best  Lo- 
tion for  Vermin,  is  No.  57,  Domes- 
tic Animals,  Medicines  for. 

This  is  strong  enough  to  kill  the  ver- 
min, but  cannot  possibly  injure  the  beast. 
An  ointment,  however,  is  best,  for  it 
can  be  more  thoroughly  rubbed  among 
the  hair,  and  into  every  lurking  place 
which  the  vermin  may  occupy.  A  por- 
tion of  the  liquid  is  often  lost  in  the  act 
of  applying  it.  The  ointment  or  the  lo- 
tion should  be  used  daily,  and  three  or 
four  dressings  will  generally  remove  the 
nuisance. 

Scotch  snuff  has  been  dusted  on  the 
beast  with  partial  good  effect;  the  animal- 
cule have  been  thinned,  but  not  extir- 
pated. The  snuff  cannot  possibly  reach 
naif  of  them. 

While  the  lice  are  attacked,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  animal  should,  if  possible,  be 
improved.  Poverty  and  bad  condition 
are  sad  encouragers  of  these  pests.  The 
alternative  drink  just  recommended 
may  be  advantageously  combined  with 
tonics.     (See  Alterative  Tonic  Powders, 


No.  58,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for.) 

Warbles  may  here  be  not  improperly 
considered.  The  breeze,  or  gad-fly,  or  ox- 
fly,  appears  about  the  end  of  the  summer, 
and  is  a  sad  annoyance  to  the  ox.  At 
the  very  hum  of  the  insect  the  cattle  wilt 
gallop  distractedly  over  the  field,  and 
sometimes  do  themselves  serious  injury. 
When  the  fly  has  the  opportunity  of 
alighting  on  the  beast,  he  chooses  the  back 
or  the  loins,  and  piercing  the  skin,  depos- 
its an  egg  under  it.  Some  venom  is  also 
distilled  into  the  wound,  tor  a  tumor  is 
shortly  afterwards  formed,  varying  from 
the  size  of  an  hazel-nut  to  that  of  an  egg. 
It  is  a  kind  of  abscess,  for  it  speedily 
bursts  and  leaves  a  little  hole  on  the  top 
of  it  for  the  grub,  which  is  now  hatched, 
to  breathe,  and  where  he  lives  on  the  fat- 
ty matter  that  he  finds  in  this  curious 
abode. 

These  warbles  are  often  a  sad  nuisance 
to  the  animal.  He  licks  them  when  he 
can  get  at  them,  and  rubs  himself  vio- 
lently on  anything  within  his  reach. 

Country  people  sometimes  get  rid  of 
them  by  compressing  them  between  the 
finger  and  thumb  and  forcing  the  maggot 
out.  Others,  with  more  certain  effect, 
either  pull  off  the  scab  around  the  mouth 
of  the  tumor,  or  open  it  with  a  lancet  or 
pen-knife,  and  then  pour  in  a  few  drops 
of  spirit  of  turpentine,  or  introduce  a 
heated  needle. 

The  farmer  is  scarcely  aware  how  much 
injury  this  fly  does  to  the  hide,  for,  al- 
though the  holes  may  apparently  close  up 
that  part  will  always  be  weak. 

CATTLE,  Throat  Inflammation  of  the. 
— In  many  cases,  if  attended  to  imme- 
diately, nothing  more  will  be  necessary 
than  confining  the  animal  to  a  light  diet, 
with  frequent  drinks  of  linseed  tea, 
warmth  and  moisture  applied  locally  in 
the  form  of  a  slippery  elm  poultice,  which 
may  be  kept  in  close  contact  with  the 
throat  by  securing  it  to  the  horns.  But, 
in  very  severe  attacks,  mullein  leaves 
steeped  in  vinegar  and  applied  to  the 
parts,  with  an  occasional  stimulating  in- 
jection, together  with  a  gruel,  are  the 
only  means  of  relief. 

CATTLE  LARYNX,  Inflammation  of 
the. — See  Cattle,  Throat,  Inflamma- 
tion OF  THE. 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


1 8  s 


CATTLE,  Poison* — In  the  early  part 
of  the  spring,  and  before  the  different 
vegetables  have  attained  their  proper 
growth  and  smell,  cattle  are  liable  to  be 
injured,  and  even  destroyed,  by  eating 
poisonous  plants;  and  especially  when 
they  are  turned  into  fresh  pasture.  In 
some  countries,  and  in  some  seasons, 
when  particular  plants  have  prevailed,  a 
great  many  cattle  have  been  lost,  and  it 
has  appeared  as  if  some  epidemic  disease 
was  raging,  until  a  botanist,  accidentally 
coming  into  that  part  of  the  country,  has 
discovered  the  true  cause  of  the  malady. 
It  is  a  great  pity  that  farmers  and  graziers 
are  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  bota- 
ny to  know  the  different  plants,  whole- 
some and  poisonous,  that  are  growing  in 
their  fields. 

Some  have  thought  that  cattle  are  poi- 
soned by  drinking  from  stagnant  pools, 
full  of  venomous  insects  and  of  every 
kind  of  decomposition  from  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  We  doubt  the  truth 
of  this;  for  the  cow  seems  to  be  natu- 
rally one  of  the  foulest  drinkers  among 
our  domesticated  quadrupeds.  She  will 
often  choose  the  most  filthy  puddle  in  the 
straw-yard  in  preference  to  the  clearest 
running  stream.  Nature  would  not  have 
given  her  this  propensity  for  foul  and  pu- 
trid drink  if  was  prejudicial  to  her. 

The  symptoms  of  empoisonment  vary 
with  the  plant  that  has  been  devoured. 
In  general  the  animal  moans  sadly,  as  if 
in  dreadful  pain;  or  a  sudden  stupidity 
comes  upon  it — or  violent  convulsions. 
After  eating  the  yew-clippings,  cattle 
are  often  perfectly  delirious;  and  in 
almost  every  case  the  belly  more  rapidly 
swells  than  it  usually  does  in  hoove. 

It  is  plain  that  there  can  be  no  case  in 
which  more  speedy  and  decisive  measures 
are  needed;  and  yet  very  little  can  be 
done,  except  that  useful  instrument,  far 
too  little  known,  Read's  patent  pump,  is 
at  hand.  The  pipe  should  be  introduced 
into  the  paunch,  so  that  the  extricated 
gas  which  causes  the  swelling  may  escape. 
After  this  a  quantity  of  warm  water 
should  be  thrown  into  the  stomach,  suffi- 
cient to  cause  sickness,  and  thus  get  rid 
of  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  offending  matter. 
Then,  by  introducing  the  pipe  only  a 
part  of  the  way  down  the  gullet,  a  physic- 
drink  may  be  gradually  introduced,  which 
will  thus  pass  on  to  the  fourth  stomach, 


and  cause  speedy  purging.  The  Strong 
Physic  Drink  (See  No.  47,  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for),  will  be  the 
most  effectual  purgative.  It  will  usually 
be  advisable  to  bleed  moderately ;  drinks 
of  vinegar  and  water,  not  exceeding  half 
a  pint  of  vinegar  at  a  time,  should  be 
administered  if  it  is  suspected  that  the 
poison  is  of  a  narcotic  kind,  and  the 
purging  should  be  kept  up  by  repeated 
small  doses  of  the  aperient  medicine. 
When  the  poison  seems  to  be  nearly 
evacuated,  the  Cordial  Drink,  No.  31, 
will  be  beneficial  in  giving  to  the 
stomach. 

Cattle  are  exposed  too  much  to  the 
influence  of  poisons  of  another  kind,  used 
under  the  form  of  medicines.  Corrosive 
sublimate  and  tobacco-water  have  de- 
stroyed many  a  valuable  ox.  An  antidote 
is  in  these  cases  usually  quite  out  of  the 
question,  for  the  constitution  is  fatally 
affected  before  the  owner  knows  anything 
of  the  matter. 

Cattle  in  the  neighborhood  of  lead- 
mines  have  been  dangerously  affected 
from  the  effects  of  this  ore  in  the  grass. 
Difficult  respiration  with  loud  wheezing 
is  one  of  the  most  prominent  symptoms, 
the  beast  losing  its  appetite,  pining  away, 
and  at  length  dying  of  suffocation  or 
attacked  by  epileptic  symptoms.  Large 
doses  of  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salts  with 
linseed  oil,  and  followed  by  opium,  are 
the  best  remedies.  The  smoke  from 
copper-mines  has  also  produced  sad  dis- 
ease amongst  animals  in  the  neighbor- 
hood; it  causes  swellings  of  the  joints  of 
a  painful  description.  An  early  removali 
to  another  soil  forms  the  best  treatment. 

Ranking  under  the  general  term  of 
poisons,  we  may  mention  the  bites  of 
venomous  reptiles.  The  beast  is  generally 
stung  about  the  head  or  feet,  for  it  is 
most  likely  to  disturb  these  reptiles  either 
in  the  act  of  browsing,  or  as  it  wanders 
over  the  pasture.  Cattle  bitten  in  the 
tongue  almost  invariably  die.  They  are 
suffocated  by  the  rapid  swelling  which 
takes  place.  The  udder  has  occasionally 
been  stung;  but  the  supposed  bites  on 
the  teats  are,  far  oftener  than  otherwise,. 
the  effect  of  garget. 

The  country  remedy  is  not  a  bad  oner 
viz.,  to  rub  the  part  well  with  a  bruised 
onion.  Some  follow  this  up  by  cramming 
another  onion  down  the  throat.     A  better 


1 84 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


application  is  the  Embrocation  for  Bite  of 
Serpents.  (See  No.  49,  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicines  for.) 

A  quart  of  olive  oil  should  also  be 
given  to  the  animal,  mixed  with  an  ounce 
of  hartshorn.  Oil  of  turpentine  may  be 
used  when  hartshorn  cannot  be  procured ; 
but  it  is  not  so  much  to  be  depended 
upon. 

The  stings  of  hornets,  wasps,  and  bees, 
in  some  cases  produce  much  temporary 
swelling  and  pain.  If  the  part  is  well 
rubbed  with  warm  vinegar,  the  incon- 
venience will  soon  subside. 

Leech-bites  may  be  mentioned  here. 
While  the  animal  is  drinking  from  some 
stagnant  pool,  a  leech  will  occasionally 
fasten  itself  on  the  muzzle,  and  afterwards 
creep  up  the  nostril,  and  produce  a  very 
considerable,  and,  in  some  cases,  danger- 
ous, bleeding  by  its  bites.  If  the  leech 
can  be  seen,  or  it  is  in  a  manner  certain 
that  it  has  insinuated  itself  into  the 
nostril,  a  little  strong  salt  and  water 
should  be  injected  up  the  nose,  which 
will  immediately  dislodge  the  intruder,  if 
it  can  be  brought  into  contact  with  it. 

CATTLE,  Wounds.— From  the  horns  of 
their  companions,  and  from  the  brutal 
violence  of  those  who  look  after  them, 
cattle  are  often  exposed  to  wounds.  The 
treatment  of  them  is  generally  simple 
•enough,  except  in  a  joint,  or  the  neigh- 
borhood of  one. 

The  first  thing  is  to  clean  the  wound 
from  all  dirt  and  gravel,  which  would 
cause  irritation,  and  prevent  the  healing 
of  the  part.  A  good  fomentation  with 
warm  water  will  effect  this,  and  at  the 
same  time  will  help  to  abate  any  inflam- 
mation which  may  probably  have  arisen. 

Next  is  to  be  considered  the  state  of 
the  wound.  Is  it  a  lacerated  or  punctured 
one  ?  If  it  is  a  lacerated  wound,  we 
must  try  how  neatly  we  can  bring  the 
divided  parts  together.  If  there  are  any 
portions  so  torn  as  to  prevent  us  from 
doing  this  completely,  they  should  be 
removed  with  a  knife  or  a  sharp  pair  of 
scissors.  Then,  when  the  edges  are 
brought  well'  together,  they  should  be 
retained  by  passing  a  needle  and  strong 
waxed  twine  deeply  through  them,  mak- 
ing two,  or  three,  or  more  stitches  at  the 
distance  of  half  an  inch  from  each  other. 
A  surgeon's  crooked  needle,  or  a  glover's 
large  triangularly  pointed  needle,  will  be 


. ^ 

necessary  for  this  purpose.  A  little  dry, 
soft,  clean  tow  should  then  be  placed  over 
the  wound,  and  the  whole  covered  by  a 
bandage  closely,  but  not  too  tightly  ap-' 
plied.  Let  none  of  the  farrier's  abomina- 
ble tents,  or  pledgets  of  tow,  be  intro- 
duced ;  the  intervals  between  the  stitches 
will  be  quite  sufficient  to  permit  the  escape 
of  any  matter  that  may  be  formed.  The 
wound  should  not,  if  possible,  be  opened 
for  two  days  after  the  first  dressing. 

When  it  is  at  length  examined,  let 
none  of  the  hot  torturing  applications  of 
the  furrier  be  used.  If  it  looks  tolerably 
healthy,  and  is  going  on  well,  it  may  be 
dressed  with  tincture  of  myrrh  and  aloes, 
or  with  the  Healing  Ointment,  No.  10, 
or  with  both ;  a  pledget  of  tow  soaked  in 
the  tincture  being  put  immediately  on  the 
wound,  and  more  tow,  with  the  ointment 
spread  upon  it,  placed  over  this. 

If  proud  flesh  should  begin  to  spring, 
the  wound  should  be  first  washed  with  a 
strong  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  and  then 
dressed  with  the  tincture;  or  if  the  dis- 
charge is  very  offensive,  the  wound  should 
be  well  bathed  with  the  Disinfectant 
Lotion,  No.  34,  and  then  the  tincture 
applied. 

If  it  is  a  punctured  wound,  its  direction 
and  depth  must  be  carefully  ascertained. 
Fomentations  of  marsh-mallows,  or  pop- 
py-heads boiled  in  water,  should  be  ap- 
plied for  a  few  days,  in  order  to  abate  in- 
flammation, and  the  tincture  of  aloes  and 
myrrh  should  be  injected  into  the  wound 
morning  and  night;  the  injured  parts  be- 
ing covered  if  the  flies  are  troublesome, 
but  otherwise  left  open.  If  the  wound 
runs  downwards  and  the  matter  cannot 
escape,  but  collects  at  the  bottom,  and 
seems  to  be  spreading,  a  seton  should  be 
passed  into  the  original  orifice,  and  di- 
rected as  far  as  the  very  lowest  part  of 
the  sinus,  or  pipe,  and  there  brought  out. 
There  is  never  occasion  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  lint  into  these  wounds :  if  they 
are  well  syringed  with  the  tincture  to  the 
very  bottom,  and  a  seton  passed  through 
the  sinus,  should  one  happen  to  be 
formed,  they  will  do  very  well. 

From  the  yoke  being  too  heavy,  or  not 
fitting  the  neck,  the  shoulders  of  oxen 
will  sometimes  get  sadly  wrung,  and  deep 
ulcers  will  be  produced,  resembling  fistu- 
lous withers  in  the  horse.  These  ulcers 
are  very  troublesome  to  deal  with.     The 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


185 


secret,  however,  of  properly  treating  them 
is  to  pass  a  seton  through  the  very  bot- 
tom of  the  ulcer,  in  order  that  the  matter 
may  flow  freely  out :  then,  in  the  major- 
ity of  cases,  the  wound  will  readily  heal, 
or  if  it  should  not, the  diabolical  scalding 
•mixtures  of  the  farrier  are  never  wanted. 
If  we  allowed  any  scalding  mixture,  it 
would  be  boiling  tar,  because  tar  boils  at 
a  very  low  degree  of  temperature.  The 
surface  of  the  wound  would  be  sufficiently 
stimulated,  and  the  life  of  the  part  would 
not  be  destroyed;  but  he  who  pours  in 
his  boiling  oil,  or  his  corrosive  sublimate, 
deserves  never  more  to  possess,  or  to  be 
permitted  medically  to  treat,  a  beast.  In 
obstinate  cases  diluted  acid  (one  part  of 
nitric  acid  and  two  of  water)  may  be  ap- 
plied over  the  surface  of  the  ulcer,  with 
a  pencil  or  sponge. 

When  a  tumor  is  forming  on  the  shoul- 
der from  the  pressure  of  the  collar,  every 
attempt  should  be  made  to  disperse  it.  A 
saturated  solution  of  common  salt  will 
•often  be  useful,  or  sal-ammoniac  dissolved 
in  eight  times  its  weight  of  water;  but 
the  best  discutient  application  is  the  Dis- 
cutient  Lotion  (See  No.  50,  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for). 

The  part  should  not  only  be  wetted 
with  this  embrocation,  but  gently  yet 
well  rubbed  with  it. 

.  Should  the  swelling  still  increase,  and, 
on  feeling  it,  matter  should  evidently  be 
formed,  the  sooner  the  tumor  is  opened 
the  better,  and  the  best  way  to  open  it  is 
to  pass  a  seton  from  the  top  through  the 
lowest  part  of  it. 

Oxen  are  very  apt  to  be  wounded  in 
the  feet.  If  this  is  soon  discovered,  all 
that  will  be  necessary  is  to  apply  a 
pledget  of  tow  wetted  with  tincture  of 
aloes,  confining  it  between  the  claws  with 
a  bandage,  or  to  touch  the  part  lightly 
with  the  butyr  of  antimony.  When  the 
application  of  the  caustic  is  necessary, 
there  is  no  need  to  apply  it  with  the  se- 
verity used  by  some,  so  as  to  corrode  the 
parts  to  the  very  bone. 

If  the  wound  is  extensive,  and  accom- 
panied by  much  swelling,  heat,  and  pain, 
and  especially  if  the  beast  should  begin 
to  lose  its  appetite,  and  to  heave  at  the 
flanks,  it  will  be  prudent  both  to  physic 
and  to  bleed. 

If  much  contusion  or  bruise  attends 
the  wound,  and  which  is  very  likely  to 


happen  when  cattle  are  gadding  about 
and  breaking  out  of  their  pastures  in 
summer,  and  especially  when  strange 
beasts  are  intermixed,  the  previous  fo- 
mentation will  be  more  than  usually 
necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  inflamma- 
tion, and  to  disperse  or  favor  the  escape 
of  the  effused  blood.  The  fomentations, 
should  be  continued  during  half  an  hour 
at  each  time,  and  repeated  three  or  four 
times  in  the  day.  The  flannels  should  be 
applied  dripping  wet,  and  as  hot  as  the 
hand  can  bear  them. 

If  the  wound  penetrates  the  cavity  of 
the  chest,  as  it  sometimes  will  when  one 
beast  gores  another,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  bring  the  parts  more  accurately  to- 
gether, and  to  confine  them  by  closer 
stitches;  a  piece  of  adhesive  plaster 
should  then  be  placed  over  the  wound, 
and  secured  by  the  application  of  proper 
rollers  or  bandages.  If  the  air  is  suffered 
to  pass  in  and  out  of  the  wound  for  any 
considerable  time,  the  edges  of  it  will  be 
indisposed  to  unite  together  and  to  heal, 
and  the  pleura  or  lining  of  the  chest  will 
probably  become  inflamed  by  the  un- 
natural presence  of  air  in  the  cavity  of 
the  chest. 

Should  the  belly  be  wounded,  and  a 
portion  of  the  bowels  protrude,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  calculate  the  probability  of 
being  able  to  return  them  into  their  prop- 
er situation,  and  healing  the  wound ;  for 
in  many  of  these  cases  the  best  thing  the 
farmer  can  do  is  to  send  the  animal  at 
once  to  the  butcher.  If  a  cure  is  at- 
tempted, all  dirt  and  clotted  blood  should 
be  carefully  removed  from  the  protruded 
intestine  with  a  sponge  and  warm  water. 
It  must  then  be  cautiously  returned  into 
the  belly,  and  the  edges  of  the  wound 
brought  together  and  secured  by  the 
close  stitches.  After  that,  rollers  or  band- 
ages must  be  passed  round  the  belly,  and 
which,  being  removed  only  while  the 
wound  is  dressed,  must  remain  until  a 
cure  is  completed,  and  for  a  few  days  af- 
terwards. 

In  all  these  cases  a  veterinary  surgeon 
should  be  consulted.  He  alone  is  able  to 
give  an  accurate  opinion  as  to  the  proba- 
bility of  a  cure,  and  to  guard  against  a 
thousand  accidents  and  annoyances  that 
are  likely  to  occur  in  the  treatment  of 
such  a  case. 

Many   persons   are    frightened    when 


1*6 


CATTLE—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


they  see  the  profuse  bleeding  which  some- 
times takes  place  from  deep  or  lacerated 
wounds.  Except  some  large  arterial 
trunk  is  divided,  there  is  little  or  no  dan- 
ger of  the  animal  bleeding  to  death. 
When  a  certain  quantity  of  blood  is  lost 
the  stream  will  flow  slowly,  and  a  coagu- 
lum,  or  clot  of  blood,  will  be  formed  in 
the  vessel,  and  plug  it  up,  and  afford  a 
mechanical  obstruction  to  the  hemor- 
rhage. Sufficient  blood,  however,  may 
be  lost  to  interfere  materially  with  the 
condition  of  the  beast,  and  to  leave  con- 
siderable and  lasting  weakness  behind. 
We  are  therefore  anxious  to  stop  the 
bleeding  as  soon  as  we  can. 

Where  the  situation  will  admit  of  it,  a 
dossil  of  lint,  placed  upon  or  in  the 
wound,  and  secured  by  a  firm  bandage, 
will  often  be  effectual.  If  the  vessel  is 
but  partly  closed  by  the  pressure  of  the 
lint,  yet  that  may  be  sufficient  to  produce 
a  coagulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  con- 
sequent stoppage  of  the  stream. 

The  next  preferable  way  of  proceeding 
is  to  endeavor  to  pass  a  ligature  round 
the  bleeding  vessel.  This  is  often  practi- 
cable by  means  of  a  tenaculum  or  any 
hooked  instrument,  by  which  it  may  be 
drawn  a  little  from  its  situation,  and  some 
waxed  silk  or  twine  passed  round  it. 
Sometimes  it  may  be  laid  hold  of  with  a 
pair  of  forceps  or  small  pincers,  and  so 
secured;  or,  should  neither  of  these 
methods  be  practicable,  a  crooked  or 
glover's  needle,  armed  with  waxed  silk, 
may  be  plunged  into  the  flesh  or  cellular 
membrane  in  two  or  three  places  around 
the  wound,  and  when  the  silk  is  tight- 
ened the  vein  or  artery  will  probably  be 
compressed  and  closed.  The  hot  iron  is 
sometimes  applied,  but  usually  a  great 
deal  too  hot,  so  as  to  destroy  the  life  of 
the  part,  instead  of  simply  searing  it,  and 
thus  causing  renewed  hemorrhage  when 
the  dead  part  is  thrown  off.  As  for  styy- 
tic  powders  or  lotions,  they  appear  to 
have  little  or  no  effect  in  stopping  pro- 
fuse bleeding  in  cattle. 

The  bleeding  is  generally  arrested  with 
most  difficulty  when  the  horn  is  broken 
off  in  some  of  the  fights  among  the  cat- 
tle. The  bone  of  the  horn  is  full  of 
blood-vessels,  and  it  is  only  by  plaister 
after  plaister  of  tar  that  a  compress  is 
made  all  round  the  horn,  and  through 
which  the  blood  cannot  penetrate.  These 


plaisters  should  not  be  removed  for  many 
days,  otherwise  the  bleeding  from  such  a 
vascular  part  will  return. 

Of  all  the  wounds,  however,  to  which 
the  cattle  are  occasionally  exposed,  the 
most  dangerous  are  those  about  the 
joints,  and  especially  when  the  joint  it- 
self is  penetrated.  The  ox  is  not  so  sub- 
ject to  this  as  the  horse ;  but  the  fetlock 
and  the  knee  are  occasionally  deeply 
wounded,  and  the  joint  laid  open,  either 
by  falling,  or  by  being  brutally  wounded 
by  a  fork. 

Here,  as  in  all  other  wounds,  the  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  carefully  to  wash 
away  all  dirt  and  gravel.  The  probe 
must  then  be  introduced;  and  the  depth 
to  which  it  will  penetrate,  and,  more  par- 
ticularly, the  grating  sound  which  will  be 
heard  when  it  comes  into  contact  with  the 
bone,  will  generally  determine  whether 
the  joint  has  been  injured.  If  any  doubt 
remains  about  this,  a  poultice  should  be 
applied.  This  will  not  only  abate  or  pre- 
vent inflammation,  but  if  the  joint  has 
been  penetrated  the  synovia,  or  joint  oil, 
will  escape  and  appear  upon  the  poultice 
in  the  form  of  a  glairy,  yellowish  fluid. 
Then  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  course 
to  be  pursued.  The  flow  of  this  must  be 
stopped,  and  that  immediately.  It  was 
placed  there  to  be  interposed  between  the 
ends  of  the  bones,  and  thus  to  prevent 
them  rubbing  against  each  other,  and  be- 
coming irritated  or  inflamed.  The  mem- 
brane with  which  the  heads  of  the  bones 
are  covered  is  in  the  highest  degree  sen- 
sitive, and  with  the  slightest  injury  pro- 
duces inflammation,  attended  by  the  ex- 
tremest  torture.  There  is  no  agony  equal 
to  that  caused  by  an  opened  joint.  We 
must  then  confine  the  interposed  joint 
oil,  and  prevent  this  dreadful  friction  be- 
tween the  membranes. 

There  are  two  ways  of  accomplishing 
his.  That  which  seems  to  be  the  most 
humane  is  to  place  a  small  compress  on 
the  part,  exactly  covering  the  wound; 
to- bind  it  down  tight,  and  not  to  remove 
it  for  many  days.  Yet  it  has  often  hap- 
pened that  when  the  compress  has  at 
length  been  taken  off,  the  joint  oil  has 
flowed  as  quickly  as  before;  therefore,  we 
believe,  we  must  go  back  to  the  old  meth- 
od, and  apply  the  hot  iron  to  the  wound. 
The  iron,  being  of  a  dull  red  heat,  should 
be  run  lightly  across  the  surface  of  the 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


i8T 


wound  in  various  directions,  the  conse- 
quence of  which  will  be  that  so  much  in- 
flammation and  swelling  will  usually  be 
produced  as  fairly  to  block  up  the  orifice 
with  that  which  soon  becomes  organized, 
or  converted  into  the  same  substance  as 
that  in  contact  with  which  it  is  placed, 
and  thus  the  opening  into  the  joint  is  se- 
curely and  for  ever  stopped ;  or,  should 
the  joint  oil  in  a  very  few  cases  after- 
wards flow  a  little  again,  a  re-application 
of  the  iron  will  put  an  end  to  the  busi- 
ness :  the  sore  may  then  be  treated  as  a 
common  wound. 

In  many  cases  a  lotion  composed  of 
corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in  spirits  of 
wine,  applied  several  times  a  day  to  the 
surface  of  the  wound,  only  until  the  joint 
oil  disappears,  will  answer  the  purpose 
better  than  the  hot  iron.  In  very  severe 
cases,  where  the  carcass  of  the  animal  is 
of  trifling  value,  and  it  is,  therefore,  de- 
sirable to  attempt  a  cure  at  all  risks,  the 
application  of  a  paste  made  with  flour, 
and  firmly  bound  round  the  part  by  a 
number  of  linen  bandages,  will,  by  pre- 
venting the  flow  of  joint  oil,  succeed  in 
closing  the  joint  in  many  cases  :  the  band- 
ages, however,  should  not  be  removed 
for  several  weeks,  and  if  necessary  the 
animal  may  be  slung. 

Should,  however,  the  wound  be  very 
large,  and  the  opening  into  the  joint 
large  too,  it  will  usually  be  prudent  to 
destroy  the  animal  at  once,  especially  if  it 
is  in  tolerable  condition.  A  dead  horse 
is  worth  comparatively  little,  but  a  dead 
ox,  fairly  slaughtered,  will  produce  its  full 
value.  Therefore,  the  possibility  of  a 
cure  not  being  effected,  or  of  the  animal 
materially  losing  condition  while  the  cure 
is  attempted  to  be  performed,  should 
always  be  taken  into  account;  and  in 
cases  where  the  meat  is  not  injured,  it 
should  be  inquired  whether  the  expense 
and  trouble,  and  the  sufferings  of  the 
animal,  should  not  be  at  once  terminated 
by  the  butcher. 

In  every  joint  case  it  will  be  prudent 
to  bleed,  and  administer  a  dose  of  physic, 
and  use  all  proper  means  to  prevent  or 
abate  fever. 

CATTLE,  Strains  and  Bruises. — The 
ox  is  not  so  subject  as  the  horse  to 
strains,  for  his  work  is  slower  and  usually 
less  laborious.  The  horse  is  seldom 
strained  at  slow  and  steady  work,  and 


that  only  is  generally  exacted  from  the 
ox.  The  principal  cause  of  strain  in 
these  animals  arises  from  their  contests 
with,  or  their  riding  or  ramping  each 
other. 

In  recent  strains,  attended  with  lame- 
ness and  heat,  the  Embrocation  for 
Strains  (See  No.  57,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for)  is  one  of  the  best  that 
can  be  used. 

Bathe  the  part  frequently  with  this 
embrocation.  There  cannot  be  a  better 
application  for  strains  or  bruises  in  the 
horse  or  cattle,  or  even  in  the  human 
being,  when  the  skin  is  not  broken. 
When  the  heat  and  tenderness  have 
somewhat  subsided,  and  only  weakness  of 
the  part  remains,  the  Rheumatic  Embro- 
cation, No.  9,  will  be  serviceable. 

Frequent  fomentations  with  warm  water 
should  precede  the  use  of  these  embroca- 
tions. In  bad  cases  it  may  be  prudent 
to  give  a  doze  of  physic,  or  even  to 
bleed. 

For  very  deeply-seated  strains  a  more 
powerful  application  may  be  necessary. 
Then  use  the  Strongest  Embrocation  for 
Strains.  (See  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for.) 

This  should  be  well  rubbed  in  morning 
and  night.  It  is  not  intended  absolutely 
to  blister  the  animal;  and  should  the  em- 
brocation cause  much  redness  or  tender- 
ness, it  may  be  lowered  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  olive  oil. 

After  all,  a  considerable  degree  of 
weakness  and  lameness  will  occasionally 
remain,  and  especially  about  the  hips  and 
loins.  A  strengthening  plaster  (See  No. 
53,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for), 
will  be  very  useful  here.  It  is  best  ap- 
plied in  the  form  of  a  charge. 

A  little  short  tow  is  then  placed  over 
this,  before  it  gets  cool,  and  which,  ad- 
hering to  it,  forms  a  thick  coat  over  it. 
The  charge  acts  as  a  support  to  the  part, 
and  as  a  permanent  bandage.  It  can 
never  do  harm ;  and  many  an  old  strain, 
or  lameness,  or  rheumatic  affection,  has 
been  effectually  removed  by  it.  It  should 
remain  on  the  part  two  or  three  months, 
in  order  to  insure  its  full  success;  and 
after  the  application  of  the  charge,  the 
beast  should  be  turned  out. 

Although  not  exposed  so  much  as  the 
horse  to  strains  generally,  yet  there  is 
one  joint — the  fetlock — in  the  ox,  which. 


1 88 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


often  suffers.  The  division  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  leg  into  two  bones  materially 
weakens  this  joint;  therefore  it  is  not 
unusual  to  see  enlarged  fetlocks,  and  a 
considerable  accumulation  of  bone  about 
them.  The  mild  and  the  strong  embro- 
cation must  in  turns  be  diligently  applied, 
and  these  failing  of  success,  recourse 
must  be  speedily  had  to  the  blister,  or  the 
firing  iron ;  but,  if  these  should  not  be 
successful,  and  the  lameness  is  so  con- 
siderable as  to  injure  the  condition  of  the 
animal,  relief  can  be  obtained  by  dividing 
the  nerve  which  supplies  the  foot  above 
the  fetlock,  thereby  removing  pain  and 
lameness  by  destroying  sensation. 

Fractures  of  the  leg  sometimes  occur ; 
they  have  been  successfully  treated  by 
bandaging  the  parts,  and  keeping  the 
animal  quiet. 

The  leg,  too,  has  even  been  amputated 
with  success,  a  wooden  leg  being  after- 
wards substituted. 

CATTLE,  Cancerous  Ulcers.— There 
•seems  to  be  a  natural  disposition  in  cattle 
to  the  formation  of  tumors  on  various 
parts  of  the  body.  They  are  mostly 
found  in  the  neighborhood  of  joints, 
and  generally  either  hanging  loose,  or 
slightly  adhering  to  the  parts  beneath. 
They  sometimes  grow  to  an  excessive 
size.  In  some  cases  they  are  evidently 
constitutional,  for  many  of  them  appear 
on  different  parts.  They  do  not  seem  to 
give  much  pain  to  the  animal,  and 
occasionally  they  continue  month  after 
month  without  being  of  any  serious  in- 
convenience; they  then  suddenly  break, 
and  a  malignant  ulcer  ensues,  which 
speedily  degenerates  into  a  cancerous 
one. 

The  tumors  are  sometimes  smaller,  and 
fixed  to  the  parts  beneath  by  a  broad 
base,  and  which  are  chiefly  found  about 
the  face,  on  the  cheeks,  or  under  the 
eyelids,  or  in  the  channel  between  the 
jaws.  These  are  more  likely  to  break 
than  the  others,  and  when  they  break,  are 
far  less  manageable.  The  fluid  that  is 
discharged  from  them  is  thin  and  ex- 
coriating, and  the  wounds  are  covered 
with  proud  flesh,  springing  again  as 
quickly  as  it  is  removed.  If  they  are 
attacked  before  they  break,  they  will 
generally  be  got  rid  of. 

As  an  external  application,  nothing  is 
superior  to  the  Iodine  Ointment.     (See 


No.  25,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for.) 

At  the  same  time  a  drachm  of  the 
tincture  of  Iodine  may  be  given  in  a  little 
gruel  morning  and  night,  at  or  soon  after 
the  time  of  feeding;  or  the  Hydriodate 
of  Potash,  beginning  with  four  grains 
morning  and  night,  and  gradually  in- 
creasing the  dose  to  twelve  grains.  This 
preparation  of  Iodine  is  preferable  to  the 
tincture ;  but  the  internal  and  the  external 
use  of  the  Iodine  must  be  continued  at 
least  three  or  four  weeks,  before  any 
decisive  benefit  will  be  obtained.  The 
tumors  will  frequently  disappear  alto- 
gether; but  the  ointment  and  tincture 
must  be  used  for  at  least  a  month  before 
any  decisive  good  can  be  expected. 

If  the  tumors  at  the  end  of  that  time 
should  not  be  evidently  diminishing,  the 
veterinary  surgeon  should  begin  to  think 
about  removing  them  with  the  knife. 
They  are  seldom  fed  by  any  very  con- 
siderable vessel,  and  may  usually  be 
taken  away  without  the  slightest  danger. 
It  will,  however,  be  prudent  to  give  the 
tincture  of  Iodine  for  three  weeks  or  a 
month  after  the  operation,  in  order  to 
remove  the  constitutional  tendency  to  a 
return  of  the  tumor. 

It  will  in  the  majority  of  cases  be 
useless  to  attempt  to  heal  these  tumors 
when  they  have  once  broken.  Strong 
ointments,  and  caustics  of  all  kinds,  have 
been  tried,  but  the  ulcer  has  daily  spread 
and  gone  deeper  and  deeper,  until  it 
became  necessary  to  destroy  the  animal. 
If  anything  is  attempted  in  the  way  of 
healing  the  ulcers,  the  wound  should  be 
washed  before  every  dressing  with  the 
tincture  of  Iodine,  lowered  with  four 
times  its  weight  of  water,  and  the  Healing 
Cleansing  Ointment,  No.  10  (See  Domes- 
tic Animals,  Medicines  for)  be  daily 
applied. 

These  tumors  are  often  very  trouble- 
some to  treat,  and  the  preferable  way  will 
generally  be  to  remove  them  as  soon  as 
possible  with  the  knife,  except  more 
should  be  found  on  any  other  part  of  the 
beast,  in  which  case  the  removal  of  the; 
principal  tumor  would  only  hasten  the 
growth  of  the  rest.  Mercurial  ointment 
will  have  no  effect  on  these  tumors; 
except  to  irritate  them,  and  cause  them 
to  grow  faster,  and  sometimes  it  will 
salivate  and  seriously  injure  the  beast. 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


189. 


CATTLE,  Angle  Berries. — These  are 
little  warty  tumors  growing  on  various 
parts  of  the  skin.  They  are  unpleasant 
to  the  eye,  and  they  sometimes  become 
very  sore. 

They  are  a  sad  nuisance  about  the 
teats,  and  often  render  the  cow  very 
difficult  to  milk;  and,  on  the  eyelids,  they 
are  a  source  of  perpetual  torment  to  the 
animal.  The-  easiest  and  surest  way  to 
remove  them  is  to  tie  a  piece  of  waxed 
silk  firmly  round  the  base  of  each,  and  to 
tighten  it  every  day ;  by  means  of  this 
the  tumor  will  drop  off,  and  rarely  grow 
again ;  there  will  be  no  bleeding,  and  the 
neighboring  parts  will  not  be  inoculated. 

If  they  are  so  numerous  and  large  that 
it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the 
cautery,  the  heated  iron  should  be  im- 
mediately applied  to  the  angle  berry. 
The  bleeding  will  thus  be  readily  stopped, 
and  the  tumor  will  not  sprout  anew 

If  they  are  early  attended  to,  and 
before  they  have  reached  any  considera- 
ble size,  they  will  gradually  disappear 
when  they  are  daily  touched  with  the 
nitrate  of  silver,  either  in  substance  or  in 
the  form  of  a  strong  solution.  The  strong 
nitrous  acid  will  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose. When  there  is  an  inveterate  dis- 
position to  the  growth  of  these  berries, 
the  iodine  may  be  given,  as  already 
directed,  with  every  prospect  of  success. 

CATTLE,  Clue-bound,  Fardel-bound.— 
These  are  different  terms  for  costiveness, 
to  which  cattle  are  often  subject,  and 
especially  in  the  beginning  of  almost  all 
inflammatory  complaints.  The  dung  gets 
more  tenacious  and  harder,  and  is  forced 
away  in  very  small  quantities.  There  is 
considerable  dryness  of  the  muzzle,  heat 
of  the  mouth,  quickness  of  the  pulse, 
anxiety  of  the  countenance,  and  every 
indication  of  fever.  Sometimes  the  disease 
is  evidently  in  the  bowels  principally  or 
entirely;  at  other  times  it  is  only  the 
symptom  or  accompaniment  of  other 
diseases.  It  always  requires  immediate 
attention,  and  may  be  considered  as 
highly  dangerous.  Bleeding  will  be  very 
useful,  not  only  as  lowering  the  fever,  but 
disposing  the  purgative  medicine  to  act 
more  speedily.  After  bleeding,  the  bowels 
should  be  attacked  in  good  earnest.  The 
physic  drinks  already  recommended 
should  be  given — at  first,  the  mild  Purg- 
ing Drink,  No.  2.     If  that,  repeated  after 


an  interval  of  six  hours,  is  not  successful, 
the  Strong  Physic  Drink,  No.  47,  should 
be  tried;  and  if  that  also  fails,  a  pound 
of  common  salt  should  be  administered, 
and  repeated  four  hours  afterwards.  This 
will  seldom  deceive,  in  extreme  cases,, 
although,  from  its  irritating  the  bowels  a 
little  too  much,  it  is  not  a  purgative  to  be 
recommended  in  ordinary  cases. 

The  action  of  the  purgatives  will  be 
hastened,  and  generally  secured,  by  the 
use  of  injections.  Haifa  pailful  of  warm 
water,  in  which  Epsom  salt  or  common 
salt  has  been  dissolved,  may  be  thrown 
up  every  two  or  three  hours. 

After  the  obstruction  has  been  once 
overcome,  the  continued  exhibition  of 
mild  purgatives  will  be  prudent,  for  the 
costiveness  is  too  apt  to  return.  The 
Sulphur  Purging  Drink,  No.  7,  will  be 
the  best  medicine  for  this  purpose.  The 
food  should  be  mashes  principally,  or 
young  succulent  grass. 

CALVES,  Canker  in  the  Mouth.— The 
teeth  of  the  young  calf  follow  each  other 
in  rapid  succession  and,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  human  infant,  the  cutting  of  the 
teeth  is  attended  by  soreness  of  the 
mouth,  and  disinclination  to  eat.  Nu- 
merous pimples  often  appear  about  the 
gums  and  membrane  of  the  mouth,  and 
these  are  often  run  together,  considerable 
ulceration  follows,  and  the  animal  pines 
away  through  lack  of  nutriment.  The 
gums  and  tongue  are  sometimes  consid- 
erably swollen,  and  no  small  degree  of 
fever  is  excited.  The  first  business  is  to 
evacuate  the  bowels.  Epsom  salts  will 
here  also  constitute  the  preferable  medi- 
cine, given  in  doses  of  one  or  two  ounces,, 
and  repeated  daily  until  the  proper  effect 
is  produced.  Asa  local  application,  equal 
parts  of  tincture  of  myrrh  and  water  may 
be  advantageously  applied  to  the  mouth, 
or  a  solution  of  common  alum  in  water 
in  the  proportion  of  half  an  ounce  of 
alum  to  a  pint  of  water.  Should  any  con- 
siderable degree  of  fever  accompany  the 
soreness  of  the  mouth,  the  fever  drink  al- 
ready recommended  may  be  given  in  half 
doses,  with  a  scruple  of  magnesia  added 
to  each. 

CATTLE  PHARYNX,  Inflammation  of 
the. — See  Cattle,  Throat,  Inflamma- 
tion of  THE. 


190 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


OXEN,  Breaking. — The  sooner  this  is 
commenced  the  more  complete  will  be 
the  command  of  the  teamster.  It  would 
be  well,  if  convenient,  to  have  them 
named  and  haltered,  and  taught  to  stand 
and  to  start,  to  "gee"  and  to  "haw," 
when  not  more  than  a  year  old,  and 
slightly  worked  in  the  summer  and  au- 
tumn after  they  are  two.  Gee  and  haw 
are  the  terms  used  in  most  parts  of  the 
country.  The  first  indicates  that  the 
yoke  is  to  incline  off  to  the  right,  or  from 
the  near  side,  on  which  the  driver  should 
always  take  his  stand.  The  yoke,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  put  on  their  necks 
until  they  are  to  be  worked,  as  they  might 
acquire  a  habit  of  running  off  in  it, 
which  it  will  be  found  very  difficult  to 
correct. 

The  proper  time  "  for  putting  them  to 
work,  is  at  three  years  old ;  and  such  as 
have  not  been  handled,  as  above  recom- 
mended, while  growing,  should  be  driven 
round  the  field  for  a  day  or  two,  before 
being  yoked,  so  as  to  tire  them.  The 
propriety  of  this  is  proved  by  the  greater 
ease  with  which  they  are  broken,  when 
taken  and  yoked  directly  out  of  a  drove, 
before  they  have  time  to  recruit  from  the 
fatigue  of  traveling.  Instead,  then,  of 
being  yoked  two  together,  they  should  be 
tied  by  the  horns  (with  a  rope  slipped 
over  and  resting  on  the  top  of  the  head) 
to  the  side  of  a  house,  taking  care  that 
there  be  no  place  for  the  horns  to  become 
entangled,  and  stand  tied  in  this  manner 
till  they  cease  to  pull  by  the  cord,  which 
will  in  most  cases  be  in  a  day  or  two. 
They  may  then  be  led  very  readily,  and 
taught  to  turn,  stop,  or  start,  singly,  just 
as  a  colt  may  be,  instead  of  coupling  two 
together  at  first,  which  any  man  in  the 
care  of  horses  would  condemn,  as  being 
most  likely  to  end  in  the  destruction  of 
one  or  both,  which  has  not  unfrequently 
happened  with  young  steers  when  forci- 
bly yoked  together  in  the  first  instance. 

When  two  young  cattle  "are  yoked 
and  turned  loose  with  their  tails  tied  to- 
gether to  run  and  plunge  about,  they  are 
almost  certain  to  acquire  a  habit  of  run- 
ning away ;  and  even  should  this  not  be 
the  case,  one,  and  sometimes  both,  lose  a 
part  of  their  tail  in  these  violent  exer- 
tions. When  they  are  sufficiently  broken 
to  the  halter,  they  may  be  placed  side  by 
side,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the 


yoke,  having  reference  to  their  relative 
size,  strength,  and  mastership;  because, 
if  one  is  stronger  and  more  free  than  the 
other,  he  should  be  placed  on  the  off-side 
that  the  team  may  rather  incline  to,  than 
from  the  driver." 

If  one  should  be  larger  than  the  other, 
he  will  be  likely  to  be  stronger  and  more 
free;  and,  should  they  be  put  to  the 
plow,  the  furrow  ox  being  the  larger,  the 
yoke  will  be  kept  nearer  a  level  than  in 
the  other  case.  It  requires  but  little  ob- 
servation to  see  that  they  are  easier  to  be 
turned  to  the  right,  or  made  to  "gee," 
than  to  the  left,  or  to  "haw,"  or  "come 
hither  "  therefore,  if  the  master-ox  be  on 
the  off-side,  he  will  assist  in  controlling 
the  near  or  left  one  in  "  coming  round ;" 
but  when  reversed,  and  the  master-ox  on 
the  near  side,  and  he  not  altogether  will- 
ing to  "come  here,"  the  team  is  some 
time  stationary ;  for  let  the  then  off-ox  be 
never  so  willing  to  obey  the  voice  of  the 
driver,  the  horn  of  the  near  one  speaks  a 
contrary  language,  equally  intelligible. 
After  the  yoke  is  put  on  securely,  their 
tails  should  be  well  tied  together,  and 
they  suffered  to  stand  tied  as  before  until 
a  strong  pen  is  built  round  them,  not 
more  than  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet  in  di- 
ameter, taking  care  that  the  ends  of  the 
rails  do  not  extend  inwardly.  The  ropes 
should  then  be  loosed,  if  possible,  in  such 
a  way  that  they  will  not  be  sensible  of  it. 
Here  they  will  soon  learn  to  turn  them- 
selves about,  without  one  violent  exer- 
tion, or  the  least  fright.  They  should  be 
tied  up  as  before,  at  night,  their  tails  un- 
tied, and  the  yoke  removed,  to  be  re- 
placed in  the  morning  as  before ;  and  the 
day  following  they  may  be  led  or  driven 
in  a  larger  space.  By  this  time  the  cause 
will  be  gained  in  a  manner  calculated  to 
insure  a  prime  pair  of  cattle.  They  may 
now  be  attached  to  something  light,  and 
led  about  for  a  few  hours,  daily  and  grad- 
ually increasing  the  draft,  and  greasing 
their  necks  occasionally,  to  prevent 
galling.  When  put  to  the  cart  or  harrow 
with  others  already  broken,  contrary  to 
the  usual  practice,  they  should  be  placed 
betore  instead  of  behind  them ;  by  which 
arrangement  it  will  be  found  that  if 
frightened  the  old  cattle  will  not  let  them 
run ;  but,  if  otherwise,  they,  by  running 
against  the  older  ones,  may  frighten  them 
also. 


CATTLE— C ARK   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


191 


In  Kentucky  they  practice  another 
mode  of  breaking  steers,  which  is  thus 
described :  Where  the  establishment  is  a 
large  one,  and  there  are  some  to  be  broken 
in  every  year,  the  fixture  and  practice 
here  recommended  would  seem  to  be  eli- 
gible and  judicious.  "  Get  a  strong  post, 
eight  feet  long  by  two  thick;  plant  it 
three  and  a  half  feet  in  the  ground,  well 
rammed ;  round  or  level  the  top  of  the  post 
and  leave  a  pin  to  it,  or  make  a  mortice 
and  insert  a  strong  two-inch  pin  of  tough 
wood  in  it,  perpendicularly  at  the  top,  six 
or  eight  inches  long.  Then  get  a  tough 
sapling  twenty-five  feet  long;  measure  off 
at  the  small  end  of  it  the  usual  length  of 
a  yoke,  and  bore  the  holes  for  your  bows. 
Then  bore  three  holes,  or  more  if  you 
choose,  four,  eight  and  twelve  feet  from 
the  other  end  of  the  sapling,  of  the  size 
of  the  pin  in  the  top  of  the  post,  giving 
the  shortest  lever  first,  draw  your  steers 
up,  let  them  be  young  or  old,  gentle  or 
wild,  it  makes  no  difference ;  yoke  them 
to  the  end  of  the  pole ;  but  instead  of 
tying  their  tails  together,  if  you  wish 
to  avoid  bob-tailed  oxen,  tie  their  loins  to- 
gether with  a  good  rope,  wrap  up  their 
head  halters,  clear  the  front,  and  let 
them  go;  round  and  round  they  will  go 
with  a  rush;  drunk — drunker  still  they 
grow,  until  groaning,  down  they  drop.  For 
a  while  they  lie  panting  and  looking  wild ; 
at  length  they  leap  as  if  suddenly  frightened, 
rush  round  and  round  again,  grow  drunk 
and  drop  again.  Leave  them,  they  will 
repeat  the  experiment,  until  reeling,  they 
will  stop  or  stand.  In  a  few  hours  you 
may  lead  them  around  by  their  halters. 
Uncouple  them  from  the  pole,  or  yoke 
them  to  your  cart,  and  drive  them  where 
you  please  with  safety. 

CATTLE,  Cow,  Bulling  in,  to  Produce, 
and  Treatment  of  Bull-Burnt. — It  some- 
times happens  that  the  cow  will  not  stand 
to  the  bull  at  the  time  that  the  farmer 
wished,  so  that  either  the  calf  is  dropped 
a  month  or  two  after  the  most  convenient 
and  piohtable  time,  or  the  most  valuable 
season  for  making  butter  and  cheese  is  lost. 
Some  cows  are  thus  backward  because 
they  have  been  previously  starved;  a 
week  or  fortnight's  better  keeping  will 
usually  effect  the  desired  purpose.  In- 
deed, if  the  animal  has  been  well  kept, 
and  is  in  good  health,  there  will  be  little 
trouble  from  her  unwillinsmess  to  asso- 


ciate with  the  bull,  but  occasionally  some 
of  a  contrary  nature. 

Many  recipes  have  been  given  by  vari- 
ous authors  to  hasten  thi  period  of  the 
cow  being  in  season.  A  very  common 
thing  with  the  farmer  is  to  give  the  cow 
that  is  wanted  to  take  the  bull  a  quart  of 
milk  immediately  after  it  has  been  drawn 
from  a  cow  that  is  in  season.  Two  or 
three  good  cordial  drinks,  such  as  Cordial 
Drink  No.  31  will  be  more  serviceable. 
A  few  malt  mashes,  oats,  carrots,  etc., 
may  likewise  be  given.  We  would  earnest- 
ly advise  the  farmer  never  to  have  re- 
course to  cantharides.  It  is  a  danger- 
ously stimulating  medicine;  some  cows 
have  had  suppression  of  urine  quickly 
following  the  exhibition  of  it,  and  others 
have  died  from  inflammation  of  the  sex- 
ual parts. 

On  the  other  hand,  cows  should  not  be- 
too  fat  at  this  time,  because  they  will  fre- 
quently then  not  stand  the  bulling.  A 
fat  cow  should  have  a  dose  or  two  of 
physic  and  be  bled ;  a  lean  cow  requires 
better  keeping. 

The  sheath  and  penis  of  the  bull  occa- 
sionally becomes  swollen  and  tender,  and 
full  of  little  ulcers,  with  fetid  ichorous 
discharge.  The  animal  can  seldom  be 
managed  unless  he  is  thrown,  when  the 
yard  should  be  drawn  out,  and  all  the 
sore  places  bathed  with  the  Lotion  for 
Bull-Burnt.  (See  No.  54,  Domestic  An- 
imals, Medicines  for.) 

A  few  application  of  this  will  give 
speedy  relief,  and  heal  the  sores. 

The  shape  of  the  cow  will  sometimes 
inflame  and  swell,  accompanied  with  con- 
siderable pain  at  the  time  of  staling,  and 
also  a  thin  ichorous  discharge.  The  part 
should  be  washed  with  this  lotion,  or  a 
little  of  it  injected  up  the  shape  with  a 
syringe. 

CATTLE,  Cow-Pox.— This  disease  used 
to  be  generally  confounded  with  sore 
teats,  until,  Jenner  discovered  its  preserv- 
ative power  against  small  pox.  Other 
scientific  men  have  since  proved  that  it  is 
identical  with  small-pox — that  it  is,  in 
fact,  the  small-pox  of  the  cow. 

It  appears  under  the  form  of  pustules 
or  vesicles  on  the  teats,  which  are  easily 
broken  in  milking,  and  which,  left  alone, 
break  of  themselves,  and  discharge  a  thin, 
unhealthy  fluid.  The  pustules  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  broad  circle  of  inflamma- 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


{'.on,  and  if  neglected,  or  roughly  han- 
illed,  occasionally  run  into  ulcers,  very 
foul,  and  difficult  to  heal. 

At  the  time  of,  or  a  little  before,  the 
appearance  of  the  pustules,  the  animal 
droops,  refuses  to  feed,  ceases  to  rumi- 
nate, and  labors  under  considerable  fever. 
The  eyes  are  heavy  and  dull;  the  cow 
moans  and  wanders  about  by  herself,  and 
her  milk  materially  lessens,  and  at  length 
is  almost  suspended. 

It  will  rarely  be  prudent  to  bleed,  but 
the  bowels  should  be  fairly  opened,  and 
the  fever  drink,  No.  i  given  once  or 
twice  in  the  day,  according  to  the  ap- 
parent degree  of  fever.  The  teats  should 
be  frequently  washed  with  warm  water, 
and  the  Lotion  for  Cow-pox  applied 
morning  and  night.  (See  No.  60,  Do- 
mestic Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

If  the  ulcers  become  very  foul,  and 
difficult  to  heal,  they  must  be  treated  in 
the  way  recommended  for  garget. 

It  is  well  known  that  these  eruptions 
give  a  similar  disease  to  the  milker. 
Pustules  appear  about  the  joints  of  the 
hand,  and  the  ends  of  the  fingers ;  and 
there  is  sometimes  considerable  fever, 
pain  in  the  head  and  limbs  and  loins, 
shivering,  vomiting,  and  a  quickened 
pulse.  The  pustules  burst  in  three  or 
four  days,  and  sometimes  become  trouble- 
some sores  difficult  to  heal ;  and  if  un- 
fortunately the  patient  should  have  rubbed 
his  cheek  or  his  lips  with  the  diseased 
hand,  the  ulcers  will  appear  there  also. 

It  was  the  observation  that  persons 
who  had  had  this  disease  of  the  cow  were 
usually  exempt  from  small-pox,  which  led 
to  the  most  important  discovery  in  medi- 
cine that  has  been  made  in  modern 
times. 

There  is  another  eruption  on  the  teat 
of  the  cow  that  bears  no  inconsiderable 
resemblance  to  the  true  cow-pox,  and 
that  has  been  confounded  with  it.  The 
pustules  are  smaller:  they  are  not  so 
round,  nor  so  deep ;  nor  have  they  the 
blue  color  of  the  others,  and  they  con- 
tain pus  or  matter  from  the  very  first. 
They  will  readily  yield  to  the  Ointment 
for  Sore  Teats,  No.  29. 

Even  without  any  application  to  them, 
the  scabs  usually  peel  off  in  a  few  days, 
and  the  skin  underneath  is  quite  sound. 
If,  however,  these  are  carelessly  rubbed 


off  in  the  act  of  milking,  troublesome 
ulcers  are  apt  to  ensue. 

It  is  of  much  importance  to  the  farmer 
to  be  able  to  distinguish  between  these 
two  eruptions.  The  first  is  contagious, 
and  may  be  communicated  to  the  milk- 
maid, and,  by  her,  to  other  cows.  It  is 
the  true  cow-pox.  The  second  is  not 
contagious,  and  is  readily  got  rid  of. 

CATTLE,  Babies,  Hydrophobia.— This 
dreadful  disease  is  produced  by  the  bite 
of  a  rabid  or  mad  dog.  The  time  that 
may  elapse  betweeD  the  bite  and  the 
appearance  of  the  malady  varies  from 
three  weeks  to  three  or  four  months. 

The  symptoms  of  its  approach  are  dul- 
ness;  loss  of  appetite;  the  eyes  are  anx- 
ious, protruding  and  red;  the  animal  fre- 
quently and  pitifully  lows,  and  is  contin- 
ually voiding  its  dung  or  its  urine.  Sali- 
va drivels  plentifully  from  the  mouth,  but 
after  a  day  or  two  the  discharge  dries  up, 
and  is  succeeded  by  thirst  almost  insatia- 
ble; there  is  no  hydrophobia  or  dread  ot 
water  at  any  time.  Presently  weakness 
of  the  loins  and  staggering  appear;  these 
are  succeeded  by  palsy  of  the  hind  limbs, 
and  the  animal  lingers  six  or  seven  days, 
and  dies. 

In  some  cases  the  beast  is  dreadfully 
ferocious ;  he  runs  furiously  at  every  ob- 
ject, stands  across  the  path  bellowing  and 
tearing  up  the  ground,  and  violently  at- 
tacks and  gores  his  companions. 

There  is  no  cure;  the  most  prudent 
thing  is  to  destroy  the  aninal  as  soon  as 
the  disease  is  sufficiently  plain.  Care 
should  b2  taken  that  the  saliva  of  the 
rabid  ox  is  not  received  on  a  wound  or 
abraded  part,  for  it  has  produced  the  dis- 
ease in  other  animals.  Any  wound  on 
which  it  has  fallen  should  immediately 
have  the  lunar  caustic  applied  to  it. 

When  a  mad  dog  has  been  known  to 
bite  an  ox,  or  a  cow,  there  is  a  possibility 
of  their  escape,  for  the  hide  is  thick,. 
and  the  hair  is  thick  too,  and  the  skin 
may  not  be  penetrated,  or  the  tooth  may 
have  been  cleaned  in  passing  through  the 
hair.  They  should  be  most  carefully  ex- 
amined, and  especially  about  the  part  c  .1 
which  they  were  seized  by  the  dog,  and  il 
the  minutest  scratch  can  be  found,  Ike 
hair  must  be  cut  off  round  it,  and  the  lu- 
nar caustic  applied.  That  being  done 
effectually,  and  every  bite  being  discov- 
ered and  operated  on,  the  animal  is  safe ; 


CATTLE— CARE  AND.  MANAGEMENT 


*93 


but  it  is  possible,  or  rather  it  is  too  prob- 
able, that  every  bite  will  not  be  discov- 
ered, considering  how  thickly  the  skin  is 
covered  by  hair.  It  is,  therefore,  the 
safest  course,  if  the  beast  is  in  tolerable 
condition,  to  sell  it  at  once  to  the  butch- 
er, for  it  will  not  be  fit  for  the  shambles 
after  rabies  has  once  appeared.  Medi- 
cine would  be  completely  thrown  away  in 
these  cases. 

CALVES,  Young,  the  Diseases  Inci. 
dent  to. — When  the  calf  is  dropped, 
proper  care  should  be  taken  of  the  cow 
by  providing  her  with  a  comfortable  place 
to  lie  down ;  she  should  also  be  suffered 
freely  to  lick  her  calf,  for  this  will  not 
only  make  her  fond  of  it,  but  the  young 
animal  will  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  and 
raised  much  sooner  than  it  otherwise 
would,  and  the  mother,  in  eating  the 
cleansing,  will  obtain  that  medicine 
which  nature  designed  for  her. 

It  is  usual  to  take  away  a  quart  of  the  first 
milk,  called  the  beastings,  before  the  calf 
is  allowed  to  suck.  After  this  the  young 
animal  may  be  allowed  access  to  the  cow, 
but  regulated  by  the  plan  of  suckling  or 
bringing  up  on  which  the  grazier  may  de- 
termine. The  calf  should  remain  with 
the  mother  during  a  few  days  at  least,  or 
until  the  milk  is  proper  for  the  purposes 
of  the  dairy. 

The  mother's  first  milk  is  of  an  ape- 
rient quality,  and  sufficiently  so  to  cleanse 
the  bowels  of  the  calf  from  the  black, 
sticky  substance  which  they  contain  when 
first  dropped.  If  this  should  not  be  ef- 
fected, a  little  opening  medicine, .such  as 
Aperient  Drink  for  Calves,  (See  No.  61, 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for,) 
will  be  necessary. 

The  Epsom  salts  are  as  efficacious  as 
any  kind  of  oil  for  purging  young  cattle, 
as  well  as  far  less  expensive  than  most 
oils.  Custom,  however,  has  sanctioned 
the  almost  general  use  of  castor  oil  in 
these  cases,  and  there  is  no  objection 
to  it. 

After  the  first  or  second  day,  it  will  be 
prudent  to  tie  the  calf  in  a  corner  of  the 
hovel,  that  it  may  not  be  always  sucking 
the  mother,  for  it  might  overgorge  itself 
with  milk,  which  would  coagulate  in  the 
fourth  stomach,  and  choke  it  up,  and  pro- 
duce disease,  and  even  death.  If  it  is 
evident  that  the  cow  would  yield  more 
milk  than  the  calf  should  have,  it  is  the 

*3 


custom,  and  very  properly,  to  take  away 
a  portion  of  it  from  her  two  or  three 
times  in  the  day,  before  the  young  one  is 
unfastened. 

The  time  that  the  calf,  after  this,  re- 
mains with  the  mother  is  chiefly  regulated 
by  the  system  which  the  breeder  usually 
pursues,  but  reference  should  always  be 
had  to  the  state  of  the  cow's  udder,  If 
it  is  perfectly  free  from  knobs,  or  kernels, 
or  hardness,  the  calf  may  be  removed  at 
a  comparatively  early  period ;  but  if  any 
induration  of  the  teats  appears,  the  young 
animal  should  be  permitted  to  suck  a 
while  longer.  The  frequent  sucking  will 
prevent  the  milk  from  curdling  in  the 
udder;  and  also  the  friction  and  shaking 
of  the  bag,  by  the  jolting  of  the  calfs 
head  in  the  act  of  sucking,  will  contrib- 
ute not  a  little  to  the  dispersion  of  the  tu- 
mors. We  have  already  spoken  of  garget, 
and  shown  that  a  very  prevalent  cause 
of  it  is  the  weaning  of  the  calf  too  soon. 

Few  things  are  more  injurious  than  the 
exposure  of  the  young  calf  to  wet  and  cold. 
It  lays  a  foundation  for  rheumatism  and 
hoose,  which  no  medical  treatment  can 
afterwards  remove. 

Bleeding  from  the  navel  string  is  not 
an  uncommon  complaint  among  calves, 
and  it  is  a  verv  troublesome  one.  The 
first  'thing  to  be  done  is  to  pass  another 
ligature  round  the  string  nearer  to  the 
body ;  for  if  the  bleeding  is  not  stopped 
the  life  of  the  young  animal  will  some- 
times be  endangered.  It  may  happenr 
however,  that  the  first  ligature  may  have 
been  nearer  to  the  belly  than  it  ought  to 
have  been,  so  near  indeed,  that  another 
cannot  be  passed  within  it.  A  pledget  of 
lint  that  has  been  dipped  in  a  decoction 
of  galls  (half  a  dozen  galls  bruised,  and 
boiled  in  half  a  pint  of  water),  should  be 
placed  over  the  part,  and  confined  with  a 
proper  bandage.  This  will  be  far  prefer- 
able to  the  blue  vitriol,  and  oil  of  vitriol, 
which  some  cow-leeches  are  so  fond  of 
applying.  It  will  stop  the  blood,  but  not 
eat  into  and  destroy  the  part. 

From  the  application  of  the  caustic,  orj 
even  of  the  second  ligature,  a  great  deal 
of  swelling  will  sometimes  take  place. 
This  should  be  well  fomented  until  in- 
flammation is  pretty  nearly  subdued.  The 
after-treatment  will  depend  on  circum- 
stances. If  there  is  a  solid  tumor,  the 
fomentation,  or  a  poultice,  must  be  con- 


194 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


tinued  until  the  swelling  breaks,  or  points 
so  decidedly  that  it  may  be  opened  with 
a  lancet.  Poultices  must  then  be  applied 
until  the  matter  has  fairly  run  out,  after 
which  a  little  Friar's  Balsam  will  usually 
complete  the  cure. 

In  consequeuce  of  the  bleeding  and 
discharge  of  matter,  the  calf  will  some- 
times be  exceedingly  reduced;  some  tonic 
t medicine  will  then  be  necessary.  The 
'Tonic  Drink,  No.  3,  given  in  half  doses, 
will  be  serviceable,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  calf  should  be  forced  with  good  oat- 
meal or  pea-meal  gruel. 

CALVES,  Diarrhoea.— One  of  the  most 
frequent  and  fatal  diseases  to  which  young 
calves  are  subject  is  diarrhoea,  or  violent 
purging.  It  occurs  most  frequently  when 
the  young  animal  is  from  a  fortnight  to 
six  weeks  old,  and  is  in  the  majority  of 
cases  the  consequence  of  neglect.  The 
calf  has  been  too  early  exposed  to  cold 
and  wet,  or  has  been  half  starved,  and 
then  one  full  and  hearty  meal  often  dis- 
arranges the  whole  alimentary  canal.  It 
is  bad  policy  to  stint  the  calf  too  much  in 
its  quantity  of  milk.  The  loss  of  two  or 
three  calves  in  the  course  of  a  year  will 
more  than  swallow  up  the  supposed  sav- 
ing resulting  from  a  system  of  starvation. 

At  the  time  of  weaning,  or  when  the 
food  is  changed  from  milk  to  gruel  or 
porridge,  diarrhoea  and  dysentery  are  very 
apt  to  occur,  and  are  subdued  with  great 
difficulty.  The  weaning  and  change  of 
food  should  be  effected  slowly,  and  with  a 
great  deal  of  caution.  The  new  milk 
should  be  mixed  with  the  skim  milk  or 
gruel  which  is  afterwards  to  be  substituted, 
and  the  quantity  of  the  one  gradually 
diminished,  while  the  other  is  as  cautious- 
ly increased.  • 

The  symptoms  of  diarrhoea  in  calves 
are,  continual  purging;  the  matter  dis- 
charged is  covered  with  more  than  its 
natural  quantity  of  mucus ;  sometimes  it 
is  bloody,  and  often  fetid;  the  animal 
loathes  its  food,  staggers  as  it  walks,  and 
becomes  rapidly  thin.  Towards  the  last 
stage  of  the  disease  the  dung  is  more  and 
tmore  fetid  and  bloody,  a  greater  portion 
of  mucus  mixes  with  it,  and  at  length  the 
discharge  seems  to  be  composed  of  mucus 
and  blood,  with  scarcely  any  mixture  of 
natural  foecal  matter.  When  this  occurs 
there  is  little  or  no  hope  of  cure. 

The  principal  thing  is  to  treat  these  dis- 


eases in  time,  before  the  mucous  coat  of 
the  intestines  becomes  so  inflamed  that  a 
bloody  discharge  ensues  which  soon  wears 
the  animal  down. 

Much  acidity  in  the  stomach  and  bow- 
els attends  all  these  complaints;  there- 
fore, it  is  necessary  to  get  rid  of  it,  first  of 
all,  by  the  administration  of  a  mild  purga- 
tive, and  afterwards  by  the  exhibition  of 
chalk,  or  some  other  medicine  with  which 
the  acid  will  readily  combine.  Two 
ounces  of  castor  oil,  or  four  of  Epsom 
salts,  may  be  given. 

Opium  in  some  form  or  other  must 
always  be  united  with  the  chalk.  It  is  of 
no  use  to  get  rid  of  one  complaint  when 
others  are  lurking  and  ready  to  appear. 
It  will  not  be  sufficient  to  neutralize  the 
acidity  of  the  stomach;  the  mouths  of  the 
vessels  that  are  pouring  out  all  this  mu- 
cus and  blood  must  be  stopped ;  and  we 
have  not  a  more  powerful  or  useful  medi- 
cine than  this  in  our  whole  catalogue  of 
drugs.  It  acts  by  removing  the  irritation 
about  the  orifices  of  the  exhalent  vessels, 
and  when  this  is  effected  they  will  cease 
to  pour  out  so  much  fluid.  Other  astrin- 
gents may  be  added,  and  a  carminative 
mingled  with  the  whole  to  recall  the  ap- 
petite, and  rouse  the  bowels  to  healthy 
action.  The  Calves'  Diarrhoea  Medi- 
cine (see  No.  62,  Domestic  Animalsv 
Medicines  for,)  will  present  the  best 
combination  of  all  these  things. 

This  will  be  the  proper  dose  for  a  calf 
from  a  fortnight  to  two  months  old.  If 
the  animal  is  older,  the  dose  may  be  in- 
creased one-half.  The  common  Dalby's 
Carminative  is  not  a  bad  medicine,  al- 
though a  dear  one,  and  may  be  given  in 
doses  of  half  a  bottle  at  a  time,  when  it 
happens  to  be  at  hand,  and  the  case  is 
urgent,  and  the  drugs  which  compose 
Recipe  No.  62  cannot  be  immediately 
procured. 

When  these  preparations  have  been 
given  some  time,  and  have  failed  to  stop 
the  purging,  we  have  known  the  Calves' 
Purging  to  Stop  (see  No.  63,  Domes- 
tic Animals,  Medicines  for,)  given 
with  very  good  effect.  This  may  be  given 
morning  and  night. 

When  constant  and  violent  straining 
accompanies  the  expulsion  of  the  dung, 
an  injection  of  a  pint  of  thick  gruel,  with 
which  half  a  drachm  of  powdered  opium 
has  been  mixed,  will  be  very  useful. 


CATTLE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


i95 


Diarrhoea  will  often  in  the  early  stage 
be  accompanied  not  only  by  inflammation 
■of  the  bowels,  but  much  general  fever. 
This  will  be  known  by  much  panting, 
heat  of  the  mouth,  and  uneasiness,  the 
animal  lying  down  and  getting  up  again, 
rolling,  or  kicking  at  its  belly.  It  will 
then  be  prudent  to  bleed.  A  pint  will  be 
the  proper  quantity  to  be  taken  from  a 
calf  under  a  month ;  after  that  an  addi- 
tional ounce  may  be  taken  for  every 
month.  When,  however,  the  diarrhoea 
has  been  long  established,  and  the  calf  is 
getting  weak  and  rapidly  losing  flesh,  it 
would  be  madness  to  bleed ;  the  strength 
of  the  animal  would  be  more  speedily 
exhausted,  and  its  death  hastened.  Chalk, 
or  starch,  astringents,  and  carminatives 
will  then  afford  the  only  rational  hope  of 
success.  After  the  cure  has  been  com- 
pleted, much  care  should  be  taken  re- 
specting the  diet  of  the  animal ;  and  it 
will  sometimes  be  useful  to  give  him  a 
lump  of  chalk  and  another  of  salt  in  his 
feeding  place,  to  lick  them  .when  he  likes. 

CALVES,  Costivenesa  in. — This  disease 
occasionally  attacks  young  calves  a  few 
days  after  they  are  born.  It  is  then  caused 
by  coagulation  of  milk  in  the  fourth 
stomach,  which  is  completely  distended 
by  the  solid  curd,  and  the  passage  through 
it  obstructed.  There  is  not  often  any 
remedy  for  this.  The  most  likely  method 
to  succeed  is  to  pour  in  plenty  of  warm 
water  in  which  Epsom  salts  have  been 
dissolved,  by  means  of  the  stomach- 
pump  so  often  recommended.  The  first 
dose  may  consist  of  two  ounces  of  the 
salts  dissolved  in  two  or  three  quarts  of 
water ;  after  which  ounce-doses  may  be 
given  every  six  hours,  likewise  in  the 
same  quantity  of  water,  until  the  bowels 
are  opened. 

The  costiveness  of  calves  is  generally 
produced  by  bad  management.  Either 
the  calf  is  suffered  to  suck  too  plentifully, 
or  put  to  a  cow  whose  milk  is  too  old,  or 
fed  with  new  milk  from  the  dairy  pro- 
miscuously. All  these  things  are  injuri- 
ous, and  thousands  of  young  animals 
have  been  destroyed  by  them. 

When  costiveness  occurs  in  calves  ot 
two  or  three  months  old,  it  is  usually 
when  they  have  been  too  suddenly 
changed  from  fluid  food,  as  gruel  or 
porridge,  to  that  of  a  dryer  and  more 
•stimulating  kind,  and  consisting  princi- 


pally of  hay.  This  is  a  dangerous  com- 
plaint ;  for  there  is  not  only  obstruction 
usually  in  the  tnanyplies,  or  third  stomach, 
which  is  employed  in  rubbing  down  the 
hard  fibrous  food,  and  now  becomes 
overloaded  and  clogged,  but  the  paunch 
itself  is  generally  filled  with  undigested 
food,  and  rumination  has  ceased. 

Here  again  everything  depends  on 
diluting  the  hardened  mass,  and  opening 
the  bowels.  The  first  dose  of  medicine 
should  consist  of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of 
warm  water.  It  will  not  be  forgotten 
that  by  introducing  the  pipe  a  little  way, 
or  far  down  the  gullet,  the  medicine  may 
be  thrown  at  once  into  the  third  and 
fourth  stomachs,  or  into  the  first.  If  it  is 
introduced  only  a  little  way,  and  the 
pump  worked  gently,  the  fluid  will  pass 
on  through  the  canal  at  the  base  of  the 
gullet,  which  was  described  in  the  early 
part  of  the  work,  and  enter  the  third 
stomach.  Flowing  through  this  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  it  will  perhaps  dis- 
solve, and  wash  out  the  hardened  mass 
contained  between  the  leaves  of  the 
manyplies,  while  the  salts  will  open  the 
bowels,  and  by  emptying  them,  solicit  the 
food  forward  from  the  gorged  stomachs. 

If,  after  the  bowels  have  been  well 
opened,  rumination  should  not  return,  it 
will  be  prudent  to  have  recourse  again  to 
the  stomach-pump,  the  tube  of  which 
should  now  be  pushed  farther  down  the 
gullet  until  it  enters  the  paunch.  Plenty 
of  warm  water  being  now  pumped  in, 
and  with  some  force,  it  will  stir  up  the 
contents  of  the  paunch,  and  cause  them  to 
be  disgorged  into  the  canal  leading  to  the 
true  stomach;  or  vomiting  will  be  ex- 
cited, and  the  greater  part  of  it  thus 
brought  away.  The  stomach  will  prob- 
ably act  upon  the  little  that  remains, 
rumination  will  again  be  established,  and 
the  animal  will  speedily  recover. 

There  are  few  things  so  dangerous  to 
young  cattle  as  being  thus  sapped  or 
costive.  It  is  the  foundation  of  fever, 
and  of  many  a  serious  complaint.  As 
soon  as  the  dung  is  observed  to  be  hard, 
a  mild  dose  of  physic  should  be  given  to 
every  calf.  A  little  attention  to  this  would 
keep  the  breeding  stock  in  good  order ; 
and  their  preservation,  and  health,  and 
rapid  thriving  would  abundantly  repay 
the  little  additional  trouble  and  expense. 


196 


CATTLE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


Farmers  in  general,  however,  are  shame- 
fully careless  here  ;  and  no  notice  is  taken 
of  half  the  diseases  under  which  their 
stock  of  every  kind  plainly  and  evidently 
labor,  until  they  are  past  all  cure.  It  is 
also  matter  of  general  observation,  that 
a  calf  that  has  a  considerable  tendency 
to  costiveness  is  slow  in  getting  fat  and 
preparing  for  the  market. 

All  cattle  are  subject  to  occasional 
costiveness,  and  which  should  be  removed 
as  early  as  in  the  calf,  as  being  the 
frequent  root  of  much  evil.  It  is  either 
one  of  the  symptoms  of  the  beast  labor- 
ing under  inflammatory  fever,  or  it  lays 
the  foundation  for  inflammatory  fever. 
A  purge  of  Epsom  salts,  or  even  of 
common  salt,  if  the  other  should  not  be 
at  hand,  will  not  cost  much,  and  would 
save  the  lite  of  many  a  beast ;  let  not  the 
farmer,  however,  follow  up  the  farrier's 
practice  of  giving  a  cordial  drink  two  or 
three  days  after  the  physic,  under  the 
notion  of  removing  flatulence,  and  pro- 
moting digestion,  and  invigorating  the 
system.  The  fever,  of  which  this  cos- 
tiveness is  either  the  forerunner  or  the 
cause,  would  only  be  hastened  and  ag- 
gravated by  this  absurd  system  of  stimu- 
lation. 

CALVES,  Hoose  in  the.— This  disease 
in  the  adult  animal  has  already  been  con- 
sidered; in  the  calf  it  assumes  different 
and  more  aggravated  symptoms,  and  is 
more  speedily  connected  with  consump- 
tion and  death.  The  moment  a  calf  is 
observed  to  cough  violently,  he  should  be 
removed  from  the  pasture,  and  put  under 


tolerably  warm  shelter  and  taken  care  of. 
A  bleeding  and  a  dose  of  physic,  and  a 
fever  powder,  will  then  usually  restore  the 
animal  to  perfect  health. 

At  times  the  hoose  is  epidemic  among 
cattle,  and  hundreds  of  them  die.  Prop- 
er treatment  at  first  will,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  remedy  the  evil ;  but  should  the 
animal  get  rapidly  worse,  and  his  cough 
be  peculiarly  violent  and  distressing,  care 
should  be  taken  to  examine  the  first  that 
happens  to  die,  on  the  farmer's  own  es- 
tate, or  that  of  his  neighbor,  and  if  the 
windpipe  and  the  air  tubes  below  should 
be  found  filled  with  the  worms  which  have 
already  been  described,  recourse  should 
be  had  to  the  spirit  of  turpentine,  which 
will  often  succeed  in  destroying  them. 
The  principle  on  which  the  turpentine 
acts  has  been  already  explained.  The 
Receipt  No.  64,  Calves,  Hoose  in,  (See 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for,) 
will  be  found  a  good  formula  for  its  ad- 
ministration to  calves  from  six  to  twelve 
months  old. 

A  cure  has  also  been  obtained  by  the 
exhibition  of  half  a  pint  of  lime-water; 
every  morning  and  a  table  spoonful  of 
salt  the  same  afternoon.  The  origin  of 
these  worms  has  not  yet  been  satisfacto- 
rily developed;  but  it  is  supposed  that 
the  eggs  are  taken  with  the  water,  ab- 
sorbed by  the  blood  vessels,  and  thus  en- 
ter the  windpipe,  where  they  are  hatched  j 
but  one  thing  is  certain,  that  in  nine  cases 
out  of  ten  the  farmer  may  attribute  all 
the  losses  he  sustains  to  neglect  of  the 
calf,  or  premature  exposure  of  him  to  cold 
and  wet. 


SHEEP: 

DISEASES  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF. 


This  has  been  a  sadly  neglected  branch 
of  veterinary  inquiry  and  practice.  The 
.nature  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of 
sheep  form  little  or  no  part  of  the  instruc- 
tion given  in  some  of  our  veterinary 
schools,  and  seldom  come  under  the 
cognizance  of  the  surgeon  afterwards. 
The  shepherd  undertakes  the  treatment 
of  foot-rot,  and  scab,  and  hoove;  and 
with  regard  to  the  other  maladies  to  which 
this  animal  is  subject,  they  are  either 
suffered  to  take  their  course,  or,  if  a  veteri- 
nary practictioner  is  ever  employed,  it  is 
when  the  disease  is  firmly  established,  or 
the  whole  flock  infected,  and  medical  aid 
is  fruitless.  This  is  much  to  be  lamented, 
and  very  absurd;  for  although  an  indi- 
vidual sheep  may  not  be  worth  much,  yet 
a  numerous  flock  forms  no  inconsiderable 
portion  of  the  farmer's  wealth,  and  the 
frequent  mortality  among  these  animals  is 
a  very  serious  loss  to  him. 

The  internal  structure  of  the  sheep  so 
nearly  resembles  that  of  the  ox,  that  we 
will  content  ourselves  with  referring  to 
the  anatomy  of  the  ox,  as  described  in 
the  early  part  of  this  work.  The  diseases 
of  both  have  a  very  great  resemblance  in 
their  nature,  and  cause,  and  progress,  and 
medical  treatment.  The  same  drugs  are 
administered  to  both.  There  cannot  be 
a  better  purgative  for  sheep  than  Epsom 
salts :  there  is  no  better  fever  medi- 
:ine  than  the  digitalis,  emetic  tartar, 
and  nitre.  The  principal  difference  is  in 
the  quantity  to  be  administered;  a  sixth  or 
eighth  part  of  the  usual  dose  for  cattle 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  sheep.  The 
quantity  of  blood  taken  will  depend  on 
the  size  of  the  animal  and  the  nature  of 
the  disease.  Four  ounces  would  be  a  fair 
average  bleeding  from  a  lamb,  and  a  pint 
from  a  full  grown  sheep.  Shepherds  are 
ipt  to  bleed  from  the  eye-vein ;  but  the 
)lood  generally  flows  slowly,  and,  arier 


all,  the  proper  quantity  will  not  always  be 
obtained.  The  best  place  for  bleeding  is 
from  the  jugular,  as  in  cattle.  A  ligature 
should  be  tied  round  the  neck,  and  then 
the  vein  will  rise  so  evidently  that  it  can- 
not possibly  be  mistaken.  The  vein 
should  be  opened  with  the  lancet  com- 
monly used  for  the  human  being:  the 
orifice  should  be  large,  and  the  blood  ob- 
tained as  quickly  as  possible. 

SHEEP,  Lambing  Season.— The  ewe 
goes  with  lamb  five  months.  With  the 
best  care  a  great  deal  of  danger  attends 
this  early  lambing,  and  even  at  a  later 
period  a  few  cold  nights  are  fatal  to  many 
of  the  lambs.  There  is  nothing  that  re- 
quires more  reformation  than  the  treat- 
ment both  of  the  ewe  and  the  lamb  at  the 
time  of  weaning. 

During  the  time  of  gestation  more  at  - 
tention  is  required  than  is  generally  paid. 
To  enable  the  ewe  to  produce  her  lamb 
with  comparative  safety,  she  should  not 
be  too  well  fed.  One  of  the  most  preva 
lent  causes  of  puerperal  fever,  or  dropping 
after  calving,  in  the  cow,  is  her  too  high 
condition.  It  is  more  particularly  so  with 
the  ewe;  and  there  are  few  things  that  the 
farmer  should  be  more  careful  about  than 
that  the  fair,  but  not  unusual  or  forced, 
condition  of  the  animal  is  preserved.  A 
week  or  two  before  the  time,  a  little  bet- 
ter keep  may  be  useful  in  order  to  give 
them  sufficient  strength  for  the  lambing. 
It  is  a  kind  of  middle  course  which  the 
farmer  has  to  pursue,  qnd  the  path  is  not 
very  difficult  to  trace :  too  high  condition 
will  dispose  to  fever ;  on  the  other  hand, 
with  too  poor  keep  the  ewe  will  not  have 
sufficient  strength  to  go  through  the  pro- 
cess safely,  nor  will  she  have  milk  enough 
for  the  lambs.  If  the  dam  has  not  suffi- 
cient support  previously,  the  lamb  will  be 
weakly  when  it  is  dropped,  and  will  not 
thrive  well  afterwards. 


(i97) 


10S 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


When  the  time  of  yeaning  approaches, 
a  little  care  may  prevent  a  very  great  loss 
to  the  farmer.  The  ewes  should  be 
brought  as  nearly  home  as  possible.  They 
should  be  sheltered  from  the  wind,  it  it 
be  only  a  high  and  thick  hedge;  but  a 
kind  of  shed,  however  rudely  constructed 
would  abundantly  pay  the  expense  of 
building  it.  At  night,  particularly,  they 
should  be  folded  in  some  sheltered  place. 

The  care  of  the  farmer  or  lamber  will 
vary  a  great  deal  according  to  tne  period 
of  the  year  and  the  state  ot  tne  weather. 
In  the  early  lambing  the  greatest  losses 
are  at  the  beginning;  they  arise  princi- 
pally from  cold.  In  March  or  April  the 
latter  part  of  the  lambing  season  is  most 
dangerous,  for  there  is  more  abundant 
keep,  and  more  tendency  to  inflamma- 
tion. 

The  clatting  of  the  ewes  is  a  very  useful 
practice  now.  They  are  tiirown,  and  a 
portion  of  the  wool  is  remo'/ed  from  their 
tails  and  udders.  The  sticking  together 
of  the  wool  from  the  purging  to  which 
the  ewe  is  often  subject  in  "the  early  part 
of  the  spring,  when  the  grass  is  fresh,  has 
lost  many  a  lamb.  When  the  udders  are 
thus  cleaned,  the  lamber  will  more  easily 
perceive  the  stain  on  the  part,  which,  and 
Avhich  alone,  will  sometimes  tell  him 
whether  the  ewe  has  yeaned  ;  for  it  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  a  young  ewe  to 
desert  her  lamb,  and  be  found  grazing 
with  the  rest  of  the  flock  as  unconcernedly 
as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

An  experienced  lamber  win  almost 
always  tell  when  the  ewe  is  about  to 
yean.  If  he  finds  her  soon  afterwards 
taken  with  labor  pains,  and  they  continue 
to  succeed  each  other  regularly,  and  she 
remains  lying  down,  he  will  take  care  not 
to  disturb  her ;  but  if  a  couple  of  hours 
pass,  and  the  lamb  is  not  produced,  he 
carefully  examines  her.  If  the  nose  and 
the  tips  of  the  toes  have  presented  them- 
selves, and  the  lamb  seems  to  be  in  a 
proper  position,  but  the  head  is  large,  or 
the  passage  is  narrow,  he  leaves  her 
again  for  another  hour;  but  if  there  is 
evidently  a  false  presentation,  he  intro- 
duces one  or  two  fingers,  or  his  hand, 
well  guarded  with  oil,  puts  the  young  one 
in  the  proper  position,  and  nature  speedily 
effects  the  rest. 

The  principal  art  of  the  lamber  is  to 
know  when  he  should  interfere.   In  every 


case  of  false  presentation  his  help  should 
be  ready  and  immediate ;  but  otherwise 
he  should  very  rarely  meddle  with  the 
ewe,  except  the  mother  is  nearly  ex- 
hausted, or  the  life  of  the  young  one 
appears  to  be  in  danger.  One  moment's 
observation  will  discover  the  state  of  the 
mother;  and  the  degree  of  protrusion  of 
the  tongue  of  the  young  one,  and  its 
color,  will  not  often  deceive  with  regard 
to  him.  When  the  tongue  hangs  far 
from  the  mouth,  and  is  getting  livid  or 
black,  it  is  high  time  for  the  lamber  to 
interfere. 

The  lamber  should  use  as  little  violence 
as  possible;  but  then  he  should  recollect 
that  the  ewe  will  often  bear  a  great  deal 
of  force  being  applied  without  the  slight- 
est injury  to  her,  and  sometimes  with  no 
great  danger  to  the  little  one.  The 
exhausted  state  of  the  one  or  the  other 
Avill  regulate  the  degree  of  force.  When 
there  is  much  exhaustion,  no  time  is  to 
be  lost,  and  some  strength  should  be 
applied  in  the  extraction  of  the  lamb. 

The  state  of  the  weather,  too,  will 
somewhat  regulate  this.  In  cold  weather 
more  time  may  be  allowed.  The  process 
of  parturition  is  then  slower.  In  warm 
weather  there  is  more  tendency  to  fever, 
and  the  ewe  should  not  be  suffered  to 
exhaust  herself  too  much. 

Unnatural  presentations  are  often  very 
awkward  things  to  have  to  do  with.  The 
ewe  should  be  driven  into  the  pound,  and 
after  having  rested  a  few  minutes,  some 
of  the  fingers,  or  the  hand,  if  it  is  small, 
should  be  introduced  into  the  vagina.  If 
only  one  leg  presents,  and  the  shoulder 
thus  forms  an  obstruction,  the  other  leg 
will  generally  be  easily  laid  hold  of  and 
brought  down.  If  the  neck  is  bent,  and 
the  crown  of  the  head  presents  itself,  it 
may  be  pushed  back,  and  the  two  fore- 
paws  brought  into  the  passage,  and  then 
the  muzzle  will  naturally  follow.  If  the 
foetus  lies  sideways,  the  cord  and  the 
position  of  the  legs  will  enable  the  shep- 
herd to  distinguish  between  the  spine  and 
the  belly.  The  turning  is  sometimes  a 
difficult  thing;  but  practice  will  often 
give  the  lamber  a  great  deal  of  clever- 
ness in  this  operation. 

In  extreme  cases,  and  when  the  lamb 
is  evidently  dead,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
introduce  a  blunt-pointed  knife  into  the 
uterus,  and  cut  the  little  animal  to  pieces. 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 


199 


The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
mother  is  not  wounded,  for  that  would 
produce  inevitable  death.  When  the 
lamb  has  been  thus  taken  away  piece- 
meal, a  little  physic — an  ounce  of  Epsom 
salts,  with  a  few  grains  of  ginger — should 
be  given  to  the  mother,  who  should  then 
be  left  undisturbed  for  several  hours. 

The  ewe,  and  especially  if  she  was  in 
high  condition,  is  occasionally  subject  to 
after-pains.  Some  of  the  country  peo- 
ple call  it  heaving.  It  continues  many 
hours,  and  sometimes  exhausts  and  de- 
stroys the  animal.  It  is  particularly 
dangerous  if  she  has  been  too  well  kept, 
and  much  force  has  been  used  in  extract- 
ing the  lamb.  Twenty  drops  of  laudanum 
should  be  given  in  a  little  gruel,  and 
repeated  every  second  hour  until  the 
pains  abate.  It  will  always  be  prudent 
to  bleed  the  ewe,  if  she  is  not  better  soon 
after  the  second  dose  of  the  laudanum. 

The  womb  is  sometimes  forced  out  of 
the  orifice,  when  great  force  has  been  used 
in  extracting  the  lamb.  It  must,  if  neces- 
sary, be  cleaned  with  warm  water,  and 
carefully  returned  by  a  person  with  a 
small  hand.  Gentle  and  continued  pres- 
sure will  effect  this  much  sooner  and 
safer  than  the  application  of  the  greatest 
force.  It  will,  however,  again  protrude  if 
a  couple  of  stitches,  with  tolerably  strong 
twine,  are  not  passed  through  the  lips  of 
the  orifice.  If  the  womb  is  thus  returned 
before  it  has  been  much  bruised,  or  in- 
flamed by  hanging  out,  there  will  be  little 
danger  to  the  mother,  and  she  may  suckle 
her  lamb  as  usual.  When  she  has  ac- 
complished that,  she  should  be  fattened, 
for  the  same  accident  would  almost  cer- 
tainly happen  at  her  next  parturition. 

Attention  should  now  be  paid  to  the 
lamb,  and  it  requires  it  even  more  than 
the  mother.  It  is  want  of  care  that 
causes  the  loss  of  more  than  four-fifths  of 
the  dead  lambs.  The  principal  evil  is 
exposure  to  cold.  If  the  weather  is 
severe,  great  numbers  of  lambs  are  often 
lost  in  a  single  night.  A  few  hurdles  with 
straw,  or  a  warm  quick  hedge,  or  a  shed 
for  them  to  go  into,  would  save  the 
greater  part  of  them.  The  farmer  needs 
but  to  use  a  little  observation  in  order  to 
be  convinced  how  eagerly  the  ewes  and 
the  lambs  seek  that  shelter,  and  how  safe 
they  are  compared  with  others  that  are 
exposed.     Some  breeds  are  more  hardy 


than  others,  but  the  hardiest  of  them  will 
not  endure  absurd  and  cruel  neglect  and 
exposure.  Let  the  farmer  think  of  the 
sudden  change  from  the  warmth  of  the 
mother's  womb  to  the  driving  sleet,  and 
the  cold  wet  ground ;  he  will  not  wonder 
that  so  many  of  his  lambs  are  palsied 
and  starved  to  death. 

The  lambs  are  not  quite  out  of  danger 
when  a  day  or  two  has  passed  after  they 
have  dropped.  They  live  for  the  first 
week  or  fortnight  on  the  mother's  milk, 
and  then  begin  to  imitate  their  parent  and 
graze  a  little ;  indeed,  they  have  not  their 
teeth  up  to  enable  them  to  graze  at  first. 
They  should  not  be  put  on  too  good  pas- 
ture at  this  early  period,  for  the  change 
of  food  is  often  dangerous.  A  lamb  of  a 
fortnight  old  will  often  sicken  suddenly, 
refuse  the  teat,  cease  to  ruminate,  swell, 
heave,  and  die  in  less  than  twenty-four 
hours.  On  being  examined,  the  stomach 
will  sometimes  be  found  enormously  dis- 
tended, at  other  times  there  will  be  little 
food  in  it,  but  there  always  is  a  great  deal 
of  bile  in  the  upper  intestines,  with  inflam- 
mation there,  the  evident  cause  of  death, 
and  produced  by  the  change  of  food. 
Those  who  die  at  this  early  period  are 
often  called  gall-lambs  t  from  the  great 
quantity  of  bile  found  in  their  intestines. 
When,  at  three  or  four  months  old,  the 
lamb  is  perfectly  weaned,  he  is  subject  to 
a  similar  complaint,  and  from  a  similar 
cause.  The  lamb  should  certainly  have 
better  pasture  when  he  is  deprived  of  his 
mother's  milk,  but  the  change  should  not 
be  sudden  or  violent. 

Physic  will  evidently  be  required  here, 
such  as  Epsom  salts  in  doses  of  half  an 
ounce  every  second  or  third  day ;  and  if 
there  is  much  swelling,  the  stomach-pump 
will  be  used  with  advantage,  both  in  ex- 
tracting the  gas,  and  in  injecting  warm 
water  into  the  stomach  with  all  intention 
either  to  cause  vomiting  or  to  wash  out 
the  contents  of  the  stomach. 

The  operation  of  castration  is  a  very 
simple  one  in  the  sheep,  and  yet  is  often 
attended  with  danger — sometimes  result- 
ing from  the  unskilfulness  of  the  operator, 
and  at  other  times  from  some  unfriendly 
state  of  the  atmosphere.  We  have  known 
on  the  same  farm,  and  the  same  gelder 
being  employed,  that  in  one  year  not  a 
lamb  has  been  lost,  and  in  the  following 
year  several  scores.     Generally  speaking, 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


however,  the  fatal  result  is  to  be  attributed 
to  bad  management.  The  younger  the 
lambs  are  the  better,  provided  they  are 
not  very  weak.  From  ten  days  to  a  fort- 
night seems  to  be  the  most  proper  time, 
or,  we  may  say,  as  soon  as  the  testicles  can 
be  laid  hold  of.  We  would  advise  the  farm- 
er never  to  set  apart  a  day  when  the  whole 
or  the  greater  part  of  his  male  lambs  are 
to  undergo  the  operation,  for  many  of 
them  will  then  be  too  old,  and  he  will 
assuredly  lose  some  of  them.  He  should 
take  them  as  soon  as  they  are  ready,  al- 
though there  may  be  only  a  few  at  a  time. 

The  lamb  being  well  secured,  the  scro- 
tum or  bag  is  to  be  grasped  in  one  hand 
high  up,  and  the  testicles  pushed  down  as 
low  as  possible :  two  incisions  are  then  to  be 
made  across  the  bag  at  the  bottom  of  it, 
and  the  testicles  forced  out.  The  gelder 
now  often  takes  the  stones  between  his 
teeth,  and  bites  the  cord  asunder.  This 
is  a  nasty  and  a  cruel  way  of  proceed- 
ing. The  better  way  is  to  draw  the  testi- 
cles down  an  inch  or  more  from  the  scro- 
tum, and  then  to  cut  through  the  cord 
close  to  the  scrotum  with  a  knife  that  is 
not  very  sharp.  Scarcely  a  drop  of  blood 
follows  when  the  cord  is  thus  separated ; 
the  end  of  the  cord  retracts  into  the  bag, 
and  there  is  not  half  the  danger  of  inflam- 
mation which  there  is  when  the  cord  is 
gnawed  and  torn  by  the  teeth. 

Except  the  lambs  are  very  weakly,  and 
the  ewes  much  exhausted  and  emaciated, 
it  will  not  be  requisite  to  give  any  medi- 
cine after  yeaning.  In  the  great  majority 
of  cases  the  animals  will  do  a  great  deal 
better  without  it.  Should,  however,  tonic 
medicine  be  necessary,  we  know  nothing 
better  than  the  Tonic  Drink.  (See  No. 
65,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

If  the  ewes  will  not  feed  well  at  all, 
they  should  be  forced  with  good  gruel, 
and  the  best  is  made  of  equal  parts  of  oat 
and  linseed  meal. 

IAMBS,  Coagulation  of  the  Milk.— We 
have  spoken  of  this  when  treating  of  the 
diseases  of  calves.  The  lamb  is,  if  pos- 
sible, more  subject  to  this  curdling  of  the 
milk  than  the  calf  is,  and  it  carries  off  the 
finest  and  best  of  the  flock.  The  farmer 
likes  to  see  his  lambs  growing  fast  5  but  it 
is  possible  to  make  more  haste  than  good 
speed.  The  lamb  may  have  excess  of 
nutriment,  and  particularly  of  its  mother's 
milk.     When  a  lamb  thrives  at  an  extra- 


ordinary rate,  the  bag  of  the  mother 
should  be  examined,  and  if  it  is  too  large 
and  full,  it  will  be  prudent  to  milk  away- 
daily  a  little  of  its  contents,  otherwise  the 
yet  weak  stomach  of  the  young  animai 
may  have  more  coagulated  milk  in  it  than 
it  can  digest.  All  the  milk  that  is  swal- 
lowed by  the  young  lamb  coagulates  in 
the  stomach,  and  if  it  accumulates  too 
fast,  the  stomach  will  become  perfectly 
choked  with  it,  and  the  lamb  will  be  de- 
stroyed. Two  pounds  of  curdled  milk 
have  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  a 
lamb.  When  a  thriving  lamb,  with  a 
healthy  mother  having  a  full  bag,  begins 
all  at  once  to  be  dull,  and  stands  panting 
and  distressed,  and  can  scarely  be  induced 
to  move,  and  is  considerably  swelled,  it  is 
probably  from  this  cause. 

In  this  disease  there  is  often  apparent 
purging  of  a  light  color,  which  is,  in  fact, 
the  whey  passing  off,  whilst  the  curd  accu- 
mulates and  produces  obstinate  constipa- 
tion. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  admin- 
ister an  alkali,  to  dissolve  the  mass,  such 
as  magnesia,  in  doses  of  half  an  ounce 
twice  a  day;  after  which  two  to  four 
drachms  of  Epsom  salts,  with  a  little  gin- 
ger, dissolved  in  warm  water,  and  the 
warm  water  often  repeated,  if  necessary, 
by  means  of  the  stomach-pump  as  useful 
for  them  as  for  cattle.  When  the  bowels 
have  thus  been  opened,  and  the  curdled 
milk  has  in  some  measure  passed  off,  the 
stomach  may  be  strengthened  by  occa- 
sional doses  of  the  Tonic  Drink  for  Cat- 
tle. (See  No.  32,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for.)  The  ewe  and  lamb 
should  then  be  turned  into  scantier  pas- 
ture. 

LAMBS,  Diarrhoea.  —  There  is  not  a 
more  destructive  disease  among  young 
lambs  than  this.  It  frequently  attacks 
them  when  they  are  not  more  than  a  day 
old,  and  carries  them  off  in  the  course  of 
another  day.  Oftener  it  does  not  appear 
until  they  are  nearly  a  week  old,  and  the 
lambs  have  not  then  a  much  better  chance. 
But  if  they  are  two  or  three  months  old, 
and  have  gained  a  little  strength,  they 
may,  perhaps,  weather  the  disease.  The 
causes  are  various,  but  not  always  diffi- 
cult to  discover.  They  are  generally  re- 
ferrable  to  the  neglect  and  mismanage- 
ment of  the  farmer.  It  may  be  the 
consequence   of   absurd    and   cruel    ex- 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


posure  to  cold.  For  sheep  generally — 
and  more'particularly  for  lambs — we  once 
repeat  it,  and  we  would  impress  it  on  the 
mind  of  the  farmer  and  the  practitioner, 
shelter  and  comfort  are  the  first  and  grand 
things  to  be  considered.  I  do  not  mean 
confinement  in  a  close  and  ill-ventilated 
place,  but  that  defence  from  the  wind  and 
snow  which  it  would  cost  the  farmer  little 
to  raise,  and  for  which  he  would  be  amply 
paid  in  one  season.  If  it  probably  arises 
from  cold,  the  remedy  is  plain — better 
shelter,  and,  for  a  few  days,  housing. 

It  is  sometimes  attributable  to  want  of 
proper  support.  The  ewe,  if  it  be  her  first 
lamb,  may  have  deserted  it,  or  she  may 
have  little  milk  to  give  it ;  and  the  com- 
bined influence  of  starvation  and  cold 
produces  diarrhcea  sooner  than  anything 
else.  Warmth  and  new  cow's  milk  are 
good  remedies,  but  the  best  method  to 
cure  or  prevent  is  to  give  them  daily  a 
few  messes  of  wheat  in  the  sheaf;  a  regu- 
lar quantity  of  salt  at  all  times.  If  it  oc- 
curs in  the  winter,  steep,  in  brine,  ripe 
hay,  in  the  seed;  wheat  chaff  is  good,  as 
is  a  small  quantity  of  oats,  and  a  few  pine 
or  hemlock  tops.  Keep  them  a  few  days 
on  ripe  hay  or  corn  fodder. 

Not  unfrequently  the  mother's  milk 
seems  to  disagree  with  the  lamb.  It  is 
naturally  aperient.  It  may  occasionally 
be  too  much  so.  If  her  teats  are  full,  and 
she  evidently  has  plenty  of  milk,  this  will 
probably  be  the  case.  She  should  be  fed 
on  dry  meat  for  a  day  or  two,  or  should 
be  turned  out  only  during  the  day,  and 
housed  at  night,  when  she  should  be 
•allowed  a  little  hay.  While  the  food  is 
altered  the  bowels  should  be  well 
cleansed.  There  may  be  something 
amiss  about  the  ewe,  which  causes  the 
milk  to  be  thus  purgative  and  unwhole- 
some. The  best  purgative  for  sheep  is 
the  Purging  Drink.  (See  No.  66,  Domes- 
tic Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

This  being  given  to  the  mother  will 
will  likewise  be  of  service  to  the  lamb,  by 
helping  to  carry  off  any  acidities  or  crudi- 
ties from  the  stomach  or  bowels. 

In  a  disease  so  fatal,  and  which  runs  its 
•course  so  rapidly  no  time  is  to  be  lost,  and 
therefore  Astringent  Medicine  (see  No. 
■67,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  should  be  administered  to  the  lamb 
as  speedily  as  possible. 

If  the  animal  should  still  linger  on,  and 


the  purging  should  not  be  much  abated, 
it  is  probable  that  the  milk  of  the  mother 
is  most  in  fault.  The  lamb  should  then 
be  taken  from  her,  and  fed  with  cow's 
milk  boiled,  to  every  pint  of  which  a 
scruple  of  prepared  chalk  has  been  added, 
the  astringent  drink  being  continued  as 
before. 

If  the  purging  abates,  the  medicine 
should  be  immediately  suspended,  or  not 
given  so  frequently,  lest  costiveness  should 
follow,  a  disease  which  we  shall  presently 
describe,  and  which  is  also  very  fatal. 

The  lamb  with  diarrhcea  should  be 
docked  on  the  first  appearance  of  the 
disease,  if  the  operation  had  not  been 
previously  performed,  and  the  hair 
should  be  carefully  cut  away  under  the 
tail,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  become  clot- 
ted. It  will  adhere  together,  and  form 
an  obstruction  about  the  anus,  so  that  the 
faeces  cannot  be  discharged.  The  least 
ill  consequence  of  this  will  be  very  great 
soreness  about  the  part;  but  in  many 
cases  the  animal  will  die  in  consequence 
of  the  obstruction,  before  the  existence  of 
it  is  suspected. 

The  color  of  the  discharge  will  con- 
siderably influence  the  mode  of  treatment. 
If  it  is  of  an  olive-green  color,  the  drink 
should  be  persevered  in;  and  on  every 
third  day  half  a  table-spoonful  of  castor 
oil  should  be  administered.  If  this  is  of 
a  white  color,  it  may  probably  proceed 
from  coagulation  of  the  milk,  and  should 
be  treated  as  advised  in  a  previous  page. 

If  the  lamb  is  two  or  three  months  old, 
the  medicine  should  be  correspondingly 
increased,  and  he  has  a  better  chance.  Ir 
he  is  five  or  six  months  old,  he  will  only 
be  lost  through  the  negligence  of  the 
farmer  or  attendant.  The  same  means 
must  be  pursued ;  but  another  thing  must 
be  added,  and  that  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance— a  change  of  pasture  from  a 
succulent  to  a  bare  and  dry  one.  The 
removal  to  a  stubble-field  is  a  frequent 
and  very  successful  practice. 

LAMBS,  Costiveness  in. — When  no 
evacuation  appears  to  be  effected,  but  the 
animal  is  continually  straining,  two  cir- 
cumstances must  be  carefully  examined 
into ;  first,  whether  there  is  the  obstruc- 
tion of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  ut- 
terly preventing  the  discharge  of  the 
dung,  and  a  speedy  remedy  being  at 
at  hand,  namely,  the  removal  of  the  clot- 


ro2 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


ted  wool;  or  whether  after  the  staining, 
some  drops  of  liquid  faeces  may  not  be 
perceived;  this,  although  often  mistaken 
for  costivencss,  clearly  indicates  a  very 
different  state  of  the  bowels ;  they  are  ac- 
tually relaxed — too  much  so,  and  the 
straining  results  from  irritation  about  the 
anus. 

Actual  costiveness,  however,  is  not  an 
unfrequent  complaint,  and  must  be  speed- 
ily attacked;  for  it  is  either  the  accompan- 
iment of  fever,  or  it  will  very  speedily 
lead  on  to  fever.  The  existence  of  fever 
should  be  carefully  inquired  into ;  heav- 
ing of  the  flanks,  restlessness,  and  heat 
of  the  mouth  will  be  sufficient  indica- 
tions of  it.  Bleeding  in  proportion  to 
the  degree  of  fever,  and  the  age  and 
strength  of  the  lamb  should  then  be  had 
recourse  to.  Next,  the  bowels  must  be 
opened;  one-fourth  of  the  Purging 
Drink  (See  No.  66,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for,)  will  be  the  best  thing 
that  can  be  given,  and  it  should  be  re- 
peated every  sixth  hour  until  the  desired 
effect  is  produced.  The  lamb  should  be 
turned  into  greener  and  more  succulent 
pasture,  and  especially  where  there  is  any 
fresh  flush  of  grass ;  and  if,  after  a  while,  he 
should  altogether  refuse  to  eat,  he  may  be 
drenched  with  gruel,  in  which  a  little  Ep- 
som salts  should  always  be  dissolved. 
While  this  affords  nutriment,  it  will  cool 
the  animal  and  open  the  bowels. 

LAMBS,  Staggers  in. — Many  lambs 
are  lost  from  this  disease,  and  the  farmer 
most  certainly  has  here  no  one  to  blame 
but  himself.  It  attacks  the  most  thriving 
lambs,  and  especially  when  they  are 
about  three  or  four  months  old ;  and  it 
arises  from  the  farmer  making  a  great 
deal  more  haste  than  usual  in  fattening 
them  for  the  market.  It  resembles  the 
blood  in  cattle,  and  is  usually  produced 
by  the  same  causes. 

The  lamb  will  appear  to  be  in  perfect 
health.  All  at  once  he  will  stand  still, 
heaving  violently  at  the  flanks,  and  with 
the  head  protruded;  or  he  will  wander 
about  with  great  uncertainty  in  his  walk 
and  manner ;  he  will  then  all  at  once  fall 
down  and  lie  struggling  upon  his  back 
until  he  is  helped  up,  or  dies.  Sometimes 
he  is  very  much  convulsed. 

Bleeding  must  be  resorted  to  immedi- 
ately, and  afterwards  the  bowels  well 
opened  by  means  of  the  Purging  Drink. 


To  this  some  cooling  febrifuge  medicine,, 
such  as  Cooling  Fever  Drink,  (See  No.. 
68,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for,) 
should  succeed. 

On  examination  after  death,  the  head 
will  be  found  to  be  the  principal  part 
diseased;  the  vessels  of  the  brain  will  be 
distended  with  blood,  and  there  will 
sometimes  be  water  in  the  ventricles. 

We  have  seen  half  a  dozen  lambs  in 
staggers  in  the  same  field  at  the  same 
time.  They  had  all  been  exposed  to  the 
same  cause ;  and  when  the  disease  had. 
begun  in  one  or  two  it  spread  among  the 
rest  by  the  strange  and  often  too  power- 
ful influence  of  sympathy. 
SHEEP,  Bed-Water  in.— The  disease  rec- 
ognized under  this  name  is  very  different 
from  that  described  in  the  cow,  for  here  it 
consists  in  an  accumulation  of  red,  dish- 
colored  fluid  (whence  its  name  is  derived) 
in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  and  fre- 
quently in  the  chest  and  heart-bag  like- 
wise. This  water  accumulates  in  conse- 
quence of  inflammation  of  the  serous 
membrane  which  lines  these  cavities.  In 
many  places  the  disease  is  termed  water- 
brazy.  It  is  most  prevalent  at  the  latter 
end  of  autnmn  or  the  beginning  of  win- 
ter, and  is  generally  observed  among 
sheep  that  are  in  the  most  thriving  con- 
dition, and  especially  if  they  have  been 
turned  into  new  and  rich  pasture,  and  by 
the  side  of  a  copse  or  wood.  Sometimes 
it  is  very  sudden  in  its  attack,  and  speed- 
ily fatal.  In  some  fine  flocks  we  have  seen 
it  destroy  the  animal  in  twenty-four  hours. 
In  other  cases  it  is  less  violent,  and  also 
slow  in  its  progress.  The  sheep  is  first 
'observed  to  be  off  its  feed,  dull,  disin- 
clined to  move;  it  loiters  behind,  and 
pants,  and  is  restless.  The  flanks  are 
tucked  up,  and  there  is  often  costiveness, 
though  sometimes  purging.  This  disease 
is  still  more  common  in  lambs  than  in 
sheep,  and  in  them  often  appears  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  when  they  are  first  put 
on  turnips  with  the  ewes.  In  farms  where 
pasturage  is  scarce,  the  disease  is  a  very 
frequent  visitor,  and  may  be  considered 
to  be  produced  by  the  application  of  cold, 
either  externally  or  internally,  or  proba- 
bly both. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  disease  it  is 
very  important  to  remove  the  animal  to.  a 
dry  and  comfortable  situation.  Bleeding 
should  then  be  freely  employed  and  a 


SHEEP—CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


203 


laxative  medicine.     (See  No.  69,  Domi: 
tic  Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

In  addition  to  this,  the  abdomen  should 
be  well  fomented  with  hot  water — a 
Iamb,  indeed,  may  be  placed  altogether  in 
a  warm  bath. 

Every  shepherd  should  have  a  little 
born,  made  of  that  of  a  sheep,  <*nd which 
will  hold  about  the  usual  quantity  of  med- 
icine given  as  a  drink;  or  at  least  the 
quantity  which  the  horn  will  hold  should 
be  carefully  ascertained,  and  then  a  large 
bottle  of  the  mixture  may  be  taken  into 
the  field,  and  the  proper  dose  given  to  as 
many  ot  the  sheep  as  may  seem  So  re- 
quire it,  without  the  trouble  of  measuring 
it  every  time. 

If  the  animal  recover,  a  change  of  food 
must  be  afforded,  and  a  short,  sweet  pas- 
ture should  be  preferred. 

SHEEP,  Sturdy,  Giddiness,  or  Water  in 
the  Head. — This  is  a  very  singular,  and 
also  s,  very  fatal  disease.  It  commonly 
attacks  yearlings;  a  two  or  three-shear 
sheep  is  generally  exempt  from  it.  The 
animal  becomes  dull;  separates  himself 
from  the  rest  of  the  flock ;  is  frightened 
at  the  most  trifling  circumstance,  and  at 
the  least  noise];  he  runs  round  and  round, 
but  always  in  one  direction;  holds  his 
head  on  one  side ;  if  there  is  a  brook  in 
the  field,  he  stand  upon  its  banks,  poring 
over  the  running  stream,  and  nodding 
and  staggering,  until  he  frequently  tumbles 
in ;  or  he  breaks  from  his  fit  of  musing, 
and  gallops  wildly  over  the  field,  but  with 
no  certain  course,  and  with  no  determinate 
object.  Soon  his  appetite  fails,  or  he 
evidently  feels  so  much  inconvenience 
when  he  stoops  to  graze,  that  he  gives  up 
eating  altogether;  and  then  he  wastes 
rapidly  away :  he  seems  to  be  half 
stupid,  and  at  length  dies  a  mere  skele- 
ton. 

The  disease  generally  attacks  the 
weakest  of  the  flock.  It  is  in  some 
measure  connected  with  a  peculiar  state 
of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  most  prevalent 
after  a  moist  winter,  and  cold,  ungenial 
spring.  It  usually  begins  in  the  spring, 
continues  through  the  summer,  and  dis- 
appears as  the  winter  approaches.  It  is 
dependent  partly  on  the  season,  but  more 
on  the  health  and  strength  of  the  animal. 
It  may  be  prevented  by  good  upland 
pasture;  and  is  most  common  in  low  and 
xnarshy  ground.     It   is   not    contagious, 


nor  does  it  seem  to  be  hereditary.  Hav- 
ing once  attacked  the  animal,  and  gradual 
loss  of  flesh  having  commenced,  the 
case  is  hopeless. 

All  medicine  will  be  thrown  away  in 
such  a  case.  It  is  the  consequence  of 
pressure  on  the  brain  by  a  strange, 
bladder-like-formed  animal  j  and  it  would 
be  more  for  the  advantage  of  the  owner 
to  destroy  the  sheep,  however  out  of 
condition  it  may  be,  than  to  commence 
any  desperate  and  fruitless  course  of 
medicine. 

Various  methods  have  been  tried  in 
order  to  break  this  bladder,  such  as  hunt- 
ing the  sheep  with  dogs,  and  frightening 
him  half  to  death,  throwing  him  into  a 
gravel-pit,  and  various  other  absurd  as 
well  as  brutal  methods.  They  who  pur- 
sued this  course  much  oftener  succeeded 
in  breaking  the  animal's  neck  than  rup- 
turing the  bladder.  At  length  some 
persons  bethought  them  of  getting  at, 
and  puncturing  or  removing,  this  bladder 
by  some  operation.  They  thrust  iron 
wires  or  skewers  up  the  nostril,  and  into 
the  brain,  and  sometimes  succeeded  in 
effecting  their  purpose.  If  they  hit  upon 
the  nuisance,  and  pierced  its  envelope  or 
skin,  they  were  made  aware  of  it  by  a 
greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  water  flow- 
ing from  the  nostril,  and  they  could 
always  tell  on  which  side  the  hydatid  lay, 
by  the  sheep  inclining  his  head  that  way. 
They  could  also  sometimes  tell  the  precise 
situation  of  the  bladder;  for  after  being 
a  long  time  inclosed  between  the  skulL 
and  the  brain,  and  pressed  upon  both, 
and  pressing  upon  both  of  them  in  turn,, 
not  only  in  consequence  of  that  pressure 
was  a  portion  of  the  brain  below  destroyed 
and  absorbed,  but  even  the  bone  above 
was  softened,  nothing  but  a  yielding 
membrane  sometimes  remaining  over  a 
particular  spot.  Some  surgeons  suggested 
that  this  membrane  should  be  punctured, 
and  it  was  done  so  with  the  lancet,  or, 
oftener,  by  a  heated  sharp-pointed  wire, 
and  thus  the  creature  beneath  was 
wounded  and  destroyed.  Others  im- 
proved upon  this  method  of  operating. 
A  surgeon's  trephine  was  used,  and  a 
circular  piece  of  the  skull  taken  out* at 
the  place  where  it  was  softened,  and  thus 
the  hydatid  was  bodily  removed;  and 
when  this  was  carefully  done,  and  the 
bladder  was  not  broken,  the  hydatid,  by 


204 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


slight  but  sufficiently  distinct  motion, 
when  put  into  warm  water,  showed  that 
it  was  alive. 

Both  these  operations  occasionally  suc- 
ceeded, but  the  instances  of  failure  were 
so  numerous,  that  the  farmer's  interest 
still  required  that  he  should  kill  every 
sheep,  unless  a  favorite,  or  very  valuable 
one,  as  soon  as  he  was  evidently  sturdied, 
and  before  he  had  wasted  and  become 
unfit  for  the  market. 

There  may,  however,  be  some  preven- 
tion, although  no  cure ;  and  that  preven- 
tion consists  in  good  and  sufficient,  and 
upland  pasture,  yet  in  some  untoward 
seasons  even  this  will  not  avail  with 
unhealthy  and  weakly  animals.  Habitual 
shelter  from  the  sleet  and  snow  of  winter 
is  another  and  very  important  means  of 
prevention.  The  unfeeling  abandonment 
of  the  sheep  to  all  the  inclemency  of  the 
coldest  weather  is  the  fruitful  source  of 
the  majority  of  the  diseases,  and  of  the 
most  fatal  ones,  to  which  these  animals 
are  subject. 

This  malady  is  sometimes  accompanied 
by  palsy.  Every  continued  pressure  on 
the  brain  is  apt  to  produce  loss  of  power 
•over  some  of  the  limbs;  but  in  this  case 
the  palsy  is  variable ;  it  shifts  from  limb 
to  limb,  and  from  side  to  side,  and,  unlike 
simple  palsy,  is  generally  attended  by 
partial  blindness,  and  by  the  greatest 
degree  of  stupidity. 

We  repeat  it  again,  that  no  medicine 
can  be  of  the  least  avail  in  destroyi-g 
the  blob,  as  it  is  called  in  some  parts  of 
the  country ;  but  if  either  of  the  opera- 
tions is  tried,  one  of  the  purging  drinks 
may  be  useful  in  abating  inflammation ; 
and  whether  the  skull  is  punctured  or 
trephined,  a  pitch  plaster  over  the  wound 
will  preserve  the  sheep  from  being  tor- 
tured by  the  flies. 

SHEEP,  Inflammation  of  the  Brain  in. 
This,  although  a  frequent  disease  of  the 
sheep,  and  of  the  same  part,  and  almost 
as  fatal  as  that  which  has  been  just 
described,  is  accompanied  by  such  differ- 
ent symptoms,  that  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  confound  them.  Inflammation  of  the 
brain  generally  attacks  the  healthiest 
sheep,  and  of  all  ages,  and  more  in  hot 
weather  than  in  tne  early  part  of  spring. 
There  is  no  character  of  stupidity  about 
this  affection,  no  disinclination  to  move, 
no  moving  round  and  round  without  any 


determinate  object;  but  the  eyes  arc- 
protruding,  bloodshot,  and  bright;  and 
there  is  an  eager  and  ferocious,  not  a 
depressed  and  anxious  countenance.  The 
animal  is  in  constant  motion;  he  gallops 
about,  attacking  his  fellows,  attacking  the 
shepherd,  and  sometimes  quarrelling  with 
a  post  or  tree ;  he  is  laboring  under  wild 
delirium,  and  this  continues  until  he  is 
absolutely  exhausted.  He  then  stands 
still,  or  lies  down  for  a  while  panting 
dreadfully,  when  he  starts  afresh,  as  de- 
lirious and  as  ungovernable  as  before. 

The  first  and  the  grand  remedy  is 
bleeding;  and  that  from  the  jugular, 
and  copiously,  and  to  be  obtained  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  guide  as  to 
the  quantity  will  be  the  dropping  of  the 
animal.  To  bleeding,  physicking  will  of 
course  succeed,  and  the  sheep  should  be 
removed  into  a  less  luxuriant  pasture. 
This  also  is  one  of  the  diseases  that 
should  be  attacked  at  its  very  commence- 
ment. Violent  inflammation  c  f  the  brain 
and  its  membranes  will  very  soon  be 
followed  by  serious  disorganization ;  and 
if  water  once  begins  to  be  formed  under 
the  membranes,  or  effused  in  the  ven- 
tricles, the  case  is  hopeless.  Here  also 
the  attention  of  the  farmer  should  be 
directed  to  preventives.  One  case  of 
goggles  may  be  accidental ;  but  if  two  or 
three  are  seized  with  inflammation  of  the 
brsvn,  the  farmer  may  be  assured  that 
there  is  something  wrong  in  his  system 
of  management,  and  that  which,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  is  the  root  of  the  evil, 
is  too  rich  pasture,  probably  succeeding 
to  spare  feed.  A  dose  of  salts  should, 
therefore,  be  given  to  each  sheep,  and 
the  pasture  of  the  whole  should  be 
changed. 

SHEEP,  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs 
in. — Is  not  unfrequently  the  result  of  a 
common  cold,  not  attended  to,  the  dis- 
ease extending  itself  to  the  lungs :  it  more 
commonly  appears  in  the  spring  of  the 
year ;  its  symptoms  are  dullness,  hanging 
of  the  ears,  quick  breathing,  cough,  and 
discharge  from  the  nostrils.  The  animal 
should  be  bled  freely  from  the  neck — a 
pint  in  general  will  not  be  too  much  for 
a  full  grown  animal  to  lose.  After  this  a 
dose  of  salts  should  be  given,  and  should 
be  followed  by  the  fever  drink  (see  No. 
68  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for) 
once  a  day. 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


205 


SHEEP,  Blown  or  Blast  in.— This  is  of 
as  frequent  occurrence  among  sheep  as 
oxen,  and  it  is  as  fatal.  The  cause  is  the 
same,  the  removal  of  the  animals  from 
poor  keep  to  rich  and  succulent  food. 
When  sheep  are  first  turned  on  clover,  or 
even  on  any  pasture  more  nutritious  than 
that  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed, 
if  they  are  not  watched  and  kept  moving 
during  the  day,  and  folded  elsewhere  at 
night,  they  are  too  apt  to  overload  the 
paunch,  so  that  it  can  no  longer  contract 
upon  and  expel  its  contents;  fermenta- 
tion then  ensues,  and  the  extrication  of 
gas ;  the  paunch  is  distended  to  the  ut- 
most, and  the  animal  is  often  suffocated. 
The  remedy  of  the  farmer  is  the  same 
here  as  with  the  ox — paunching,  or  thrust- 
ing a  sharp  pen-knife  into  the  paunch,  be- 
tween the  hip  bone  and  the  last  rib  on 
the  left  side,  when  the  gas  with  which  the 
the  stomach  is  distended  will  escape. 
The  objection  to  this  practice  is  likewise 
the  same  as  in  oxen — that  when  a  por- 
tion of  the  gas  has  escaped,  the  stom- 
ach will  no  longer  be  firmly  pressed 
against  the  side,  and  the  wounds  in  the 
side  and  the  paunch  will  no  longer  exact- 
ly correspond ;  a  portion  of  the  gas,  and 
of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  too,  will 
then  pass  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen, 
and  (although  the  animal  may  seem  for  a 
while  to  recover  (will  be  an  unsuspected 
source  of  inflammation,  and  even  of 
death. 

The  common  elastic  tube,  so  strongly 
recommended  by  Dr.  Duncan,  is  prefera- 
ble to  the  knife;  the  gas  will  escape  as 
completely,  and  without  possibility  of 
danger.  It  is  passed  down  the  gullet 
into  the  paunch.  The  stomach-pump, 
however,  is  here  likewise  a  far  preferable 
instrument,  for,  as  was  remarked  when 
treating  of  the  hoove  in  oxen,  the  acid 
fluid  which  is  probably  in  the  stomach 
may  be  pumped  out,  or  sufficient  warm 
water  pumped  in  to  excite  vomiting,  and 
thus  free  the  stomach  of  its  oppressive 
load.  If  neither  the  pump  nor  the  tube 
is  at  hand,  a  stick  with  a  knob  at  the  end 
of  it  should  be  passed  by  the  shepherd 
into  the  paunch,  which,  separating  the 
muscular  pillars  that  constitute  the  roof  of 
this  stomach,  is  far  preferable  to  the  knife. 

When  a  sheep  is  first  seized  with  the 
blown  or  blast,  he  will  often  be  relieved 
by  being  driven  gently  about  for  an  hour 


or  two  and  put  into  a  bare  pasture.  In 
the  act  of  moving,  these  pillars  will  be 
occasionally  separated  a  little  from  each 
other,  and  the  gas  will  escape;  but  the 
animal  must  not  be  galloped  or  driven  by 
dogs,  lest  the  stomach  should  be  rup- 
tured. 

The  animal  having  been  relieved,  or 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  evacuated,  a 
purgative  should  always  be  administered, 
and  that  combined  with  some  aromatic. 
The  physic  for  blown  (see  No.  71,  Domes- 
tic Animals,  Medicines  for)  will  be 
useful. 

The  same  treatment  recommended  for 
cattle  for  this  disease  is  likewise  equally 
desirable  for  sheep,  the  dose  being  about 
one-sixth  or  one-eighth  less  in  quantity. 

SHEEP,  the  Yellows  or  Jaundice  in. — 
Sheep  are  subject  to  several  sad  affections 
of  the  liver,  among  which  ranks  that 
destructive  disease,  the  rot.  Jaundice  is. 
a  less  formidable  malady,  but  often  suf- 
ficiently destructive.  It  consists  of  a  su- 
perabundant discharge  of  bile,  or  an  ob- 
struction of  the  biliary  tubes;  and  in 
either  case  a  considerable  quantity  of  bile' 
enters  into  the  circulation,  penetrates  into 
the  capillary  vessels,  and  thus  tinges  the- 
skin.  A  superabundant  discharge  of  the 
bile  is  the  most  frequent  cause. 

The  liver  seems  to  be  a  very  tender  or- 
gan in  fatted  and  pampered  sheep,  and 
easily  inflamed  or  put  out  of  order.  In 
the  half-starved,  half-wild  varieties  of 
sheep,  inflammation  of  the  liver  and 
jaundice  seldom  occurs;  but  too  high 
living  exhibits  injurious  consequences  in 
this  organ  first  of  all.  It  is  often  seen, 
after  sheep  have  been  moved  into  fair  but 
not  too  luxurious  pasture,  that  if  they 
have  escaped  the  blown,  a  yellowness 
has  soon  begun  to  steal  over  the  eyes  and? 
the  mouth,  and  the  skin  generally;  and 
the  animal  has  been  dull,  and  has  dis- 
liked to  move,  and  has  sometimes  been 
purged,  but  more  frequently  costive,  and 
the  urine  has  been  of  a  dark,  yellow- 
brown  color.  The  liver  could  not  main- 
tain its  healthy  state  under  this  injudicious 
increase  of  nutriment.  When  the  farmer 
and  the  shepherd  have  either  neglected  ta 
observe  this,  or  to  adopt  the  proper  treat- 
ment, many  of  the  sheep  have  died  in  a 
few  days.  On  examination  after  death,, 
marks  of  intense  inflammation  have  ap- 
peared everywhere,  but  more  particularly 


2oG 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


in  the  liver,  which  has  been  of  a  red- 
brown  color,  and  double  its  natural  size, 
and  is  broken  to  pieces  with  the  slightest 
force. 

If  it  is  taken  in  time,  this  is  not  a  dis- 
ease difficult  to  treat.  On  the  first  de- 
cided yellowness  being  observed,  the  ani- 
mal should  be  removed  to  a  bare  field, 
and  should  have  the  purging  Drink  (See 
,No.  66,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,);  half  doses  of  it  should  also  be  re- 
peated for  several  successive  mornings,  so 
that  the  bowels  may  be  kept  in  a  relaxed 
state.  Mercury  will  not  be  wanted.  Cal- 
omel is  rarely  a  safe  medicine,  and  is  a 
very  uncertain  one  for  sheep.  A  little 
starvation  and  plenty  of  purgative  medi- 
cine will  be  all  that  is  required.  Should 
the  animal  appear  to  be  considerably 
weakened,  General  Tonic  Drink,  (See  No. 
72,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  will  be  used. 

SHEEP,  Cold,  and  Discharge  from  the 
Nose,  etc.,  in.— Here  again,  from  the  cru- 
el and  impolitic  abandonment  of  the 
sheep,  hundreds  of  them  are  tost  during 
the  winter.  When  they  are  drenched  to 
the  skin  by  continual  rams,  or  half  smoth- 
ered with  snow,  and  have  not  even  a 
hedge  a  yard  high  to  break  the  biting 
blast,  can  it  be  wondered  that  cold  and 
cough  should  be  frequent  in  the  flock] 
and  that  it  should  be  severe  and  unman- 
ageable, and  even  occasionally  run  on  co 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  consump- 
tion and  death?  We  are  not  an  advocate 
of  close  housing,  or  too  much  nursing.  Wo 
am  aware  that  we  may  thus  render  the 
sheep  unnaturally  tender  and  moie  ex- 
posed to  catarrh  and  all  its  consequences* 
but  we  would  tell  the  farmer,  that  the 
fleece  of  the  sheep,  however  thick,  is  an 
insufficient  protection  in  cold  and  wet 
weather,  and  an  open  and  bleak  situation. 

The  symptoms  of  catarrh  are  heavi- 
ness, watery  eyes,  running  from  the  nose. 
The  discharge  is  thick,  and  clings  about 
the  nostril,  and  obstructs  it,  and  the  sheep 
is  compelled  to  suspend  its  grazing  al- 
most every  minute,  and  with  violent  ef- 
forts blow  away  the  obstruction.  Cough 
frequently  accompanies  this  discharge; 
and  if  there  is  much  fever,  it  will  be 
shown  by  loss  of  appetite  and  rapid 
weakness. 

There  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils 
which  sometimes  attacks  the  whole  flock, 


and  if  it  is  not  attended  by  wasting  u 
flesh  or  loss  of  appetite,  the  farmer  does 
not  regard  it;  for  he  knows  from  experi- 
ence, that,  in  spite  of  all  he  can  do,  it  will 
probably  last  through  the  winter,  and  dis- 
appear as  the  spring  advances.  When, 
however,  he  perceives  this  nasal  gleet,  he 
should  keep  a  sharp  look-out  over  his 
flock,  and  if  there  is  one  that  stays  be- 
hind, or  will  not  eat,  he  should  catch 
him,  and  remove  him  to  a  warmer  situa- 
tion, and  bleed  him,  and  give  him  the  lax- 
ative and  fever  drinks,  and  nurse  him  with 
mashes  and  hay.  If  a  seeond  or  a  third 
sheep  should  fail  in  the  same  manner,  he 
must  indeed  look  about  him;  there  is 
danger  to  all,  for  the  inflammation  has 
spread  itself  from  the  throat  down  the 
windpipe  to  the  air-passages  of  the  lungs, 
and  a  very  dangerous  disease,  called 
bronchitis,  is  produced.  He  must  move 
the  whole  flock  to  a  more  sheltered  situa- 
tion. He  must  move  them  to  a  pasture 
of  somewhat  different  character.  He 
must  take  them  from  their  turnips  or  their 
hay,  and  give  them  what  other  food  his 
farm  will  afford.  He  should,  if  he  will 
take  the  trouble  to  do  so  (and  he  would 
be  amply  repaid  for  that  trouble),  bleed 
them  all  round,  and  physic  them  all. 
This  is  strange  doctrine  to  the  farmer, 
who  is  accustomed  to  look  on  and  let 
things  take  their  course.  It  is,  however, 
good  advice,  and  he  will  find  it  so,  if  he 
w..l  but  follow  it.  Yet  let  him  not,  in 
iiis  determination  to  rouse  himself  and  do 
something,  listen  too  much  to  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  shepherd  or  the  farrier. 
Let  him  not  give  any  of  those  abomina- 
ble cordial  drinks,  which  have  destroyed 
thousands  of  sheep.  Warmth,  housing  at 
night,  littering  with  clean  straw,  and 
warm  gruel  if  the  animal  will  not  eat  or 
drink,  are  not  only  allowable,  but  useful : 
nay,,  we  would  allow  a  little  ginger  or  a  lit- 
tle ale  with  the  medicine ;  but  not  those 
compounds  of  all  manner  of  hot  and  in- 
jurious spices,  which  would  kindle  a  fire 
in  the  veins  of  the  animal,  if  it  were  not 
blazing  there  before. 

Experienced  sheep-breeders  recommend 
a  dose  of  tar,  to  be  repeated  for  foul 
noses,  but  lest  that  be  neglected,  it  is  re- 
commended as  a  good  precaution,  under 
all  circumstances,  to  have  some  small  sap- 
lings or  small  trees  bored  with  a  large  au- 
ger at  proper  distances,  and  the  holes  to 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


207 


be  kept  supplied  with  common  salt.  Let 
the  edges  of  these  holes  be  smeared  with 
tar,  and  thus  the  sheep  in  the  act  of  get- 
ting the  salt  will  tar  his  own  nose.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  this  would  be  a 
good  and  wholesome  practice  as  an  item 
of  general  management.  Few  farmers  at- 
tend as  they  ought  to  do,  to  having  their 
stock  regularly  and  plentifully  salted,  and 
there  is  known  to  be  something  in  tar  and 
in  resinous  plants,  as  pine  and  cedar,  par- 
ticularly healthy  for  sheep. 

SHEEP,  Influenza  in. — Sometimes  a 
catarrh  assumes  an  epidemic  form,  and 
appears  as  the  influenza.  This  disease 
may  be  distinguished  from  a  cold,  or 
from  bronchitis,  by  the  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  being  more  profuse  and  the 
eyes  nearly  closed,  great  uneasiness  of 
the  head,  and  a  sudden  prostration  of 
strength.  Sometimes  the  animal  will  run 
round  in  a  circle,  and  a  rattling  will  be 
heard  in  the  windpipe ;  the  symptoms  will 
be  soon  followed  by  death. 

Bleeding  should  in  general  be  abstain- 
ed from  in  this  disease,  but  half  an  ounce 
of  Epsom  salts,  with  one  drachm  of  gen- 
tian, should  be  given  dissolved  in  gruel ; 
but  if  the  sheep  purged  before,  instead  of 
the  above  the  strengthening  drink  (see 
No.  70,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for)  should  be  given,  and  be  assisted  by 
good  nursing  and  care. 

SHEEP,  Bot  in  the.— This  disease  is 
the  very  pest  of  the  sheep,  and  destroys 
more  of  them  than  all  the  other  maladies 
put  together.  There  are  few  winters  in 
which  it  may  not  be  safely  said  that 
many  hundred  thousands  perish  by  it. 
The  cause  seems  to  be  better  understood 
than  it  used  to  be,  and  on  many  a  pasture 
that  had  formerly  obtained  a  fatal  celeb- 
rity for  rotting  sheep,  they  may  now  feed 
securely ;  yet  almost  as  many  sheep  die 
of  the  rot  as  there  ever  did. 

The  symptoms  of  the  rot  in  the  early 
•stage  are  exceedingly  obscure.  There  is 
little  to  indicate  the  existence  of  the 
disease,  even  to  the  most  accurate  ob- 
server. This  is  one  cause  of  the  mischief 
that  is  done ;  for  it  prevents  the  malady 
from  being  attacked  when  only  it  could 
be  conquered.  The  earliest  symptom  is 
one  that  is  common  to  a  great  many 
other  diseases,  and  from  which  no  certain 
conclusion  can  be  drawn,  except  that  the 
animal  is  ill,  and  labors  under  fever.  The 


sheep  is  dull,  he  lags  behind  in  his 
journey  to  and  from  the  fold,  and  he  does 
not  feed  quite  so  well ;  but  these  are  as 
much  early  symptoms  of  the  staggers  as 
of  the  rot. 

This,  however,  goes  on  for  some  time, 
and  then  a  palish  yellow  hue  steals  over 
the  skin,  easy  enough  to  be  seen  when  the 
wool  is  parted,  and  most  evident  in  the 
eyelids,  and  that  which  is  generally  called 
the  white  of  the  eyes.  The  lips  and 
mouth  are  soon  tinged,  but  not  to  so 
great  a  degree.  The  sheep  does  not 
otherwise  appear  to  be  ill.  If  he  does 
not  eat  much,  he  does  not  lose  flesh ;  on 
the  contrary,  he  seems  to  gain  condition, 
and  that  for  several  weeks. 

This  thriving  period  soon  passes  over, 
and  the  sheep  begin  to  waste  much  more 
rapidly  than  they  had  acquired  condition. 
First,  there  is  a  perceptible  alteration  in 
the  countenance — a  depressed,  unhealthy 
appearance,  accompanied  by  increased 
yellowness.  The  tongue  especially  be- 
comes pale  and  livid.  The  animal  is 
feverish ;  the  heat  of  the  mouth,  and  the 
panting,  and  heaving  of  the  flanks,  and 
general  dullness,  sufficiently  indicate  this. 
Some  degree  of  cough  comes  on  ;  some 
discharge  from  the  nose;  or  the  breath 
begins  to  be  exceedingly  offensive.  The 
sheep  is  sometimes  costive ;  at  other  times 
it  purges  with  a  violence  which  nothing 
can  arrest,  and  the  matter  discharged  is 
unusually  offensive,  and  often  streaked 
with  blood.  And  now  the  soft  mellow 
feel  of  the  sheep  in  condition  is  no  longer 
found,  but  there  is  an  unhealthy  flabbi- 
ness ;  even  where  there  is  but  little  left 
between  the  skin  and  the  bone,  there  is  a 
flabby — a  kind  of  pitty  feeling ;  the  parts 
give  way,  but  they  have  lost  their  elas- 
ticity, and  they  do  not  plump  up  again ; 
there  is  also  a  crackling  sound  when  the 
loins  or  back  are  pressed  upon.  The 
fanner  knows  what  this  is,  and  what  he 
is  to  expect,  both  in  the  sheep  and  the 
ox;  very  few  of  them  recover  after  this 
crackling  has  once  been  heard 

At  an  uncertain  period  of  the  disease 
the  sheep  usually  become  what  the 
graziers  call  chockered,  that  is,  a  consider- 
able swelling  appears  under  the  chin.  If 
this  is  punctured,  sometimes  a  watery 
fluid  escapes,  and  sometimes  matter;  and 
occasionally  the  swelling  bursts,  and  aft 
ulcer,  very  difficult  to  heal,  follows. 


208 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


The  bowels,  which  are  variable  at  first, 
become  at  length  very  relaxed.  A  fetid 
purging  comes  on  of  all  colors,  and 
which  pursues  its  course  in  defiance  of 
every  astringent. 

The  wool  begins  to  fall  off  in  patches ; 
it  is  loose  all  over  the  animal,  and  easily 
pulled  off,  and  there  is  a  white  scurfiness 
adhering  to  its  roots.  The  disease  now 
still  more  rapidly  proceeds;  and  while 
the  sheep  loses  flesh  every  day,  and  every 
rib  and  every  bone  of  the  back  can  be 
plainly  felt,  his  belly  increases — he  gets 
dropsical.     The  end  is  not  then  far  off. 

The  progress  of  the  disease  is  more  or 
less  rapid,  according  to  the  violence  of 
the  attack,  or  the  strength  or  weakness 
of  the  sheep,  or  the  care  that  is  bestowed 
on  him,  or  the  utter  neglect  to  which  he 
is  abandoned.  The  animal  occasionally 
dies  in  two  months  after  the  first  evident 
symptom  of  rot,  but  usually  four  or  five 
or  six  months  elapse  before  the  animal  is 
perfectly  exhausted. 

The  farmer  is  not  much  accustomed  to 
examine  his  sheep  after  death.  It  would 
be  better  for  him  if  he  paid  more  atten- 
tion to  this,  for  he  would  discover  the 
nature,  and  probably  the  cause,  of  many 
a  complaint  that  is  committing  sad  rav- 
ages in  his  flock.  The  appearances  ex- 
hibited in  the  sheep  that  has  died  of  the 
rot  are  very  singular.  There  appears  to 
be  dropsy,  not  only  in  the  belly,  but  all 
over  the  animal.  Wherever  the  knife  is 
used,  a  yellow  watery  fluid  runs  out ;  and 
the  consequence  of  the  existence  of  this 
fluid  everywhere  is,  that  the  muscles,  and 
that  which  should  be  firm,  honest  fat,  are 
yielding,  and  flabby,  and  unwholesome. 
When  the  belly  and  chest  are  opened, 
the  heart  is  pale,  and  soft,  and  flabby, 
and  often  to  such  a  degree  that  we 
wonder  how  it  could  have  continued  to 
discharge  its  duty.  The  lungs  are  more 
or  less  gorged  with  blood ;  and  there  are 
a  great  many  hard  knotty  points,  of 
various  sizes  (tubercles)  in  them  and  on 
them,  some  of  which  have  probably 
broken,  and  the  lungs  are  full  of  ulcers ; 
or  when  this  is  not  the  case,  the  lungs 
are  studded  with  innumerable  little  knotty 
points  of  a  dark  color. 

The  principal  disease,  however,  is  in 
the  liver,  which  is  much  enlarged,  often 
of  double  its  natural  size,  broken  down 
by  the  slightest  touch,  sometimes  black 


from  inflammation  and  congested  blood, 
and  at  other  times  of  an  unhealthy  livid- 
ness ;  but  that  which  is  most  remarkable, 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  disease, 
is,  that  its  vessels  are  filled  with  flukes, 
curiously-shaped  things  like  little  soles, 
which  are  swimming  about  in  the  bile  in 
every  duct,  and  burrowing  into  every  part 
of  the  liver.  Several  hundreds  of  them 
are  sometimes  contained  in  one  liver.  A 
few  of  them  may  occasionally  be  found 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  intestines,  but 
rhere  only. 

The  upper  part  of  the  liver  is  frequently 
speckled  like  the  body  of  a  toad ;  indeed 
this  has  been  so  often  remarked,  that  the 
examiner,  if  he  does  not  find  flukes,  and 
sometimes  when  he  does,  looks  out  for 
the  toad's  liver.  The  liver  is  so  diseased 
and  corrupted,  that  if  an  attempt  is  made 
to  boil  it,  instead  of  becoming  hardened, 
it  falls  all  to  pieces,  or  is  in  a  manner 
dissolved.  Abscesses  are  oftener  found 
in  the  liver  than  in  the  lungs,  and  to  an 
extent  sufficient  to  destroy  the  sheep 
without  any  other  cause.  Sometimes 
there  are  knots  in  the  liver  as  well  as  in 
the  lungs — small,  round,  hardened  lumps 
— and  in  a  few  cases  they  are  so  numer- 
ous that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  a 
sound  part. 

If  the  farmer  would  accustom  himself 
to  observe  these  things,  and  carefully 
examine  every  sheep  that  dies  in  the 
autumn,  he  would  sometimes  detect  the 
existence  of  this  disease  in  his  flock 
before  he  would  otherwise  have  been 
aware  of  it.  Nay,  he  should  not  confine 
his  examination  to  this,  but  should  ob- 
serve the  appearance  of  the  inside  of 
every  sheep  which  he  may  kill  for  the  use 
of  his  family  about  that  time.  It  should 
be  a  practice  never  omitted,  and  however 
seemingly  healthy  the  animal  may  die, 
whatever  quantity  of  suet  may  cover  the 
kidneys,  if  the  liver  is  dappled  with  white 
spots,  or  if  the  vessels  of  the  liver  are 
thickened,  and  if  there  are  flukes,  how- 
ever small,  floating  about  in  the  bile,  that 
sheep  was  certainly  rotted;  and  if  one 
sheep  is  rotted,  the  greater  part  of  the 
remainder  will  probably  follow.  Aware 
of  this,  and  at  this  early  period  of  the 
disease,  the  grazier  may,  either  by  hasten- 
ing the  fattening  process,  or  shifting  the 
pasture,  or  adopting  medical  treatment, 
put    many    scores    of  pounds    into   his. 


SHEEP— CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


zog 


pocket,  which  would  otherwise  be  irre- 
coverably lost. 

The  history  of  the  rot  is  plain  enough 
here.  It  prevails,  or  rather  it  is  found 
only  in  boggy,  poachy  ground.  On  up- 
land pasture,  with  a  light  sandy  soil,  it  is 
never  seen :  and  in  good  sound  pasture, 
in  a  lower  situation,  it  is  only  seen  when, 
from  an  unusually  wet  season,  that  pas- 
ture has  become  boggy  and  poachy.  It 
is  also  proved  to  demonstration,  that  land 
that  has  been  notoriously  rotting  ground, 
has  been  rendered  perfectly  sound  and 
healthy  by  being  well  underdrained,  that 
is,  by  being  made  dry.  There  are  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  acres,  on  which  a 
sheep,  forty  years  ago,  could  not  pasture 
for  a  day  without  becoming  rotten,  that 
are  now  perfectly  healthy. 

We  can  also  tell  the  kind  of  wet  ground 
which  will  give  the  rot.  Wherever  the 
water  will  soon  run  off,  there  is  no  dan- 
ger; but  where  it  lies  upon  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  slowly  evaporates,  the 
rot  is  certain.  One  part  of  a  common 
shall  be  enclosed ;  or  if  it  has  not  been 
drained,  at  least  the  hollows  in  which  the 
water  used  to  stand  are  filled  up,  and  the 
surface  is  levelled :  no  rot  is  caught  there. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  hedge  there  are 
these  marshy  places,  these  little  stagnant 
ponds,  where  evaporation  is  always  going 
forward,  and  the  ground  is  never  dry — a 
sheep  cannot  put  his  foot  there  without 
being  rotted.  These  are  plain,  palpable 
facts,  and  they  are  sufficient  for  the  farm- 
er's purpose,  without  his  puzzling  his 
brains  about  the  manner  in  which  wet 
ground  produces  diseased  liver. 

He  may  be  assured  that  it  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  animal's  feeding  on  stimu- 
lating or  poisonous  herbs.  It  has  noth- 
ing whatever  to  do  with  the  food.  It 
depends  on  the  wetness  or  dryness  of  the 
pasture. 

How  is  it,  then,  that  when  so  great  a 
part  of  the  country  is  underdrained,  the 
rot  should  continue  to  be  almost  as  prev- 
alent as  ever?  Why  is  it  not  so  prevalent 
where  the  ground  has  been  properly 
underdrained?  There  are  fields  in  every 
well-managed  farm  in  which  the  rot  is 
never  known ;  there  are  others  in  which 
it  still  continues  to  depopulate  the  flock. 

The  draining  may  not  be  equally  ef- 
fectual in  both.  It  might  have  been 
carelessly,  superficially  performed  in  the 

14 


one  case ;  or  the  soil  of  the  two  pastures 
may  be  very  different.  The  one  may  be 
light  and  porous,  and  a  little  draining 
may  effect  the  purpose :  the  soil  of  the 
other  may  be  heavy  and  tenacious,  and 
drains  not  more  than  a  yard  asunder  would 
scarcely  keep  it  dry.  What  is  more  to 
the  purpose,  but  less  thought  of,  there 
may  be  little  nooks  and  corners  in  the 
field  that  have  not  been  underdrained. 
A  few  minutes'  trampling  upon  them  will 
be  fatal  to  the  sheep,  and  one  or  two  of 
them  upon  the  whole  farm  will  render  all 
the  labor  bestowed  on  every  other  part 
absolutely  nugatory. 

It  is  surprising  how  soon  the  animal  is 
infected.  The  merely  going  once  to 
drink  from  a  notably  dangerous  pond  has 
been  sufficient.  The  passing  over  one 
suspicious  common  in  the  way  to  or  from 
the  fair,  and  the  lingering  only  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  deep  and  poachy  lane,. 
Then  it  can  easily  be  conceived  what 
mischief  one  or  two  of  these  neglected 
corners,  in  which  there  may  be  little 
swamps  perhaps  only  a  yard  or  two 
across,  may  do  in  a  farm  in  other  respects 
well  managed,  and  perfectly  free  from  in- 
fection. 

The  disease  of  the  liver,  terminating  in 
or  constituting  the  rot,  is,  then,  depend- 
ent on  moisture,  and  that  retained  for  a 
certain  time  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
so  that  the  process  of  evaporation  may 
have  commenced;  it  is  also  probable  that 
the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter 
growing  on  the  surface  has  much  to  do 
in  producing  the  complaint. 

If  sheep-breeders  would  get  more  into- 
the  habit  of  having  oxen  to  turn  upon 
the  aftermath  of  their  low  and  dangerous 
pastures,  instead  of  venturing  so  frequent- 
ly to  send  their  sheep  there,  because  they 
cannot  afford  to  lose  that  portion  of  the 
crop,  they  would  not  suffer  the  grievous, 
losses  which  sometimes  almost  break, 
them  down. 

The  preventive,  then,  seems  plain 
enough.  On  good  sound  ground  the 
sheep  need  not  fear  the  rot;  and  other 
stock  should  be  kept  on  the  farm  to  pas- 
ture on  the  suspicious  or  dangerous  places. 
The  draining  should  be  effective  where  it 
is  attempted,  and  no  nook  or  corner 
should  escape. 

Can  anything  be  done  by  way  of  cure? 
Probably   there  may,  and  a  great   deal 


2IO 


SHEEP—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


more  than  the  farmer  imagines.  All, 
however,  depends  upon  the  stage  of  the 
disease.  The  liver  may  be  diseased,  but 
it  must  not  be  disorganized ;  it  must  not 
be  tu  berculated  or  ulcerated ;  and  the  flukes 
must  not  have  burrowed  too  deeply  into  it. 
The  farmer,  from  habitual  observation  of 
his  flock,  must  have  discovered  it  at  the 
very  commencement  of  its  attack,  or  he 
must  have  been  made  aware  of  it  by  the 
examination  of  some  sheep  that  died,  or 
that  had  been  slaughtered  for  the  use  of 
his  family.  Then  he  may  do  good. 
Good  is  often  done  without  his  help.  A 
succession  of  dry  weather  will  often  stop, 
or  at  least  retard,  the  ravages  of  the  rot. 
If  moisture  be  the  cause  of  it,  he  must 
remove  that  cause.  He  must  change  the 
pasture,  and  drive  his  flock  to  the  driest 
ground  his  farm  contains;  and  besides 
this,  he  must  give  a  little  dry  meat — a 
little  hay.  Some  have  advised  to  feed 
the  suspected  sheep  altogether  on  hay. 
This  is  carrying  the  matter  a  little  too 
far ;  for  in  the  prime  of  the  season  the 
sheep  will  pine  for  the  grass,  and  rapidly 
lose  condition  for  want  of  it.  A  change 
to  a  thoroughly  dry  pasture  will  some- 
times do  wonders.  At  all  events,  it  is 
worth  trying.  The  animals  must,  how- 
ever, be  carefully  watched,  and  if  it  is  not 
evident  from  their  more  cheerful  counte- 
nance and  manner,  and  the  diminution 
or  disappearance  of  the  yellowness,  that 
the  disease  is  giving  way,  advantage  must 
be  taken  of  their  present  condition,  and 
they  must  be  turned  over  to  the  butcher. 
Let  the  farmer  at  least  do  something: 
let  him  either  sell  them  at  once,  reckon- 
ing, and  generally  rightly,  that  the  first 
loss  is  the  least;  or  let  him  set  to  work 
and  endeavor  to  combat  the  disease;  but 
do  not  let  him  stand  with  folded  arms, 
and  suffer  the  best  of  his  flock  to  dwindle 
away  one  after  another. 

As  for  the  medical  treatment  of  the  rot 
in  sheep,  there  are  a  great  maxy  nos- 
trums, but  few,  if  any,  have  stood  the 
test  of  extensive  experience.  This  has 
partly  arisen  from  a  cause  which  has  al- 
ready been  hinted  at — the  disease  not 
being  recognized  and  attacked  before  it 
has  made  much  inroad  on  the  constitu- 
tion, and  when,  or  perhaps  when  only,  it 
will  yield  to  medicine.  But  we  believe  that 
with  regard  to  the  fairest  cases  every  med- 
icine has  occasionally  failed,or  failed  almost 


as  often  as  it  has  succeeded.  We  must  in 
no  case  despair;  the  disease  has  some- 
times been  suspended,  and  the  sheep  has 
recovered.  Let  not,  however,  the  prac- 
titioner be  deluded  into  the  use  of  calo- 
mel, or  blue  pill,  or  any  preparation  of 
mercury,  because  the  rot  is  an  affection 
of  the  liver.  Mercury  rarely  seems  to 
agree  with  the  herbivorous  animals  in  any 
form.  We  have  seen  it  do  much  harm  in 
some  affections  of  the  liver,  and  we  have 
known  many  animals  destroyed  by  the 
use  of  it. 

There  is,  however,  a  drug,  or,  rather,  a 
very  common  and  useful  condiment, 
which  we  believe  has  entered  into  the  com- 
position of  every  medicine  by  which  this 
complaint  has  been  successfully  treated ; 
we  mean  common  salt.  The  virtues  of 
this  substance  are  not  sufficiently  esti- 
mated, either  as  mingled  with  the  usual 
food,  or  as  an  occasional  medicine.  All 
herbivorous  animals  are  fond  of  it.  It 
increases  both  the  appetite  and  the  di- 
gestion. Cattle  will  greedly  eat  bad  for- 
age that  has  been  sprinkled  with  it,  in 
preference  to  the  best  fodder  without 
salt ;  and  it  seems  now  to  be  a  well-ascer- 
tained fact,  that  domesticated  animals  of  all 
kinds  thrive  under  its  use,  and  are  better 
able  to  discharge  the  duties  required  from 
them. 

The  consideration  of  this  induced  the 
use  of  salt  in  various  complaints,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  rot,  which  is  an  affection 
of  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  di- 
gestive organs ;  and  it  has  not  deceived 
the  expectations  that  were  raised  as  to  its 
sanative  power. 

As,  however,  the  rot  is  a  disease  ac- 
companied by  so  much  debility,  and 
wasting  of  flesh  as  well  as  of  strength, 
tonics  and  aromatics  are  usually  mingled 
with  the  salt ;  but  first  of  all  of  the  bowels 
are  evacuated  by  some  of  the  usual  pur- 
gatives, and  the  Epsom  salts  are  the 
best.  The  Mixture  for  the  Rot  (See 
No.  73,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  should  then  be  tried. 

A  table  spoonful  of  this  mixture  should 
be  given  morning  and  night  for  a  week, 
and  then  the  Second  Mixture  for  the  Rot 
(See  No.  74,  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for,)  may  be  given  at  night,  while 
the  former  is  continued  in  the  morning, 
and  by  which  the  flukes  may  be  destroy- 
ed as  the  worms  in  the  bronchial  tubes 


SHEEP—CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


211 


sometimes  are  in  the  hoose  of  young 
cattl 

The  morning  dose  should  be  given  on 
an  empty  stomach,  and  the  evening  dose 
before  the  night's  feed  is  given,  if  the  an- 
imal is  housed. 

All  the  hay  should  be  salted,  and  some 
have  recommended  that  even  the  pasture 
should  be  impregnated  with  salt.  This 
is  easily  managed.  A  little  plot  of 
ground  may  be  selected,  or  a  portion  of  a 
field  hurdled  off,  and  salt  scattered  over  it 
as  equally  as  possible,  and  in  the  propor- 
tion of  ten  bushels  to  an  acre.  Three 
weeks  afterwards  the  sheep  may  be 
turned  on  it  to  graze,  stocking  the  ground 
after  the  rate  of  ten  sheep  to  an  acre ;  in 
the  meantime  the  field  from  which  they 
are  taken  may  be  brined  in  the  same  man- 
ner. When  they  have  eaten  the  grass  quite 
close,  they  may  be  changed  back  to  the 
other  plot,  and  so  on  as  often  as  may  be 
necessary,  strewing  at  each  change  five 
bushels  of  salt  per  acre  on  the  pasture. 
The  sheep  will  fatten  at  a  rapid  rate  if  the 
disease  is  not  too  much  advanced,  and 
the  disease  will  sometimes  be  arrested 
even  in  the  worst  cases. 

It  must,  however,  be  confessed,  that 
although  sheep  are  often  saved  from  the 
rot  by  the  use  of  salt,  they  have  rarely 
been  perfectly  restored  to  their  former 
health.  The  taint  is  left ;  they  are  more 
disposed  to  receive  the  the  infection  from 
a  slight  cause ;  and,  six  or  twelve  months 
afterwards,  they  frequently  die  of  hoose 
or  inflamed  bowels ;  therefore,  it  will  be  the 
interest  of  the  farmer  to  fatten  them  as  soon 
as  possible,  and  sell  them  to  the  butcher. 
The  butcher  will  always  tell  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  liver  whether  the  sheep 
had  at  any  former  time  been  rotted.  In 
some  few  cases  lambs  have  been  procured 
from  ewes  thus  cured,  but  they  have  sel- 
dom lasted  longer  than  one  or  two 
seasons. 

SHEEP,  Blindness  in. — Sheep  are  more 
subject  to  diseases  of  the  eye  that  lead  on 
to  blindness  than  many  persons  who  are 
most  accustomed  to  them  imagine.  It  is 
a  singular  circumstance,  and  not  so  well 
known  as  it  ought  to  be,  that  if  the  eyes 
of  a  flock  of  sheep  are  carefully  exam- 
ined, half  of  them  will  exhibit  either  dis- 
ease then  present,  or  indications  of  that 
which  existed  at  no  very  distant  date. 

Inflammation  of  the  eye,  which  consti- 


tutes the  commencement  of  the  disease, 
may  arise  from  various  causes.  Sheep 
driven  fast  to  a  distant  market  have  sud- 
denly become  blind ;  those  who  have 
been  chased  about  by  dogs,  have  at  no 
great  distance  of  time  lost  their  sight,  and 
especially  if,  in  both  cases,  they  were  af- 
terwards exposed  in  a  damp  and  bleak 
situation.  The  violent  driving,  while  it 
produced  fever,  determined  an  undue 
quantity  of  blood  to  the  head;  it  pressed, 
or  perhaps  was  effused  upon  the  origins 
of  the  nerves  of  the  eye;  and  the  after 
neglect  confirmed  the  fever,  and  aggra- 
vated the  mischief. 

At  other  times,  this  seems  to  be  an  ep- 
idemic complaint.  The  greater  part  of 
the  flock  is  suddenly  afflicted  with  sore 
and  inflamed  eyes,  and  particularly  at  the 
latter  end  of  the  year,  and  when  the 
weather  has  been  variable,  yet  cold  and 
moist.  Some  have  thought  that  this  com- 
plaint is  infectious,  but  it  is  at  least  epi- 
demic. A  white  film  gradually  spreads 
over  the  eyes,  which  the  animal  generally 
keeps  closed,  while  at  first  a  watery  fluid, 
and  afterwards  a  thicker  mucous  matter, 
is  discharged  from  them.  The  film  in- 
creases until  the  whole  of  the  eye  is  of  a 
pearly  whiteness.  If  proper  means  are 
adopted,  and  often  if  nothing  is  done,  in- 
flammation abates,  and  the  eye  begins 
to  clear,  usually  commencing  at  the  up- 
per part  of  the  eye,  and  gradually  pro- 
ceeding downward  until  the  whole  of  the 
organ  is  once  more  transparent,  with  the 
exception)  perhaps,  of  a  diminutive  spot 
or  two,  or  a  discoloration  of  part  of 
the  iris.  Many  of  the  sheep,  however, 
do  not  perfectly  recover  the  sight  of 
both  eyes,  and  some  remain  totally 
blind,  either  from  the  continuance  of  the 
opacity,  or  that,  while  the  eye  becomes 
clear,  the  optic  nerve  is  palsied,  the  pu- 
pil does  not  dilate,  and  there  is  gutta 
serena. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  bleed 
from  the  vein  at  the  corner  of  the  eye. 
There  will  be  the  double  advantage  of 
bleeding  generally  and  of  drawing  blood 
from  the  inflamed  part.  The  shepherd 
should  take  the  sheep  between  his  knees, 
and  then,  placing  the  animal  with  his 
rump  against  the  wall,  he  will  have  full 
command  of  him.  If  he  now  presses 
upon  the  vein  with  his  left  hand,  about 
two  inches  from   the   angle  of  the  jaw, 


212 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


and  opposite  to  the  third  grinder,  he 
will  see  it  rise  as  it  descends  from  the 
corner  of  the  eye,  and  runs  along  the 
cheek.  He  should  puncture  it  about  an 
inch  or  rather  less  from  the  eye.  Some 
shepherds  recommend  that  the  blood 
should  be  suffered  to  run  into  the  eye, 
but  this  is  a  ridiculous  notion.  It  must 
do  harm  rather  than  good. 

Next  give  the  Purgative  Drink  (See 
No.  66  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  and  repeat  if  necessary,  in  three 
or  four  days.  No  other  medicines  will 
be  required. 

No  stimulating  application  should  be 
made  to  the  eye.  It  is  too  often  the 
practice  among  shepherds  to  apply  su- 
gar or  salt,  or  white  vitrol;  but  this 
worse  than  uselessly  tortures  the  poor 
animal;  it  increases  the  inflammation, 
and  causes  blindness  where  it  would  not 
otherwise  have  occurred.  A  drop  or 
two  of  the  vinous  tincture  of  opium  may 
be  introduced  into  the  eye,  two  or  three 
times  daily;  or  a  teaspoonful  of  lauda- 
num may  be  added  to  a  half  pint  of  water, 
and  the  eyes  frequently  washed  with  it. 

It  will  be  quite  time  enough  to  think 
of  stimulants  if  the  eye  should  remain 
cloudy  after  the  inflammation  has  sub- 
sided, and  then  the  Lotion  for  Cloudiness 
of  the  Eye  (See  No.  83  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicines  for,)  is  the  strongest 
that  can  be  permitted. 

Although,  perhaps,  it  would  be  prudent 
to  send  the  sheep  decidedly  and  confirm- 
edly  blind  to  the  butcher,  lest  they  should 
perchance  be  drowned  in  a  ditch,  or 
some  serious  accident  should  occur  to 
them,  yet  it  is  pleasing  to  observe  how 
well  they  shift  for  themselves,  and  what 
little  harm  comes  to  them.  For  the  first 
few  days  they  are  awkward  and  confused, 
but,  after  that,  they  keep  to  their  own 
walk,  and  take  with  the  others,  or  even 
by  themselves,  the  accustomed  way  home; 
and  some  one  of  the  flock  takes  the 
blind  sheep  under  his  protection,  and  is 
always  at  his  side  in  danger,  and  tells 
him  the  way  that  he  is  to  go  by  many  a 
varied  and  intelligible  bleat. 

SHEEP,  Epilepsy  in. — This  is  somewhat 
different  from  staggers,  as  the  animal  does 
not  remain  quietly  on  the  ground,  but  it 
suffers  from  convulsions,  it  kicks,  rolls  its 
eyes,  grinds  its  teeth,  etc.  The  duration 
of  the  fit  varies  much;  sometimes  it  ter- 


minates at  the  expiration,  of  a  few  min- 
utes ;  at  other  times,  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
elapses  before  it  is  perfectly  conscious. 
In  this  malady  there  is  a  loss  of  equilib- 
rium between  the  nervous  and  muscular 
systems,  which  may  arise  from  hydatids  in 
the  brain,  offering  mechanical  obstructions 
to  the  conducting  power  of  the  nerves. 
This  malady  may  attack  animals  in  appa- 
rently good  health.  We  frequently  see 
children  attacked  with  epilepsy  (fits)  with- 
out any  apparent  cause,  and  when  they 
are  in  good  flesh. 

The  symptoms  are  not'  considered  dan- 
gerous, except  by  their  frequent  repe- 
tition. 

The  following  may  be  given  with  a 
view  of  equalizing  the  circulation  of  the 
nervous  action : 

Assafoetida %  tea-spoonful. 

Gruel  made  from  Slippery  Elm . .  1  pint. 

Mix  while  hot.  Repeat  the  dose  every  other 
day.  Make  some  change  in  the  food.  Thus,  if 
the  animal  has  been  fed  on  green  fodder  for  any 
length  of  time,  let  it  have  a  few  meals  of  shorts, 
meal,  linseed,  etc.  The  water  must  be  of  the 
best  quality. 

SHEEP,  Kidneys,  Inflammation  of  the 

in. — A  derangement  of  these  organs  may 
result  from  external  violence,  or  it  may 
depend  on  the  animal  having  eaten  stim- 
ulating or  poisonous  plants. 

Its  symptoms  are,  pain  in  the  region  of 
the  kidneys ;  the  back  is  arched,  and  the 
walk  stiff  and  painful,  with  the  legs  wide- 
ly separated;  theie  is  a  frequent  desire  to 
make  water,  and  that  is  high  colored  or 
bloody ;  the  appetite  is  more  or  less  im- 
paired, and  there  is  considerable  thirst. 

The  indications  are,  to  lubricate  the 
mucous  surfaces,  remove  morbific  materi- 
als from  the  system,  and  improve  the  gen- 
eral health. 

We  commence  the  treatment  by  giving: 

Poplar  Bark,  finely  powdered I  ounce. 

Pleurisy  Root,     **■  "       1  tea-spoonful. 

Make  a  mucilage  of  the  poplar  bark,  by  stirring 
in  boiling  water ;  then  add  the  pleurisy  root ;  the 
whole  to  be  given  in  the  course  of  twenty-four 
hours.  The  diet  should  consist  of  a  mixture  of 
linseed,  boiled  carrots  and  meal. 

SHEEP,  Sore  Nipples,  in. — Lambs  often 
die  of  hunger,  from  their  dams  refusing 
them  suck.  The  cause  of  this  is  sore 
nipples,  or  some  tumor  in  the  udder,  in 
which  violent  pain  is  excited  by  the  tug- 
ging of  the  lamb.  Washing  with  pop- 
lar bark,  or  anointing  the  teats  with 
powdered  borax  and  honey,  will  gener- 
ally effect  a  cure. 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


2'3 


SHEEP,  Foot-Rot  in. — Although  this 
disease  resembles  the  last  in  name,  it  is 
altogether  different  in  character.  It  is 
not  so  fatal  as  the  liver  rot,  but  it  is  sadly- 
annoying  :  it  is  of  very  frequent  occur- 
rence, and  it  seems  to  be  increasing. 

It  is,  like  the  rot,  peculiar  to  certain 
pastures ;  but  there  is  more  variety  in  this 
than  is  found  with  regard  to  the  rot. 
There  we  must  have  stagnant  water,  and 
the  process  of  evaporation  going  forward. 
For  the  production  of  the  foot  rot  we 
must  have  soft  ground,  and  it  does  not 
seem  much  to  matter  how  that  softness 
comes  about.  In  the  poachy  and  marshy 
meadow,  in  the  rich  and  deep  pasture  of 
the  lawn,  and  in  the  yielding  sand  of  the 
lightest  soil,  it  cannot,  perhaps,  be  said 
that  it  is  almost  equally  prevalent,  .but  it 
is  frequently  found.  Soft  and  marshy 
ground  is  its  peculiar  abode.  The  native 
mountain  sheep  knows  nothing  about  it : 
it  is  when  the  horn  has  been  softened  by 
being  too  long  in  contact  with  some  rich 
and  moist  land,  that  the  animal  begins  to 
halt.  This  softness  is  connected  with 
unnatural  growth  of  horn,  and  with  un- 
equal pressure;  and  the  consequence  is 
that  some  part  of  the  foot  becomes  irri- 
tated and  inflamed  by  this  undue  pres- 
sure, or  the  weakened  parts  of  the  horn, 
too  rapidly  and  unevenly  growing,  are 
broken  off,  and  corroding  ulcers  are  pro- 
duced. Although  there  would  not  ap- 
pear to  be  any  great  wear  and  tear  of  the 
foot  in  this  soft  land,  yet  the  horn  be- 
comes so  exceedingly  unsound  and 
spongy,  that  small  particles  of  sand  or 
gravel  make  their  way  through  the  soft- 
ened mass,  and  penetrate  to  the  quick. 
It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  injuries 
of  this  sort  are  produced  unconnected 
with  and  independent  of  the  foot-rot,  and 
they  may  be  cured  much  easier,  but  by 
very  similar  means.  The  hardness  or  the 
sponginess  of  the  horn  depends  altogether 
on  the  dryness  or  moisture  of  the  soil  in 
which  the  animal  has  fed.  Large,  heavy 
sheep,  having  comparatively  thinner  hoofs 
than  lighter  ones,  are  more  subject  to  the 
disease. 

True  foot-rot  more  frequently  begins 
from  above  than  below.  The  horn  is 
rendered  softer,  weaker,  and  more  luxu- 
riant by  exposure  to  wet :  the  foot,  from 
being  kept  wet  and  cold,  is  exposed  to 
re-action   with   any  change  of  weather, 


and  inflammation  is  thus  excited  within 
the  foot,  which  often  ends  in  suppuration, 
and  this  occasions  those  troublesome  ul- 
cers that  are  sometimes  witnessed. 

The  first  symptom  of  the  disease  is  the 
lameness  of  the  sheep.  On  the  foot 
being  examined  this  morbid  growth  is 
almost  invariably  found.  The  foot  is  hot, 
and  the  animal  shrinks  if  it  is  firmly 
pressed.  It  is  particularly  hot  and  pain- 
ful in  the  cleft  between  the  two  hoofs; 
and  there  is  generally  some  enlargement 
about  the  coronet.  There  is  always  an 
increased  secretion,  usually  fetid,  and 
often  there  is  a  wound  about  me  coronet 
discharging  a  thin,  stinking  fluid :  some- 
times there  is  a  separation  of  the  horn 
from  the  parts  beneath,  and  that  too  fre- 
quently preceding  the  dropping  off  of  the 
hoof.  In  comparatively  a  few  cases  the 
hoof  seems  to  be  worn  to  the  quick  at  or 
near  the  toe.  The  lameness  rapidly  in- 
creases, and  often  to  such  a  degree  indeed 
that  the  sheep  is  unable  to  stand,  but 
moves  about  the  field  on  its  knees.  The 
soft  portions  of  the  foot,  and  sometimes 
the  very  bones  of  it,  slough  away,  and 
drop  off. 

All  this  is  necessarily  attended  by  a 
great  deal  of  pain,  and  the  animal  shows 
how  much  it  preys  upon  him  by  his  moan- 
ing, and  refusing  to  eat,  and  ceasing  to 
ruminate,  and  most  rapidly  wasting.  Ir- 
ritating fever  comes  on,  and  after  the 
poor  creature  has  crept  about  the  field  on 
his  knees  for  a  few  weeks,  he  dies  from 
irritation  and  starvation. 

Of  one  thing  the  farmer  may  be  as* 
sured — that  the  foot-rot  is  exceedingly 
infectious.  If  it  once  gets  into  a  flock,  it 
spreads  through  the  whole.  Some  valua- 
ble writers  have  denied  this ;  but  there  ia 
scarcely  a  farmer  who  has  not  had  woful 
experience  of  the  truth  of  it.  Even  on 
the  dryest  soil,  the  greater  part  of  the 
flock  have  become  lame  in  a  very  few 
weeks  after  a  diseased  sheep  has  come 
among  them.  There  are,  however,  some 
instances  in  which  a  sheep  with  the  foot- 
rot  has  grazed  among  others  during  sev- 
eral months,  and  no  disease  has  ensued ; 
and  some  curious  experiments  would 
make  it  appear  that  under  particular 
circumstances  it  is  difficult  to  produce 
foot-rot  by  inoculation.  But  these  are 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule;  and  nc 
who  trusts  to  the  non-contagiousness  <jt 


ri4 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


foot-rot  will  suffer  as  assuredly  as  the 
man  who,  deluded  by  some  of  the  mis- 
chievous theories  of  the  day,  believes 
that  he  may  keep  a  glandered  horse  in 
his  stable  with  impunity. 

The  treatment  of  foot-rot  is  simple 
enough,  and,  in  the  early  stage  of  the 
complaint,  usually  successful.  The  foot 
must  be  carefully  examined,  and  every 
portion  of  horn  that  has  separated  from 
the  parts  beneath  thoroughly  removed, 
and  the  sore  lightly  touched  with  the 
butyr  (chloride)  of  antimony,  applied  by 
means  of  a  small  quantity  of  tow  rolled 
round  a  flat  bit  of  stick,  and  then  dipped 
into  the  caustic.  A  stronger,  and  often- 
times a  better,  application  is  made  by 
dissolving  corrosive  sublimate  in  spirits  of 
wine.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  also  a  very 
useful  caustic  for  foot-rot.  If  a  fungus  is 
sprouting  at  the  place  where  the  horn 
separates  from  the  foot,  it  must  be  first 
cut  away  with  the  knife,  and  then  the 
root  of  it  touched  also  with  the  caustic ; 
or,  what  is  still  better,  it  may  be  removed 
by  means  of  a  hot  iron.  It  is  necessary, 
indeed,  to  be  rather  sparing  with  the  use 
of  the  knife  throughout  the  disease. 
There  will  seldom,  except  in  very  bad 
cases,  be  necessity  for  binding  the  foot 
up;  indeed,  the  animal  will  generally  do 
better  without  this.  It  will  be  seen  by 
the  altered  color  of  the  part  whether  the 
caustic  has  been  applied  with  sufficient 
severity,  and  the  dry  surface  which  will 
be  formed  over  the  sore  will  protect  it 
from  all  common  injury  better  than  any 
covering. 

To  these  must  be  added  that  reason- 
able and  successful  practice  of  removing 
the  sheep  to  higher  ground.  Sheep 
among  whom  the  foot-rot  is  beginning  to 
appear  are  sometimes  completely  cured 
by  being  driven  to  higher  and  dryer 
ground.  Some  farmers,  and  with  a  great 
deal  of  advantage,  have  their  flocks 
driven  four  or  five  times  daily  along  a 
hard  road.  They  thus  accomplish  two 
purposes — they  wear  away  the  irregularly 
formed  horn,  the  unequal  pressure  of 
which  has  irritated  and  inflamed  the  foot, 
and  the  remaining  horn  is  hardened,  and 
enabled  better  to  resist  the  influence  of 
the  moist  or  soft  ground.  Where  the 
ulceration  is  extensive,  means  must  be 
adopted  similar  to  those  recommended 
for  the  treatment  of  foul  in  the  foot  in 


cattle;  but  in  most  cases  it  will  be  more 
profitable  to  the  farmer  to  destroy  the 
sheep  that  has  bad  foot-rot,  if  it  is  in 
tolerable  condition,  rather  than  rely  on  a 
cure  that  is  uncertain,  and  during  the 
progress  of  which  the  animal  very  rapidly 
loses  flesh  and  fat. 

If,  however,  he  is  determined  to  attempt 
a  cure,  let  him  wash  the  foot  well  from 
all  grit  and  dirt,  and  then  cut  off  every 
loose  and  detached  piece  of  horn,  and 
every  excrescence  and  fungus,  and  cover 
the  wound  with  the  Caustic  Astringent 
Powder  for  foot-rot.  (See  No.  75,  Do- 
mestic Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

This  shpuld  be  sprinkled  over  the  sorer 
and  a  little  dry  tow  placed  upon  it,  and 
bound  neatly  and  firmly  down  with  tape. 
The  animal  should  afterwards  stand  in  a 
dry  fold-yard  for  four-and-twenty  hours. 

On  the  next  day  the  tape  should  be 
removed,  and  if  the  surface  is  tolerably 
regular,  it  may  be  touched,  as  already 
directed,  with  the  butyr  of  antimony ; 
but  if  any  fungus  remains,  the  powder 
must  be  applied  another  day.  The 
fungus  no  longer  continuing  to  grow,  a 
light  dressing  with  the  butyr  should  be 
continued  every  second  day  until  the 
animal  is  well.  Some  prefer  a  liniment 
or  paste  to  the  powder,  and  it  is  made  by 
mixing  the  powder  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  honey.  The  farmer  may  use 
which  he  pleases ;  but  a  firm  and  equable 
pressure  being  produced  by  the  tape  is 
the  principal  thing  to  be  depended  upon. 

The  sheep-master  should  as  carefully 
avoid  the  ground  producing  foot-rot,  as 
that  which  causes  the  fatal  affection  of 
the  liver;  and  he  should  attempt  the 
same  method  of  altering  the  character  or 
the  low  and  moist  ground  by  good 
underdraining.  The  effect  of  this,  how- 
ever, is  far  from  being  so  certain  and 
beneficial  as  with  regard  to  the  rot.  The 
water  which  would  stagnate  on  the  sur- 
face may  be  drained  away  with  tolerable 
ease,  but  the  soil  cannot  be  rendered  hard 
and  dry,  or,  if  it  could,  that  would  not  be 
an  advantageous  change.  The  sheep 
might  not  have  the  foot-rot,  but  the 
ground  would  he  comparatively  unpro- 
ductive. 

If  the  farmer  intends  to  drive  his  sheep 
a  considerable  distance  to  the  market  or 
fair,  he  will  prepare  them  for  the  journey 
by  a  few  days'  removal  to  harder  and 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


«5 


firmer  ground,  or,  perhaps,  by  driving 
them  a  short  distance,  daily,  on  the  still 
harder  public  road. 

The  farmer  should  not  only  take  his 
sheep  from  light  sandy  soil  in  long- 
continued  dry  weather,  because  they 
would  starve  there,  but  because  then 
alone  that  soil  would  give  them  the  foot- 
rot  ;  its  yielding  nature  will  not  sufficiently 
keep  down  the  growth  of  horn,  and 
many  a  particle  of  sand  will  insinuate 
itself  into  the  soft  and  spongy  horn,  and 
produce  inflammation.  For  the  same 
reason  he  should  avoid  dry  old  pasture  at 
the  season  when  the  dews  are  heaviest, 
because  then  moisture  would  most  abound 
there. 

In  grounds  that  are  disposed  to  give 
the  foot-rot,  the  farmer  would  find  it 
advantageous  to  have  the  hooves  of  his 
sheep  rasped  or  pared  once  every  fortnight 
or  three  weeks.  This  is  not  often  done, 
but  it  appears  reasonable,  and  would  not 
be  very  expensive.  In  uninclosed  or 
mountainous  countries,  where  the  sheep 
have  particular  tracts,  gravel  might  be 
scattered  in  sufficient  quantity  to  wear 
and  harden  the  horn. 

Quite  a  number  of  remedies  are  given 
as  being,  or  having  been,  in  successful 
operation  in  different  parts  of  this  country 
and  in  Europe. 

The  most  common  and  popular  remedy 
now  used  in  Central  New  York  is :  1  lb. 
blue  vitriol;  }£  lb.  (with  some,  ^  lb.) 
verdigris ;  1  pint  of  linseed  oil;  1  quart 
of  tar.  The  vitriol  and  verdigris  are 
pulverized  very  fine,  and  many  persons, 
before  adding  the  tar,  grind  the  mixture 
through  a  paint-mill.  Some  use  a  decoc- 
tion of  tobacco  boiled  until  thick,  in  the 
place  of  oil. 

The  following  is  reported  by  Australian 
inspectors  of  sheep  as  an  efficacious 
remedy  for  foot-rot :  . 

Mix  carbolic  acid  with  an  adherent 
and  greasy  substance,  thus  forming  a 
plaster  which  will  adhere  to  the  foot  of 
the  sheep  for  two  or  three  days,  prevent 
contact  of  air,  and  allow  time  for  produc- 
tion of  the  desired  healing  effect.  Where 
this  particular  method  of  individual  ap- 
plication is  not  practicable  on  account  of 
the  number  of  diseased  sheep,  a  trough 
may  be  filled  with  the  medicated  mixture 
and  the  sheep  (their  feet  having  been 
carefully  pared)  made  to  pass  through  it, 


when  their  feet  become  impregnated  with 
the  substance. 

SHEEP,  Sore  Head.— This  disease  is 
connected  with,  or  often  produced  by, 
the  striking  of  the  fly,  and  especially  in 
woody  countries.  Next  to  the  tail,  the 
head  is  the  part  most  frequently  and 
seriously  attacked,  and  in  defending  them- 
selves from  their  tormentors,  the  sheep 
are  continually  striking  their  heads  with 
their  hind  feet,  until  at  length  a  consider- 
able sore  or  ulcer  is  formed.  No  sooner 
is  this  done  than  the  fly  persecutes  the 
poor  animal  with  tenfold  fury,  anxious  to 
lay  its  eggs  on  or  near  the  wound;  and 
the  ulcer  will  often  spread  so  far  and  so 
rapidly  as  to  be  very  difficult  to  heal,  and 
occasionally  it  will  destroy  the  sheep. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  procure 
a  cap  or  covering  for  the  head,  made  of 
soft  leather,  or  of  brown  paper,  if  leather 
cannot  be  procured.  This  should  be  cut 
so  as  to  protect  the  whole  of  the  head, 
and  yet  not  to  come  too  close  to  the 
eyes.  Then  use  the  Ointment  for  Sore 
Heads.  (See  No.  79,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for.) 

While  this  ointment  is  warm  and  softr 
it  should  be  thickly  spread  upon  the 
leather,  and  the  cap  fitted  to  the  head. 
If  this  be  done  in  the  evening,  when  the  fly 
begins  to  cease  to  torment  the  sheep,  the 
animal  will  be  quiet,  and  the  ointment  will 
gradually  cool,  and  stick  close  to  the  head. 

Some  spread  the  ointment  over  the 
head  without  the  cap,  making  a  kind  of 
charge,  a  few  flocks  of  wool  being 
scattered  over  the  top  of  it;  and  if  it 
should  be  somewhat  too  liquid  for  this 
purpose,  it  is  stiffened  by  the  addition  of 
a  little  yellow  resin.  It  is  difficult,  how- 
ever, to  confine  the  ointment  to  the  sore 
when  it  is  thus  applied,  and  it  is  very  apt 
to  run  over  the  eyelid  and  the  face,  to  the 
great  annoyance  of  the  animal. 

SHEEP,  Appetite,  Loss  of.  — This  is 
generally  owing  to  a  morbid  state  of  the 
digestive  organs.  All  that  is  necessary 
in  such  case  is,  to  retore  the  lost  tone  by 
the  exhibition  of  bitter  tonics.  A  bounti- 
ful supply  of  camomile  tea  will  generally 
prove  sufficient.  If,  however,  the  bowels 
are  inactive,  add  to  the  above  a  small 
portion  of  extract  of  butternut.  The 
food  should  be  slightly  salted. 

SHEEP,  Brmematism.  —  See  Sheep. 
Foundering. 


!l6 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


SHEEP,  Scab.— The  general  preva- 
lence of  scab  in  this  country  gives  im- 
portance to  a  brief  examination  of  this 
subject. 

The  scab  of  sheep,  like  scabies,  the 
itch  of  man,  is  caused  by  an  insect.  The 
mange  affecting  the  horse,  ox,  dog,  and 
cat,  also  depends  upon  the  presence  of 
insects.  There  are  different  insects, 
known  as  acari,  infesting  different  ani- 
mals, having  destructive  characteristics 
in  each,  and  generally  confined  to  that 
species  of  animals,  yet  the  mange  from  a 
dog  is  said  to  have  been  communicated 
to  man,  and  a  horse  has  been  infested 
with  mange  by  means  of  the  skin  of  a 
mangy  cat. 

The  sheep  acarus  does  not  bore  gal- 
leries in  the  skin,  but  remains  on  the  sur- 
face, clinging  to  the  wool,  and  finding 
shelter  among  the  masses  of  scab  pro- 
duced by  the  drying  of  exudations  from 
the  wounds  inflicted  by  these  parasites. 
Experiment  has  shown  that  increase  of 
temperature  hastens  the  hatching  of  their 
ova;  fourteen  days,  according  to  Profes- 
sor Brown,  of  England,  sufficed  to  hatch 
a  lot  in  a  bottle  "  carried  in  the  trowsers 
pocket,"  while  two  months'  time  was  re- 
quired with  some  kept  under  glass  in  a 
room.  The  young  have  six  legs;  the 
fully  grown,  after  several  changes  of  skin, 
have  eight.  The  microscope  reveals 
sucking-caps  or  disks  in  the  legs,  ena- 
bling the  parasite  to  cling  to  the  wool 
and  skin  of  the  sheep ;  and  renders  beau- 
tifully apparent  the  action  of  these  struc- 
tures, showing,  as  the  feet  advance,  how 
the  disks  are  expanded  to  grasp  the  sur- 
face of  the  substance  over  which  the 
acarus  is  moving,  apparently  retaining 
their  hold  in  obedience  to  the  volition  of 
the  animal.  Thus  its  structure  adapts  it 
for  crawling  over  and  adhering  to  the 
skin,  instead  of  burrowing  beneath  it. 
Burrowing  acari,  like  the  itch  insect  in 
man,  are  always  armed  with  cutting 
teeth,  set  in  ]  strong  jaws,  and  their  legs 
are  very  short.  The  body  of  the  female 
of  the  sheep  acarus  is  larger  than  that  of 
the  male,  rounder  in  form,  the  fourth  pair 
of  legs  are  developed  nearly  as  well  as 
the  third,  and  are  supplied  with  terminal 
sucking  disks.  Mature  mites  are  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  as  pellucid  points  of  the 
size  of  a  pin's  head. 

Various  experiments  have  been  made 


to  ascertain  the  rapidity  of  the  growth, 
and  reproduction  of  these  parasites. 
The  young  acari  have  been  detected  in 
fourteen  days  from  the  direct  transference 
of  the  acarus  to  the  skin  of  the  sheep. 
In  a  month  the  disease  had  spread  over 
a  space  of  five  inches ;  in  ten  to  twelve 
weeks  pretty  nearly  over  the  whole  body. 
A  greater  or  less  amount  of  time  may  be 
required  under  different  circumstances  of 
temperature,  and  other  modifying  in- 
fluences. 

Symptoms. — The  first  sign  of  the  exist- 
ence of  scab  is  rubbing  against  any  pro- 
jecting body  within  reach;  as  it  extends, 
sheep  bite  themselves,  kick  with  their 
hind  feet  at  their  sides  and  shoulders.  If 
one  is  caught  and  the  hand  placed  on  the 
mouth,  while  infected  parts  are  scratched, 
gratification  is  evinced  by  nibbling  at  the 
hand,  and  when  the  infection  is  severe  or 
general  this  nibbling  movement  is  re- 
garded as  an  infallible  sign.  Examina- 
tion will  disclose  spots  on  the  skin,  white 
and  hard,  the  center  marked  with  yellow 
points  of  exudation,  which  adheres  to  the 
wool,  matting  the  fibers  together.  The 
wool  may  be  firm  on  these  spots,  and  no 
scabs  are  seen  at  this  stage.  Then  the 
yellow  moisture,  evaporating,  gives  place 
to  a  yellow  scab,  which  adheres  firmly  to 
the  skin  and  wool.  Raw  places  appear 
at  points  which  the  animal  can  reach  with 
his  teeth  and  hind  feet.  The  disease  is 
complicated  in  summer  by  the  presence 
of  the  larvae  of  the  blow-fly,  the  mag- 
gots burrowing  under  the  scab.  The  ani- 
mal becomes  nervous,  excited  to  wildness, 
and  cannot  obtain  properly  either  food  or 
rest,  thus  losing  flesh  and  becoming  re- 
duced to  a  skeleton,  from  constant  irrita- 
tion and  lack  of  nutrition,  only  the 
strongest  animals  recovering,  if  left  with- 
out treatment. 

Remedies. — Destruction  of  the  parasite 
and  its  eggs  is  the  only  object  of  reme- 
dial treatment.  Arsenic  and  mercury  are 
often  employed  very  effectually,  but  they 
are  poisonous,  and  therefore  injurious  and 
dangerous  to  the  sheep.  These  and 
other  solutions  are  used  both  as  washes 
and  dips.  Sudden  changes  of  weather 
and  locality,  or  a  deficiency  of  food  after 
such  treatment,  often  induce  serious  or 
fatal  results,  which  cannot  be  guarded 
against.  Whole  flocks  have  thus  been 
lost.      Mercurial  ointment,  with  olive  oil 


SHEEP—CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


217 


and  a  little  turpentine,  is  popular  in  Eng- 
land, nevertheless,  and  is  regarded  as  im- 
proving the  yield  of  wool.  Experiment 
proves  that  the  acarus  will  live  in  arsenic 
and  sulphur  for  some  hours;  potash  is 
more  fatal,  and  tobacco  is  more  deadly 
.still,  killing  in  a  few  minutes.  But  carbolic 
acid  is  probably  the  most  potent  remedy 
used.  When  combined  with  one  hundred 
times  its  bulk  of  water,  it  has  killed  acari 
in  two  minutes;  when  used  with  fifty 
times  its  bulk  of  water,  a  degree  of  poten- 
cy harmless  as  a  dip,  it  kills  in  forty  to 
ninety  seconds.  Professor  Brown  thus 
describes  the  manufacture  of  the  carbolic 
acid  dip,  which,  it  is  claimed ,  has  never 
failed  when  properly  used. 

First,  it  is  necessary  that  carbolic  acid 
should  be  obtained  of  uniform  strength, 
and  experience  has  proved  that  the  crys- 
talline product  is  less  efficacious  in  the 
destruction  of  parasites  than  the  liquid 
residue,  which  is  sold  under  the  name  of 
terebane,  or  cresylic  acid,  which  can  al- 
ways be  obtained  of  the  manufacturers. 
The  liquid  is,  when  fresh,  of  a  very  light 
straw  color,  becoming  dark  brown  on  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere.  The  pure  car- 
bolic acid  was  employed  in  many  experi- 
ments, at  first  with  only  partial  success, 
but  even  had  it  proved  to  be  superior 
to  the  liquid  terebane,  the  price  would 
have  been  a  serious  objection ;  terebane, 
however,  is  very  much  cheaper,  and  in 
every  experiment  was  found  to  be  more 
active  as  a  remedial  agent  than  the 
pure  carbolic  acid,  while  its  fluid  con- 
dition at  all  temperatures  renders  it  more 
easy  of  manipulation. 

To  effect  perfect  combination  between 
the  terebane  and  the  water  used  for  di- 
lution care  is  essential,  as  imperfect 
mixtures  are  capable  of  doing  injury, 
and  may  cause  the  death  of  some  of 
the  sheep,  particularly  of  those  which 
are  first  introduced  into  the  bath.  The 
reason  of  this  is  obvious.  An  incom- 
plete mixture  allows  the  separation  of 
the  terebane,  which  floats  on  the  surface 
of  the  fluid  in  the  form  of  a  brownish, 
oily,  or  rather  tarry  scum;  the  first  few 
animals  which  are  dipped  become  cover- 
ed with  the  undiluted  acid,  which  acts  at 
once  and  energetically  as  a  caustic,  caus- 
ing prostration  and  death,  unless  immedi- 
ately on  observing  the  symptoms  of  dis- 
tress, means  are  taken  to  wash  off  the 


agent  with  warm  water  and  soap;  this 
treatment  is  not,  however,  at  all  times 
successful. 

An  accident  of  the  kind  never  ought  to 
occur,  and,  in  fact,  never  can  occur  if  the 
dip  is  properly  prepared  and  used.  It  is 
scarcely  probable  that  agriculturists  will 
attempt  to  make  the  compound,  and  the 
following  directions,  therefore,  may  be 
taken  as  meant  for  the  instruction  of  the 
practical  chemist  or  the  veterinary  sur- 
geon who  has  charge  of  the  diseased 
flock : . 

A  quantity  of  terebane,  proportioned  to 
the  number  of  sheep  to  be  dipped,  is  to 
be  placed  in  a  convenient  vessel  of  iron 
or  earthenware,  and,  if  possible,  the  ves- 
sel should  be  suspended  in  a  larger  one 
containing  water,  and  so  arranged  that 
heat  can  be  applied.  In  all  chemical  la- 
boratories a  water-bath  will  be  available ; 
but  for  the  purpose  of  making  small  quan- 
tities of  the  dip,  an  iron  bucket  suspend- 
ed in  an  ordinary  copper  filled  with  wa- 
ter, which  may  be  kept  hot,  but  not  up  to 
the  boiling  point,  will  answer  perfectly 
well.  As  soon  as  the  terebane  is  placed 
in  the  temporary  water-bath,  a  certain 
proportion  of  soap,  one  bar  weighing  over 
two  pounds  to  each  gallon  of  terebane,  is 
to  be  added.  The  mixture  should  be 
stirred  with  a  wooden  rod  until  the  soap 
is  entirely  dissolved,  care  being  taken 
that  the  fluid  does  not  boil.  When  the 
solution  is  complete  the  compound  should 
be  removed  from  the  fire,  and  as  soon  as 
it  ceases  to  give  off  vapor,  oil  of  turpen- 
tine is  to  be  added  in  the  proportion  of 
one  pint  to  each  gallon  of  terebane.  The 
mixture,  when  cold,  may  be  poured  irito 
carboys  or  casks  ready  for  use. 

While  the  above  remedies  may  be  en- 
tirely efficacious,  and  are  to  be  recom- 
mended as  the  best,  it  may  not  be  amiss 
to  give  a  few  which  have  been  popular 
heretofore : 

An  infusion  of  arsenic,  half  a  pound  of 
the  mineral  to  twelve  gallons  of  water. 
The  sheep  should  be  washed  in  soap-suds 
and  then  dipped  in  the  infusion. 

Mercurial  ointment,  incorporated  thor- 
oughly with  four  times  its  weight  of  lard, 
rubbed  upon  the  head  and  upon  the  skin 
(the  wool  being  carefully  parted)  in  par- 
allel lines  from  head  to  tail,  four  inches 
apart.  The  mixture  applied  should  not 
exceed  two  ounces,  and  a  half  an  ounce 


2l8 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


may  be  enough  for  a  lamb.  A  light  sec- 
ond application  is  sometimes  necessary. 

One  pound  of  sulphur  gradually  mixed 
with  half  a  pound  of  oil  of  tar,  the  mix- 
ture rubbed  down  with  two  pounds  of 
lard,  may  be  applied  in  the  same  way. 
Some  would  prefer  this,  because  not  poi- 
sonous, if  sure  to  be  effectual. 

Another  mixture  contains  half  a  pound 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  three-fourths 
pound  of  white  hellebore,  six  gallons 
whale  oil,  two  pounds  rosin,  and  two  of 
tallow.  This  is  powerful,  and  should  be 
sparingly  applied.  Tobacco  decoctions 
are  much  used  in  this  country  and  quite 
effectually,  if  thoroughly  applied  after  the 
wool  is  taken  off. 

A  correspondent  in  New  York,  who 
did  not  succeed  with  the  tobacco  wash, 
effects  cures  with  a  mixture  (well  rubbed 
in)  of  one  ounce  subcarbonate  of  potash, 
two  ounces  lac  sulphur,  one  ounce  oil  of 
tar,  and  one  pint  of  whale  oil. 

Chancellor  Livingston  found  the  fol- 
lowing a  specific :  A  decoction  of  tobac- 
co, one-third  as  much  lye  of  wood  ashes, 
with  as  much  lard  as  the  lye  would  dis- 
solve, a  small  quantity  of  tar,  with  one- 
eighth  of  the  whole  by  measure  of  the 
spirits  of  turpentine,  applied,  after  rub- 
bing hard  with  a  shoe-brush  to  break 
down  the  scabs,  by  rubbing  the  parts 
affected,  two  or  three  times,  at  intervals 
of  three  days. 

Another  Remedy. — From  that  emi- 
nent agriculturist,  Mr.  George  Geddes,  to 
the  New  York  Tribune,  is  so  full  and 
complete  that  we  copy  it  entire: 

M.  Walz,  a  German,  was  the  first  to 
establish  the  true  character  of  the  dis- 
ease; a  minute  insect  (acarus)  does  the 
mischief.  If  by  any  means  one  of  these 
insects  is  put  upon  the  fibre  of  the  wool 
of  a  living  sheep  it  at  once  travels  to  the 
skin  and  burrows  within  it,  where  it  re- 
mains until  about  the  tenth  or  twelfth 
day,  when  a  little  swelling  commences, 
and  by  the  sixteenth  day  a  pustule  breaks 
and  liberates  the  insect,  and  if  it  is  a  fe- 
male, she  comes  forth  with  her  young 
that  have  hatched  in  the  skin  of  the  unfor- 
tunate sheep.  These  at  once  spread  them- 
selves over  the  skin  and  bury  themselves 
and  propagate  their  kind,  and,  unless  in- 
terfered with  by  man,  go  on  in  their  work 
until  the  animal  is  covered  with  sores, 
which  so  torture  it  that  it  constantly  rubs 


itself  against  posts  or  any  convenient 
thing,  and  scratches  itself  by  using  its 
feet,  or  tears  its  flesh  off  by  its  teeth,  and 
finally  dies  in  misery. 

There  is  an  old  and  true  saying :  "One 
scabby  sheep  will  spoil  a  whole  floc>;." 
The  disease  once  introduced  spreads  rap- 
idly, for  every  post  or  other  projecting 
object  in  the  field  or  shed  or  yard  to 
which  the  diseased  animal  may  be  con- 
fined has  very  soon  enough  of  these  acati 
to  attach  themselves  to  the  wool  of  every 
sound  sheep  that  may  happen  to  touch 
these  objects  or  lie  down  on  ground  that 
has  before  been  occupied  by  diseased 
sheep.  M.  Walz  found  that  while  the 
very  young  insects  died  by  being  long 
kept  in  a  dry  place,  the  old  and  mature 
ones  would  live  when  so  exposed  through 
a  whole  winter. 

The  two  remedies  most  used  by  farm- 
ers to  destroy  insects  on  their  domestic 
animals  are  spirits  of  turpentine  and  the 
juice  of  tobacco.  These  two  substances 
combined  and  properly  applied  will  kill 
the  acari  certainly,  as  has  been  repeat- 
edly proven  by  owners  of  large  flocks 
that  had  become  severely  afflicted  with 
scab.  A  letter  before  us  from  Wyoming 
Territory  says  that  the  signers  thereot 
had  a  flock  of  1,200  sheep  that  was  pur- 
chased a  year  and  more  ago,  and  soon 
after  purchase  symptoms  of  scab  appear- 
ed. Six  hundred  pounds  of  damaged  un- 
manufactured Wisconsin-grown  tobacco 
was  purchased,  and  the  sheep  dipped  in 
the  juice  soon  after  shearing,  without 
good  result,  "for  our  sheep  are  troubled 
worse  with  the  disease  now  than  a  year 
ago."  This  is  a  hard  case,  and  the  cure 
a  big  job,  but  it  is  practicable.  To  show 
that  it  is  possible,  we  will  give  the  history 
of  a  case,  all  the  facts  of  which  I  have 
taken  some  pains  to  learn :  Fifteen  years 
ago  Major  Davis  Cossitt,  of  Onondaga 
Hill,  New  York,  well  known  as  a  wool- 
grower  and  sheep-breeder,  allowed  a  pass- 
ing drove  of  sheep  to  be  confined  in  his 
yards  during  one  night,  having  no  suspi- 
cion of  danger  from  disease.  The  follow- 
ing winter  his  own  sheep,  to  the  number 
of  six  hundred,  were  kept  in  these  yards 
that  the  drove  had  for  but  one  /light  oc- 
cupied several  months  before.  Sickness 
kept  the  owner  confined  to  his  house 
during  the  early  part  of  the  winter, 
and  when  at  last  he  was  able  to  visit  his 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


219 


flocks  he  saw  at  the  first  glance  that  they 
were  thoroughly  infected  with  scab.  The 
usual  efforts  were  made  to  apply  spirits  of 
turpentine  and  tobacco  to  the  diseased 
parts  as  they  could  be  reached  while  the 
wool  was  unshorn,  and  with  the  usual  un- 
satisfactory result.  Much  wool  was  lost,  and 
great  injury  to  health  was  suffered,  until 
the  spring  came  and  the  sheep  could  be 
sheared.  As  soon  as  the  shearing  was 
done  Major  Cossitt  adopted  the  following 
course  of  treatment : 

A  large  quantity  of  the  stalks  of  tobac- 
co plants,  from  which  the  leaves  had  been 
stripped  and  sold,  as  the  only  merchanta- 
ble part,  and  the  stalks  thrown  away  as  of 
no  value,  were  procured  from  his  neigh- 
bors who  largely  cultivated  tobacco. 
These  stalks  were  cut  into  convenient 
lengths  and  placed  in  a  large  kettle,  and 
boiled  until  the  water  was  black  with  their 
juice.  '  A  platform  was  made  large 
enough  to  place  upon  it  a  sheep,  having  a 
bottom  made  tight,  and  over  that,  and 
about  two  inches  from  it,  another  floor 
made  of  slats  so  near  each  other  that  the 
sheep  could  not  put  their  feet  between. 
This  platform  was  placed  on  benches  of 
convenient  height,  and  was  a  little  in- 
clined toward  a  large  tub  (half  hogs- 
head), and  so  placed  that  all  the  fluid 
that  drained  from  the  sheep  ran  into  the 
tub.  This  was  to  save  waste.  The  tub 
having  in  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  to- 
bacco-juice to  fully  immerse  a  sheep, 
a  little  spirits  of  turpentine — say  one 
gill — was  added,  and  a  sheep  dipped 
in  all  over  up  to  his  eyes,  and  held  there 
until  every  part  of  his  skin  is  thoroughly 
wet.  The  animal  was  then  laid  on  the 
platform  and  all  sore  places  thoroughly 
rubbed  by  the  hands  of  the  men  em- 
ployed, so  that  the  very  bottom  of  the 
sores  was  reached,  and  in  some  cases  some 
blood  followed.  The  sheep  was  then  lib- 
erated, and  quite  likely  showed  marked 
signs  of  being  in  the  condition  that  am- 
bitious boys  sometimes  find  themselves 
when,  anxious  to  be  men,  they  first  form 
the  acquaintance  of  this  poisonous  plant. 
I  have  heard  of  sheep  actually  dying  un- 
der treatment,  and  I  have  seen  them  very 
sick  when  kept  too  long  in  the  tub. 

The  water  in  the  tub  was  kept  as  hot 
as  it  could  be  and  not  burn  the  sheep,  by 
from  time  to  time  adding  new  from  the 
kettle  over  the  fire;    and  about   every 


sixth  sheep  that  was  dipped,  a  new  sup- 
ply of  spirits  of  turpentine  of  about  a 
gill  was  added.  The  turpentine  floats  on 
top  of  the  water,  and  for  this  reason  must 
be  supplied  in  small  quantities  and  often. 
Mr.  Cossitt  put  every  one  of  his  large 
flock  through  this  laborious  course  of 
treatment,  whether  there  were  found  or 
not  any  sores  on  each,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  week  he  repeated  the  treat- 
ment, and  after  another  week  the  whole 
thing  was  the  third  time  gone  over,  and 
the  fourth  time  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight 
from  the  third.  Thus,  in  four  weeks  from 
shearing,  every  sheep  had  been  four  times 
dipped  and  scraped  where  necessary.  No 
signs  of  scab  were  ever  again  seen  in  this 
flock ;  though,  to  make  all  safe,  the  sheep 
were  all  (young  lambs  as  well  as  shorn 
sheep)  dipped  once  the  year  after,  and 
again  once  the  third  year  immediately 
after  shearing.  It  may  be  that  the  first 
year's  four  dippings  were  sufficient,  but  if 
this  was  so  the  benefits  derived  by  de- 
stroying all  ticks,  and  the  promotion  of  a 
healthy  condition  of  the,  skin  generally, 
justified  the  cost  of  the  operation  herer 
where  tobacco-stems  can  be  had  for 
nothing.  Many  wool-growers  think  this 
annual  dipping  in  tobacco-juice  pays  in 
the  increased  quantity  and'  improved  con- 
dition of  the  wool  of  the  next  fleece. 

Another  Remedy. — Rub  soft  soap  on 
the  back  pretty  thickly,  after  shearing  in 
the  spring,  and  let  them  take  the  rain ;  for 
a  month  or  two  the  soap  will  be  partially 
melted,  and  will  run  down  over  the  whole 
body  when  it  rains;  this  will  effectually 
kill  the  insect  and  cure  the  scab. 

SHEEP,  Lice  Ticks  and  Flies.— Sheep, 
and  especially  if  they  are  neglected  and 
poor,  are  often  sadly  annoyed  by  these 
vermin.  They  frequently  precede  the 
scab ;  the  dreadful  itching  which  they  oc- 
casionally cause,  prepares  for  or  produces 
the  scab,  or  they  multiply  most  rapidly 
when  the  skin  is  fouled  by  the  scab.  The 
sheep-louse  is  too  well  known  to  every 
shepherd;  it  is  of  a  brownish  or  reddish 
color,  with  a  flat  body,  and  three  legs  on 
either  side;  the  tick  has  a  large  round  body, 
and  small  chest  and  head,  which  he  buries 
deep  into  the  skin,  and  by  means  of 
which  he  holds  so  fast  as  to  be  with  diffi- 
culty torn  off.  The  lice  are  propagated 
by  means  of  eggs  or  nits ;  the  origin  of 
the  tick  is  not  so  well  understood. 


220 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


-  They  are  both  injurious  to  the  wool,  and 
also  to  the  health  of  the  animal,  from  the 
•constant  irritation  which  they  produce. 
The  louse  is  more  injurious  than  the  tick. 
The  tick  only  buries  his  head  in  the  skin ; 
the  lice  burrow,  and  form  their  nest  in  or 
under  it.  They  collect  together,  and  a 
scab  soon  rises,  whence  a  glutinous  mat- 
ter proceeds.  The  scab  continues  to  in- 
crease until  it  is  of  the  size  of  a  sixpence, 
and  undermines  and  destroys  the  roots  of 
the  wool,  and  the  fleece  comes  off  in 
patches.  The  itching  becomes  intolerable, 
and  the  sheep  rub  themselves  eagerly 
against  every  thing  within  their  reach, 
and  tear  off  the  wool  by  mouthfuls.  The 
lice  are  thickest  about  the  throat  and  un- 
der part  of  the  neck,  and  when  this  is  the 
case,  it  has  sometimes  happened  that  the 
sheep  has  been  seriously  injured,  or  even 
destroyed,  in  a  very  curious  way.  He 
bends  his  head  down  as  closely  as  he  can 
to  get  at  the  vermin,  and  then  some  of 
the  wool  entangling  itself  about  the 
teeth,  the  head  becomes  fixed,  and  the 
animal  is  said  to  be  bridled.  If  he  is  not 
•observed  and  relieved,  the  head  will  be 
held  until  the  muscles  are  seriously  in- 
jured, so  that  he  can  no  longer  comforta- 
bly bend  his  neck  to  graze,  or  until  he  is 
absolutely  destroyed. 

Many  washes  have  been  invented  to 
^destroy  these  insects,  but  few  of  them 
have  perfectly  succeeded.  That  which 
seems  to  have  the  best  effect  is  the 
Arsenical  Wash  for  Sheep  Lice.  (See 
No.  76,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for.) 

The  infected  sheep  should  be  immersed 
in  this,  the  head  only  being  kept  out; 
and  while  he  is  in  the  liquid  the  fleece 
should  be  well  rubbed  and  moulded,  so  that 
the  wash  shall  penetrate  fairly  to  the  skin. 
When  taken  out  of  the  tub,  the  fluid 
should  be  pressed  as  thoroughly  as  possi- 
ble out  of  the  fleece,  which  will  then  do 
for  another  of  the  flock ;  and  the  sheep 
should  be  kept  from  cold  and  wet  for  a 
few  days. 

Other  persons  prefer  the  Mercurial 
Wash  for  Lice.  (See  No.  77,  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for.) 

These  washes,  however,  are  not  always 
safe,  and  they  are  very  troublesome  in 
their  application.  The  ointment  which 
-we  have  recommended  for  the  scab  is 
more  easily  applied,  and  more  effectual. 


It  may  be  rendered  more  fluid,  and  con- 
sequently more  easily  rubbed  in  by  being 
mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  neats-foot 
oil;  and  it  should  be  as  carefully  applied 
over  every  part  as  it  would  be  in  the  act 
of  smearing,  for  the  vermin  will  speedily 
collect  and  burrow  in  any  spot  which  the 
ointment  may  not  have  reached.  The 
tick  is  many  times  as  large  as  the  louse, 
but  not  so  frequently  found.  When  not 
gorged  with  blood  it  is  flat,  but  when 
bloated  it  is  round,  and  brown  or  black, 
and  varies  in  size  from  a  pin's  head  to  a 
small  bean.  When  one  of  them  fastens 
itself  upon  the  sheep,  it  seems  to  retain 
precisely  the  same  situation  for  some 
weeks,  or  even  months,  and  yet  the  young 
ticks  are  found  round  the  old  ones,  re- 
sembling numerous  red  points,  but  be- 
coming brown  as  they  increase  in  size. 
They,  too,  select  the  sheep  that  is  debili- 
tated by  want  of  proper  nourishment  or 
by  disease. 

The  tick  is  more  frequent  on  some 
grounds  than  on  others.  On  some 
farms,  even  although  badly  managed, 
it  is  seldom  found;  on  others  it  is 
scarcely  to  be  got  rid  of,  even  although 
the  sheep  should  be  h*ealthy.  It  would 
seem  as  though  it  were  bred  in  the 
ground,  and  that  one  part  only  of  its  ex- 
istence is  spent  on  the  sheep.  Some 
shepherds  set  diligently  to  work,  and  pick 
them  off.  This,  however,  is  an  almost 
endless  task.  Others  dress  the  sheep  with 
turpentine,  which  usually  destroys  them; 
but  the  scab  ointment  is  the  surest  reme- 
dy, as  well  as  preventive. 

The  sheep  is  tormented  by  two  species 
of  flies.  The  one  endeavors  to  lay  its 
eggs  on  the  muzzle,  and  thence,  speedily 
hatched  by  the  moisture  and  warmth  of 
the  breath,  the  animalcule,  or  larva,  creeps 
up  the  nostril,  and  finds  its  way  into  the 
frontal  sinuses,  or  some  of  the  cells  above 
the  nose,  and  there  fastens  itself,  and 
lives  and  grows,  until  it  becomes  a  large 
worm;  it  then  creeps  again  down  the 
the  nostril,  assumes  the  form  of  a  grub, 
burrows  in  the  earth,  and  in  due  time  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  a  fly.  It  is  only 
during  the  time  of  the  depositing  of  the 
egg  that  the  sheep  are  disturbed  or  injur- 
ed, and  then  they  may  be  seen  huddling 
together  on  the  barest  part  of  the  pasture, 
with  their  noses  close  to  the  ground,  and 
by  continual  shaking  of  the  head  and 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


32r 


stamping,  endeavoring  to  prevent  the 
depositing  of  the  egg.  When  the  little 
worm  has  reached  its  destined  situation, 
it  seems  no  longer  to  trouble  the  animal ; 
and  these  bots  are  found  in  the  heads  of 
some  of  the  largest  and  fattest  sheep. 
This  is  the  destined  place  of  this  worm, 
and  nature  would  not  make  it  destructive, 
or  even  much  annoying,  to  the  animal  by 
which  it  is  to  be  supported. 

Another  species  of  fly,  or  perhaps 
several  other  species,  are  far  more  trouble- 
some and  injurious.  At  some  uncertain 
time  after  shearing,  and  seemingly  oftener 
occurring  to  those  that  were  early  than  to 
those  that  were  later  sheared,  the  sheep 
will  be  struck  with  the  fly.  This  will  be 
discovered  by  the  uneasiness  of  the 
animal.  It  is  not  the  itching  of  scab,  for 
it  is  before  the  usual  appearance  of  that 
disease,  and  when  the  sheep  was  shorn 
there  was  not  the  least  appearance  of  it. 
The  sheep  will  hang  down  their  heads, 
stand  for  awhile  as  if  listening,  then  bow 
up  their  backs,  violently  shake  their  tails, 
stamp  furiously  with  their  feet,  gallop 
away  for  a  short  distance,  and  then  turn 
round  and  try  to  bite  the  affected  part. 
The  tail  is  evidently  the  part  oftener 
attacked. 

On  being  caught,  there  will  probably 
be  found  little  lumps  or  bladders  on 
various  parts,  but  particularly  about  the 
tail ;  and  if  these  are  pierced,  they  will 
be  found  to  contain  numerous  little 
maggots.  If  there  are  any  sores  about 
the  animal  made  in  the  shearing,  they 
will  become  full  of  maggots  in  different 
stages  of  maturity,  and  these  vermin  will 
crawl  through  the  wool,  over  almost 
every  part  of  the  body. 

In  warm  weather  they  are  peculiarly 
annoying  and  destructive.  We  have 
seen  them  spreading  from  the  root  of  the 
tail  to  the  head  of  the  sheep,  deepening 
every  sore,  eating  even  through  the 
sound  skin  in  various  places,  and  pene- 
trating to  the  very  entrails. 

A  sheep  struck  by  the  fly  should  not 
be  neglected  a  single  day,  for  the  mag- 
gots will  sometimes  do  irreparable  mis- 
chief in  a  very  short  space  of  time.  The 
wool  should  be  cut  off  round  the  places 
where  the  maggots  seem  principally  to 
prevail,  and  they  should  be  carefully 
picked  out ;  but  this  will  not  effectually 
destroy  them;   for  many  will  crawl  far 


away  out  of  the  reach  of  the  looker. 
Some  ointment  or  powder  must  be  ap- 
plied, which  will  at  the  same  time  heal 
the  sores  and  destroy  the  maggot.  An 
application  of  this  kind  may  be  obtained 
in  some  of  the  preparations  of  lead.  The 
Fly  Powder  (See  No.  78,  Domestic 
Animals,  Medicines  for)  will  be  very 
useful. 

While  one  man  holds  the  sheep  by  the 
head,  let  another  have  a  dredger  or 
pepper-box  containing  some  of  the 
powder  in  his  right  hand,  and  a  stick  in 
his  left ;  let  him  introduce  the  stick  near 
the  tail  of  the  animal,  and  draw  it  gently 
along  the  back  as  far  as  the  head,  raising 
the  wool,  and  scattering  in  the  powder  as 
he  proceeds.  Then  let  him  dip  his  hand 
in  some  of  the  coarsest  whale  oil,  and 
smooth  down  the  wool  again,  smearing 
the  whole  of  the  fleece  with  the  oil.  This 
will  not  only  destroy  the  maggots,  but 
prevent  the  future  attack  of  the  fly. 
There  are  few  flies  that  will  approach 
anything  that  smells  strongly  of  this  oil; 
it  would,  therefore,  be  a  good  practice  to 
smear  the  sheep  with  a  little  of  it  after 
shearing.  No  injury  could  possibly  be 
done  to  the  wool,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
its  growth  would  be  promoted. 

If,  however,  the  flies  have  made  any 
deep  wounds  or  ulcers,  some  of  the 
powder  should  be  mixed  up  with  tar,  and 
the  ointment  gently  rubbed  on  the  sores. 
Another  good  way  is  to  dip  the  lambs  in 
a  decoction  of  tobacco,  just  strong 
enough  to  kill  ticks  in  a  minute  or  two. 
One  man  takes  the  lamb  by  the  forelegs 
and  head,  and  dips  him  in  the  vessel  so 
as  just  to  leave  the  head  out.  It  is  then 
raised  and  held  over  the  kettle  while 
another  presses  the  liquor  out  of  the 
fleece  back  into  the  kettle. 

Maggots  originating  from  fly-blows  on 
wounds,  may  be  prevented  by  dressing 
the  wound  with  tar,  and  may  be  destroyed 
by  an  application  of  honey,  when  spirits 
of  turpentine  would  prove  ineffectual. 

SHEEP,  Erysepelas.— See  Sheep,  Scab. 

SHEEP,  Stretches. — See  Sheep,  Indi- 
gestion. 

SHEEP,  Shearing.— Sheep  should  be 
sheared  before  they  are  turned  out  to 
pasture.  This  prevents  a  loss  of  wool  by 
their  shedding  it  on  bushes,  etc.,  and  it  is 
also  cleaner  and  freer  from  grit  or  sand. 

SHEEP,  Itch.— See  Sheep,  Scab. 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


SHEEP,  Diarrhoea,  or  Purging  in.— The 
full-grown  sheep  is  almost  as  subject  to 
purging  as  is  the  lamb,  but  it  is  not  so 
difficult  to  be  cured,  nor  is  it  so  fatal.  A 
sheep  can  scarcely  be  turned  into  fresh 
pasture  in  the  spring  without  beginning 
to  scour,  and  especially  when  warm 
weather  is  succeeding  to  cold,  and  the 
grass  shoots  rapidly;  but  this  in  most 
cases  is  beneficial  rather  than  injurious. 
It  rouses  the  digestive  organs  to  full  and 
healthy  action,  and  the  sheep  that  scours 
a  little  when  first  turned  into  the  meadow 
or  on  the  marsh,  is  sure  to  thrive  more 
quickly  afterwards.  The  purging,  how- 
ever, must  not  be  too  violent,  nor  con- 
tinue too  long. 

The  looseness  caused  by  feeding  on 
young  succulent  grass,  seldom  lasts  more 
than  a  few  days;  but  if  it  should  continue 
longer,  the  sheep  must  be  removed  to  in- 
ferior pasture,  and  a  little  hay  allowed 
them  if  they  can  be  induced  to  eat  it : 
some  dry  sound  old  seeds  should  also  be 
put  before  them,  and  the  astringent  powder 
(See  No.  80  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for)  administered. 

A  favorite  remedy  with  some  farmers, 
and  succeeding  in  slight  cases,  but  ineffi- 
cacious in  severe  ones,  is  suet  boiled  in 
milk.  Others  give  a  very  curious  medi- 
cine :  it  consists  of  the  lime  dug  out  of  an 
old  wall,  and  mixed  with  tar.  What  good 
purpose  the  tar  can  answer,  we  cannot 
conceive,  and  the  lime  would  be  super- 
seded by  the  prepared  chalk  recommend- 
ed in  the  last  recipe. 

When  the  disease  abates,  the  sheep 
must  not  be  turned  out  again  on  their 
former  pasture,  but  on  the  best  old  grass 
land  which  the  farm  will  yield ;  and  even 
then,  a  little  good  hay  and  corn  should 
be  daily  allowed  them. 

The  farmer  should  be  careful  that  he 
does  not  confound  the  consequence  of 
the  diarrhoea  with  costiveness.  When 
there  is  much  mucous  discharge,  it  is  very 
sticky,  and  adheres  to  the  wool  under  the 
tail,  and  glues  it  to  the  rump,  thus  form- 
ing a  mechanical  obstruction  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  dung.  The  sheep  straining 
very  hard,  careless  observers  have  sup- 
posed that  he  was  costive,  and  have  given 
him  a  strong  dose  of  physic,  and  thus 
added  fuel  to  the  fire. 

There  is  but  one  form  of  the  disease 
under  which  all  hope  is  precluded,  and 


that  is  when  it  is  connected  with  chronic 
cough  or  confirmed  hoose.  That  animal 
may  be  patched  up  for  a  little  while,  but 
he  will  most  assuredly  perish. 

It  is  necessary  to  make  a  distinction 
between  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  the 
latter  being  attended  with  considerable 
fever  and  the  evacuations  are  often  slimy 
and  bloody,  and  the  disease  sometimes 
terminates  fatally  in  a  few  days.  It  some- 
times follows  diarrhoea,  but  is  generally 
produced  by  change  of  food  or  pasture 
and  exposure  to  bad  weather.  Lambs 
are  rather  more  liable  to  the  disease  than 
sheep,  and  it  has  been  found  to  attack 
them  very  frequently  on  coming  from  low 
lands  to  high.  The  treatment  should 
consist  in  giving  Mild  Laxatives  (See  No. 
81  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for). 

SHEEP,  Dysentery,  (See  Sheep,  Diar- 
rhoea). 

SHEEP,  Indigestion  and  Debility  in. — 
Bad  management,  and  that  alone,  causes 
the  appearance  of  these  complaints  in  a 
flock.  When  sheep  have  been  over- 
driven, and  excessively  wearied ;  or  ewes 
have  had  twins,  and  have  afterwards  been 
kept  with  their  lambs  on  scanty  pasture, 
where  there  was  not  enough  even  for  the 
mother ;  or  have  weaned  very  early,  before 
there  was  any  flush  of  grass ;  or,  during  the 
winter,  have  not  yet  been  supplied  with  a 
proper  quantity  of  hay  or  corn — in  all 
these  cases,  the  sheep  are  apt  to  pine 
away.  They  do  not  seem  to  relish  their 
food,  but  wander  over  the  field  picking  a 
little  here  and  there,  the  belly  being  tuck- 
ed up  and  the  back  bowed. 

The  remedy  for  this  is  simple  enough  if 
the  sheep  have  not  been  neglected  too 
long.  It  is  plain  that  the  powers  of  diges- 
tion are  weakened  or  suspended,  and  the 
object  to  be  accomplished  is  to  rouse  them 
once  more  to  their  proper  tone  and  action. 
A  mild  purgative  should  lay  the  founda- 
tion for  this.  Half  the  Purging  Drink  (See 
No.  66  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for)  should  be  given,  and  this  followed 
up  by  tonics  or  stomachics.  Some  farm- 
ers content  themselves  with  giving  a  little 
good  caudle  for  two  or  three  successive 
days,  and  with  general  good  effect,  except 
that  its  sweetness  is  objectionable.  The 
Tonic  Drink  for  Debility  (See  No.  82 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for)  will 
be  preferable. 

Repeat  the  half-dose  of  physic  a  week 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


223 


afterwards,  and  pat  the  sheep  on  fresh 
and  good  pasture. 

SHEEP,  Dizziness  in.— Mr.  Gunther 
says:  "Sheep  are  often  observed  to 
describe  eccentric  circles  for  whole  hours, 
then  step  forwards  a  pace,  then 
again  stop,  and  turn  round  again. 
The  older  the  disease  the  more  the 
animal  turns,  until  at  length  it  does 
it  even  in  a  trot.  The  appetite  goes 
on  diminishing,  emaciation  becomes 
more  and  more  perceptible,  and  the  state 
of  exhaustion  terminates  in  death.  On 
opening  the  skull  there  are  met,  either  be- 
neath the  bones  of  the  cranium  or  beneath 
the  dura  mater,  (the  membrane  which  lines 
the  interior  of  the  skull),  or  in  the  brain 
itself,  hydatids  varying  in  number  and 
size,  sometimes  a  single  one,  often  from 
three  to  six,  the  size  of  which  varies ;  ac- 
cording as  these  worms  occupy  the  right 
side  or  the  left,  the  sheep  turns  to  the 
right  or  left ;  but  if  they  exist  on  both 
sides,  the  turning  takes  place  to  the  one 
and  the  other  alternately. 

The  animal  very  often  does  not  turn, 
which  happens  when  the  worm  is  placed 
on  the  median  line ;  then  the  affected  an- 
imal carries  the  the  head  down,  and 
though  it  seems  to  move  rapidly  it  does 
not  change  place.  When  the  hydatid  is 
situated  on  the  posterior  part  of  the 
brain,  the  animal  carries  the  head  high, 
runs  straight  forward  and  throws  itself  on 
every  object  it  meets. 
Treatment. — Take 

Powdered  Worm  Seeds ......I  ounce. 

"        Sulphur X     " 

"        Charcoal 2      " 

"        Linseed,  or  Flaxseed I  pound 

Mix.  Divide  into  eight  parts,  and  feed  one 
every  morning.  Make  a  drink  from  the  white  In- 
dian hemp  (asclepias  incamata),  one  ounce  of 
which  may  be  infused  in  a  quart  of  water,  one- 
fourth  to  be  given  every  night. 

SHEEP,  Grub-in-tlie-Head;— The  Grub- 
in-the-head  is  the  grub  of  the  gadfly  of 
the  sheep.  The  egg  is  deposited  within 
the  nostrils  of  the  sheep,  where  it  is  im- 
mediately hatched  by  the  warmth  and 
moisture;  and  the  larvae  crawl  up  the 
nose  to  the  sinuses,  where  they  attach 
themselves  to  the  membrane  and  remain 
until  the  next  year,  feeding  upon  the 
mucus. 

Some  farmers  protect  their  sheep  meas- 
urably from  the  attacks  of  the  grub,  by 
plowing  a  furrow  or  two  in  different  por- 


tions of  their  pastures.  The  sheep  thrust 
their  noses  into  this  on  the  approach  of 
the  fly.  Others  smear  their  noses  with 
tar,  or  cause  them  to  smear  themselves, 
by  sprinkling  their  salt  over  tar.  Those 
fish  oils  which  repel  the  attacks  of  flies 
might  be  resorted  to.  Blacklock  sug- 
gested the  dislodgement  of  the  larvae 
from  the  head,  by  blowing  tobacco  smoke 
up  the  nostrils — as  it  is  said  to  be  effectual. 
It  is  blown  from  the  tail  of  a  pipe,  the 
bowl  being  covered  with  cloth.  Tobac- 
co-water is  sometimes  injected  with  a 
syringe  for  the  same  purpose.  The  last 
should  be  prevented  from  entering  the 
throat  in  any  considerable  quantity. 

SHEEP,  Leaping. — The  manner  of 
treating  rams  has  lately  received  a  very 
great  improvement.  Instead  of  turning 
them  loose  among  the  ewes  at  large,  as 
heretofore,  and  agreeably  to  universal 
practice,  they  are  kept  apart,  in  a  sepa- 
rate paddock,  or  small  enclosure,  with  a 
couple  of  ewes  only  each,  to  make  them 
rest  quietly;  having  the  ewes  of  the  flock 
brought  to  them  singly,  and  leaping  each 
only  once.  By  this  judicious  and  accu- 
rate regulation,  a  ram  is  enabled  to  im- 
pregnate near  twice  the  number  of  ewes 
he  would  do  if  turned  loose  among  them, 
especially  a  young  ram.  In  the  old 
practice,  sixty  or  eighty  ewes  were  es- 
teemed the  full  number  for  a  ram.  [Over- 
taxing the  male  gives  rise  to  weak  and 
worthless  offspring.] 

"The  period  during  which  the  rams* 
are  to  go  with  the  ewes  must  be  regulated 
by  climate,  and  the  quantity  of  spring 
food  provided.  It  is  of  great  importance 
that  lambs  should  be  dropped  as  early 
as  possible,  that  they  not  only  be  well 
nursed,  but  have  time  to  get  stout,  and 
able  to  provide  for  themselves  before 
winter  sets  in.  It  is  also  of  good  ad- 
vantage to  the  ewes  that  they  may  get 
into  good  condition  before  the  rutting 
season.  The  ram  has  been  known  to  live 
to  the  age  of  fifteen  years,  and  begins  to 
procreate  at  one.  When  castrated,  they 
are  called  wethers ;  they  then  grow  soon- 
er fat,  and  the  flesh  becomes  finer  and 
better  flavored." 

SHEEP,  Fractures,  Wounds  and  Bites 
in. — It  is  not  often  that  the  sheep  gets  a 
broken  bone  by  any  fault  of  his  own,  but 
the  shepherd  is  sometimes  a  brutal  fellow. 
If  he  is  a  youngster,  he  is  too  frequent- 


224 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


\y  designedly  mischievous;  and  in  the 
struggle  between  a  sheep  and  the  dog  a 
leg  has  now  and  then  been  broken.  The 
treatment  of  fracture  below  the  elbow  or 
the  hock  is  easy  enough.  The  broken 
limb  must  not  be  roughly  stretched  or 
handled,  but  the  divided  edges  of  the 
bone  must  be  brought  gently  and  as  per- 
fectly opposite,  and  close,  and  fitting 
again  to  each  other  as  possible,  and  kept 
together  by  some  strips  of  adhesive  plas- 
ter or  pitch  spread  upon  leather  wound 
round  the  part.  Over  this  splints  should 
be  placed,  reaching  a  little  beyond  the 
joint,  above  and  below,  and  these  con- 
fined with  more  plaster,  or  with  waxed 
thread.  A  little  lint  or  linen  rag  should 
have  been  previously  placed  under  the 
end  of  the  splints,  to  prevent  them  from 
excoriating  or  injuring  the  part  beneath. 
This  being  done,  the  leg  should  not  be 
meddled  with  until  the  bandage  becomes 
loose,  which  will  be  in  about  ten  days. 
The  splints  must  be  replaced  once,  and 
at  the  expiration  of  another  ten  days,  the 
edges  of  the  bone  will  generally  be  found 
to  have  united;  the  animal,  however, 
should  be  kept  for  a  little  while  longer 
as  quiet  as  possible,  and  if  the  bone  is  not 
quite  firm,  the  strips,  without  the  splints, 
should  be  once  more  bound  round  it. 

Sometimes  considerable  swelling  will 
take  place  after  the  splints  have  been  em- 
ployed. They  may  have  been  put  on  a 
little  too  tight,  or  they  do  not  press 
equally.  They  should  not,  however,  be 
taken  off  at  once,  for  the  bones  beginning 
to  unite  may  again  be  separated  during 
the  removal  of  the  bandages;  but,  with  a 
sharp  and  strong  pair  of  scissors,  two  or 
three  notches  should  be  cut  through  the 
edge  of  the  bandage  above  and  below. 
This  will  generally  afford  sufficient  room 
for  the  re-establishment  of  the  circulation, 
and  the  swelling  will  subside,  without  the 
fracture  having  been  disturbed. 

If  it  should  be  a  compound  fracture, 
that  is,  if  a  portion  of  the  bone  should 
protrude  through  the  skin,  either  the  set- 
ting of  the  bones  must  be  deferred  until 
the  wound  is  healed,  or  the  bandages 
must  be  so  applied,  that  the  wound  can 
be  readily  got  at  for  the  purpose  of  dress- 
ing. This,  however,  is  so  difficult  a  mat- 
ter that  it  will  be  prudent  to  destroy  the 
animal  that  has  a  bad  compound  frac- 
ture. 


Sheep  are  far  oftener  subject  to  wounds 
than  they  ought  to  be,  from  the  ferocity 
of  the  shepherd's  dog,  encouraged  by  his 
brutal  master  needlessly  to  worry  the 
flock.  They  are  too  frequently  seriously 
lamed,  and  the  ears  almost  torn  from 
their  heads.  The  proprietor  of  sheep 
should  never  forgive  wanton  cruelty  of 
this  nature. 

The  treatment  of  wounds  in  sheep  is 
very  simple,  and  consists  mostly  in  avoid- 
ing the  burning  irons  and  caustics,  of 
which  the  farrier,  and  sometimes  the  shep- 
herd, are  too  fond. 

The  first  thing  is  to  clean  the  wound 
thoroughly  with  a  sponge  and  warm  wa- 
ter, and  to  remove  those  parts  which  are 
much  lacerated,  or  in  a  manner  torn  off. 
If  it  is  a  simple  cut  wound,  and  the  edges 
are  not  far  separated,  all  that  will 
be  necessary  to  be  done  will  be  to 
apply  daily  a  little  tincture  of  aloes,  and 
to  cover  the  part,  that  the  flies  may  not 
deposit  their  eggs  on  the  sore.  If  it  is  a 
wide  and  gaping  wound,  the  edges  of  it 
must  be  brought  as  nearly  and  accurately 
together  as  possible,  and  confined  by  one 
or  two  or  more  stiches  passed  through 
them  with  a  crooked  needle  and  waxed 
thread,  and  which  the  shepherd  should 
always  carry  with  him.  The  only  dress- 
ing wanted  here  will  be  the  tincture  of 
aloes,  with  occasional  fomentations  if 
there  is  much  inflammation;  but  the 
wound  should  be  more  carefully  covered 
from  the  flies,  either  by  a  bandage  or 
pitch  plaster,  or  for  a  small  wound,  a  lit- 
tle tar  will  answer. 

No  dependence  is  to  be  placed  on  the 
accounts  which  are  given  by  some  au- 
thors of  the  udders  of  the  ewes  being 
sucked  by  snakes.  The  reptile  has  never 
been  seen  thus  employed;  but  sheep  are 
sometimes  bitten  by  the  viper,  and  a  few 
have  been  destroyed  by  the  swelling  hav- 
ing been  neglected,  and  inflammation 
widely  spreading.  It  is  difficult  at  all 
times  to  discover  the  accident.  Whenev- 
er a  sheep  is  lamed,  the  affected  limb 
should  be  well  examined;  and  at  other 
times,  if  he  is  evidently  ill,  and  the  illness 
accompanied  by  local  or  general  swelling, 
careful  search  should  be  made  into  the 
nature  of  the  mischief.  The  wound  in- 
flicted by  a  viper  will  be  very  small,  but 
there  will  be  swelling  and  heat  about  it, 
and  a  great  deal  of  tenderness. 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


225 


The  best  application  is  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, which  should  be  well  rubbed  over 
and  around  the  part;  while  a  quarter  of 
an  ounce  of  hartshorn,  and  four  ounces 
of  sweet  oil,  may  be  given  to  the  animal, 
and  repeated  in  half  an  hour  if  the  part 
should  continue  to  swell,  or  the  sheep 
appear  to  be  seriously  ill.  Some  shep- 
herds, when  they  suspect  an  accident  of 
this  kind,  rub  the  part  well  with  an  onion, 
and  doubtless  with  considerable  effect; 
the  turpentine,  however,  is  more  effectual, 
and  should  be  obtained  as  speedily  as 
possible. 

SHEEP,  Scours  in. — In  scours,  the  sur- 
face evaporates  too  little  of  the  moisture, 
and  should  be  relaxed  by  diffusable  stim- 
ulants in  the  form  of  ginger  tea.  The 
treatment  that  we  have  found  the  most 
successful  is  as  follows :  take  four  ounces 
raw  linseed  oil,  two  ounces  of  lime  water ; 
mix.  Let  this  quantity  be  given  to  a 
sheep  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  above 
disease;  half  the  quantity  will  suffice  for 
a  lamb.  Give  about  a  wine  glass  full  of 
ginger  tea  at  intervals  of  four  hours,  or 
mix  a  small  quantity  of  ginger  in  the  food. 
Let  the  animal  be  fed  on  gruel,  or  mashes 
of  ground  meal.  If  the  above  treatment 
fails  to  arrest  the  disease,  add  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  bayberry  bark.  If 
the  extremities  are  cold,  rub  them  with 
the  tincture  of  capsicum. 

SHEEP,  Foundering. — In  this  malady, 
the  animal  becomes  slow  in  its  move- 
ments ;  its  walk  is  characterized  by  rigid- 
ity of  the  muscular  system,  and,  when 
lying  down,  requires  great  efforts  in  order 
to  rise. 

Causes. — Exposure  to  sudden  changes 
in  temperature,  feeding  on  wet  lands,  etc. 

Indications  of  Cure. — To  equalize 
the  circulation,  invite  and  maintain  action 
to  the  external  surface,  and  remove  the 
cause.  To  fulfill  the  latter  indication, 
remove  the  animal  to  a  dry,  warm  situa- 
tion. 

The  following  anti-spasmodic  and  dia- 
phoretic will  complete  the  cure :  Powdered 
lady's  slipper  (cypripedium^)  1  teaspoon- 
ful.  To  be  given  every  morning  in  a 
pint  of  warm  penny-royal  tea. 
,  If  the  malady  does  not  yield  in  a  few 
days,  take  powdered  sassafras  bark,  one 
teaspoonful;  boiling  water,  one  pint; 
honey,  one  teaspoonful.  Mix,  and  repeat 
the  dose  every  other  morning. 

J5 


SHEEP,  Age  of,  How  to  Tell.— The 
age  of  sheep  may  be  known  by  examining 
the  front  teeth.  They  are  eight  in  num- 
ber, and  appear  during  the  first  year,  all 
of  a  small  size.  In  the  second  year  the 
two  middle  ones  fall  out,  and  their  place 
is  supplied  by  two  new  teeth,  which  are 
easily  distinguished,  being  of  a  larger 
size.  In  the  third  year,  two  other  small 
teeth,  one  from  each  side,  drop  out,  and 
are  replaced  by  two  large  ones,  so  that 
there  are  now  four  large  teeth  in  the 
middle,  and  two  pointed  ones  on  each 
side.  In  the  fourth  year,  the  large  teeth 
are  six  in  number,  and  only  two  small 
ones  remain,  one  at  each  end  of  the 
range.  In  the  fifth  year,  the  remaining 
small  teeth  are  lost,  and  the  whole  front 
teeth  are  large.  In  the  sixth  year,  the 
whole  begin  to  be  worn;  and  in  the 
seventh — sometimes  sooner — some  fall 
out  and  are  broken. 

SHEEP  *AND  LAMBS,  Care  and  Man- 
agement of. — 1.  Keep  sheep  dry  under 
foot  with  litter.  This  is  even  more  neces- 
sary than  roofing  them.  Never  let  them 
stand  in  mud  or  in  snow.  2.  Do  not 
starve  them  during  the  winter,  but  by  an 
abundance  of  food  keep  them  in  good 
condition.  A  more  painful  sight  than 
the  flocks  of  many  farmers,  near  the 
close  of  the  winter,  cannot  be  witnessed. 
When  a  farmer  has  more  sheep  than  he 
can  properly  keep  or  sell,  he  should  kill 
the  surplus  when  winter  sets  in,  even  if  he 
should  get  nothing  from  them  but  the 
pelts.  3.  Furnish  an  ample  supply  of 
water,  convenient  of  access,  during  the 
winter  months.  4.  Always  try  to  avoid 
letting  any  of  your  sheep  or  lambs  have 
any  sudden  change  of  food.  5.  Take 
up  lamb  bucks  early  in  the  summer,  and 
keep  them  up  until  the  December  follow- 
ing, when  they  may  be  turned  out.  6. 
Drop  or  take  out  the  lowest  bars  as  the 
sheep  enter  or  leave  the  yard,  thus  saving 
broken  limbs.  7.  Count  every  day.  8. 
Begin  feeding  grain  with  the  greatest 
care,  and  use  the  smallest  quantity  at 
first.  9.  If  a  ewe  loses  her  lamb,  milk 
her  daily  for  a  few  days,  and  mix  a  little 
alum  with  her  salt.  10.  Let  no  hogs  eat 
with  the  sheep,  by.  any  means,  in  the 
spring.  11.  Give  lambs  a  little  mill  feed 
in  time  of  weaning.  12.  Never  frighten 
sheep  if  possible  to  avoid  it.  13.  Furnish 
sow  rye  for  weak  ones  in  cold  weather,  if 


226 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


possible.  14.  Separate  all  those  that  are 
weak,  thin  or  sick  from  those  that  are 
strong,  in  the  fall,  and  give  them  special 
care.  15.  If  any  one  of  your  sheep  is 
hurt,  catch  it  at  once  and  wash  the 
wound ;  and,  if  it  is  fly-time,  apply  spirits 
of  turpentine  daily,  and  always  wash  with 
something  healing.  If  a  limb  is  broken 
bind  it  with  splinters,  but  not  tight  enough 
to  interfere  with  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  16.  Keep  a  number  of  good 
bells  on  the  sheep.  17.  Do  not  let  the 
sheep  spoil  their  wool  with  chaff  or  burrs. 
18.  Cut  tag-locks  in  early  spring.  19. 
For  scours,  give  pulverized  alum  in  wheat 
bran;  prevent  by  taking  great  care  in 
changing  dry  for  green  feed.  20.  If  one 
is  lame,  examine  the  foot,  clean  out 
between  the  hoofs,  pare  the  hoof  if  un- 
sound, and  apply  a  wash  of  carbolic  acid. 
21.  Shear  at  once  any  sheep  commencing 
to  shed  its  wool,  unless  the  weather  is  too 
severe,  and  save  carefully  the  pelt  of  any 
sheep  that  dies.  22.  If  sheep  are  given 
pine  boughs  once  or  twice  a  week,  they 
will  create  appetite,  prevent  disease,  and 
increase  their  health.  23.  Their  general 
health  during  the  grazing  season  will  be 
promoted  by  giving  the  sheep  tar,  at  the 
rate  of  a  gill  a  day  for  every  twenty 
sheep.  Put  the  tar  in  a  trough,  sprinkle 
a  little  fine  salt  over  it,  and  the  sheep  will 
consume  it  with  eagerness.  24.  The  best 
sheep  to  keep,  both  for  wool  and  mutton, 
is  the  American  merino, 

SHEEP,  Catarrh  in.— The  following  is 
asserted  to  be  a  sure  cure  for  this  disease. 
Take  a  quill  from  a  hen's  wing,  immerse 
the  feather  end  in  spirits  of  turpentine, 
run  it  up  the  nostril  of  the  sheep  the 
Avhole  length  of  the  feather  end,  and 
twist  it  round  before  withdrawing  it;  wipe 
it  off  clean  each  time  before  immersing. 
One  application  will  cure  ordinary  cases ; 
the  second  or  third,  at  intervals  of  two  or 
three  days,  will  cure  the  worst. 

SHEEP,  To  Fatten  for  Winter.— Other 
things  taken  into  consideration,  large 
sheep  fatten  more  easily  and  profitably 
than  small  sheep,  and  full  grown  animals 
than  those  that  have  not  reached  maturity. 
Two-year-old  wethers  are  the  most  profit- 
able to  fatten,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable surprise  that  so  few  of  our 
farmers  breed  them.  Sheep  will  fatten 
readily  in  winter  on  good  clover  hay 
alone ;  we  do  not  mean  the  dark  looking, 


burnt-up  stuff,  commonly  called  by  that 
name,  but  what  an  American  farmer  would 
call  "  hay,"  cut  when  in  full  bloom,  and 
cut  in  such  a  manner  as  to  retain  all  its 
juices  before  they  are  turned  into  woody 
fibre,  and  of  a  good  green  color.  A 
sheep  of  say  120  lbs.  live  weight,  will 
consume  21  lbs.  of  clover  hay  per  week, 
and  increase  in  weight  2  lbs.  Allowing 
that  it  would  ordinarily  consume  10  lbs. 
to  keep  it  in  good  stationary  condition, 
an  expenditure  of  7  lbs.  of  hay  extra  will 
produce  1^  lbs.  of  mutton,  worth,  in  the 
spring,  10  cents,  so  that  the  extra  feeding 
is  literally  realizing  to  the  farmer  at  the 
rate  of  nearly  $30  per  ton  for  his  hay. 
No  other  stock,  we  think,  will  give  such 
a  return  for  the  trouble  of  fattening  as 
this. 

If  it  is  desired  to  fatten  sheep  rapidly, 
the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  oats  to 
their  food  will  be  of  great  service;  a 
gallon  of  oats  once  a  day,  among  twenty 
sheep,  will  be  a  great  help  to  fattening. 
Fattening  sheep  do  not  require  very  warm 
quarters — in  fact,  they  will  not  bear  close 
confinement,  but  their  quarters  must  be 
dry,  well  ventilated,  and  abundantly  lit- 
tered with  clean  straw ;  they  must  be  fed 
regularly,  kept  quiet,  have  access  to 
water,  and  an  occasional  taste  of  salt.  It 
will  be  found  that  when  the  weather  is 
very  cold  they  will  require  to  consume 
somewhat  more  food  than  at  other  times, 
in  order  to  counteract  the  waste  of  sub- 
stance used  in  generating  heat  for  their 
bodies,  otherwise  they  will  lose  instead  of 
gaining  on  cold  or  stormy  days. 

SHEEP,  To  Protect  from  the  Gad  Fly. 
In  August  and  September  this  fly  lays  its 
eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep,  where  they 
are  hatched,  and  the  worms  crawl  into 
the  head,  and  very  frequently  they  eat 
through  to  the  brain.  In  this  way  many 
sheep  are  destroyed.  As  a  protection 
smirch  their  noses  with  tar.  Lay  some 
tar  in  a  trough  or  on  a  board,  and  strew 
fine  salt  on  it — the  sheep  will  finish  the 
operation.  The  tar  will  protect  them, 
and  what  they  eat  will  promote  their 
health. 

SHEEP,  Rheumatism  in. — This  disease 
consists  in  a  peculiar  inflammation  of  the 
muscles  of  the  body  very  frequently  causing- 
considerable  pain  when  they  'are  called 
into  action.  It  is  usually  caused  by  ex- 
posure to  cold,  and  sometimes  shifts  from 


SHEEP— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 


227 


one  foot  to  another,  occasionally  degene- 
rating into  a  slow  or  chronic  form,  and  at- 
tacking the  sinews,  ligaments*  and  joints, 
as  well  as  the  muscles.  The  neck  and 
loins  are  the  parts  most  frequently  at- 
tacked, either  separately  or  combined. 
The  former  affection  causes  the  head  to 
be  carried  in  a  bent  position,  and  the  lat- 
ter produces  considerable  stiffness  and 
weakness  of  the  loins.  The  treatment 
should  consist  in  removing  the  animal  to 
a  comfortable  place,  giving  an  active  pur- 
gative, such  as  two  ounces  of  Epsom 
salts  dissolved  in  warm  water,  with  a 
drachm  of  ginger  and  ^  an  ounce  of 
spirits  of  nitrous  ether.  A  stimulant, 
such  as  hartshorn  and  oil,  or  opodeldoc, 
should  be  well  rubbed  over  the  affected 
part;  and  if  the  disease  assumes  a  chron- 
ic form,  a  seton  should  be  inserted  near 
the  part. 

SHEEP,  Directions  for  Shearing.— The 
shearer  may  place  the  sheep  on  that  part 
of  the  floor  assigned  to  him  resting  on  its 
rump,  and  himself  in  a  posture  with  his  right 
knee  on  a  cushion,  and  the  back  of  the  ani- 
mal resting  against  his  left  thigh.  He  grasps 
the  shears  about  half  way  from  the  point 
to  the  bow,  resting  his  thumb  along  the 
blades,  which  gives  him  a  better  command 
of  the  points.  He  may  then  commence 
cutting  the  wool  at  the  brisket,  and,  pro- 
ceeding downward,  all  upon  the  sides  of 
the  belly  to  the  extremity  of  the  ribs,  the 
external  sides  of  both  sides  to  the  edges 
of  the  flanks,  then  back  to  the  brisket, 
and  thence  upwaid,  shearing  the  wool 
from  the  breast,  front,  and  both  sides  of 
the  neck,  but  not  yet  the  back  of  it,  and 
also  the  poll,  or  forepart,  and  top  of  the 
head.  Then  "the  jacket  is  opened,"  and 
its  position,  as  well  as  that  of  the  shearer 
is  then  changed,  by  the  animal's  being 
turned  flat  upon  its  side,  one  knee  of  the 
shearer  resting  on  the  cushion,  the  other 
gently  pressing  the  fore-quarter  of  the  an- 
imal to  prevent  any  struggling.  He  then 
resumes,  cutting  upon  the  flank  and  rump, 
and  thence  onward  to  the  head.  The  sheep 
is  then  turned  on  the  other  side — in  do- 
ing which  great  care  is  requisite  to  pre- 
vent the  fleeces  being  torn;  and  the 
shearer  proceeds  as  upon  the  other  side. 
He  must  then  take  the  sheep  near  to  the 
door  through  which  it  is  to  pass  out,  and 
neatly  trim  the  legs,  leaving  not  a  solita- 
ry lock  anywhere  as  a  lodging-place  for 


ticks.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  him 
to  remove  from  his  stand  to  trim,  other- 
wise the  useless  stuff  from  the  legs  be- 
comes intermingled  with  the  fleece-wool. 
In  the  use  of  the  shears,  the  blades  must 
be  laid  as  flat  to  the  skin  as  possible,  the 
points  not  lowered  too  much,  nor  should 
more  than  one  or  two  inches  be  cut  at  a 
clip,  and  frequently  not  so  much,  but  de- 
pending on  the  compactness  of  the  wool. 

SHEEP,  How  to  Purchase. — The  best 
sheep  for  a  man  to  buy  who  is  just  start- 
ing a  flock,  are  young  two  and  three  year 
old  ewes.  Next  to  such,  we  should  prefer 
to  buy  yearling  ewes,  although  having  to 
wait  a  year  longer  for  increase.  We  con- 
sider it  poor  policy,  and  do  not  practice 
breeding  yearlings.  It  will  do  in  small 
flocks,  where  yearlings  are  large  of  their 
age,  but  not  in  large  flocks — or  Merino 
sheep  especially.  Next  to  yearlings,  we 
would  take  a  flock  of  thrifty  lambs.  But 
there  is  a  very  wide  difference  in  the  lots 
of  lambs  raised  by  different  owners  in  the 
West,  owing  much  to  the  manner  in 
which  they  have  been  treated.  The  sort 
we  should  not  want  are  those  which  were 
dropped  in  May,  June  and  July,  which 
were  not  weaned  early  enough,  or  not 
given  a  good  chance  at  weaning,  or  even 
in  some  cases  which  have  not  been  wean- 
ed at  all,  any  further  than  the  ewes  wean- 
ed them.  Although  four  and  five  year 
old  ewes  are  not  objectionable,  if  right 
other  ways,  yet  there  is,  in  general,  noth- 
ing like  young  sheep. 

A  man  who  is  acquainted  with  sheep 
should,  on  proposing  to  himself  to  buy  a 
flock  which  may  have  been  driven  in  to 
sell,  for  instance,  take  with  him  some  man 
who  is  posted  on  sheep.  A  sheep  man, 
on  coming  up  to  such  a  flock,  will  take  a 
general  look  over  it  to  note  condition, 
thrift,  quality  of  wool,  etc.  He  will  then 
wish  to  have  them  up  in  a  yard,  where 
he  can  catch  them,  to  make  more  partic- 
ular examination.  He  catches  a  lot  of 
the  oldest  appearing  ones  and  looks  in 
their  mouths;  he  watches  sharply  for  any 
indications  of  scab  (small  patches  of  wool 
gone),  and  makes  a  rigid  examination 
with  his  knife  of  the  hoofs  of  such  as 
limp  the  least  bit  or  show  any  tenderness 
in  their  feet.  If  any  of  the  hoofs  have 
been  treated  for  foot  rot  at  any  time 
within  six  months,  he  is  sure  to  see  it; 
it  shows  either  in  the  growth  of  the  edge 


228 


SHEEP— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


of  the  hoof  from  its  former  paring 
with  the  knife,  or  in  the  rough  and  un- 
natural hardness  of  the  hoof  which  the 
application  of  all  foot  rot  medicines 
(caustics)  leave.  A  new  man  should 
never  buy  a  flock  which  indicates  that  it 
has  been  treated  for  scab  or  foot  rot. 
They  may  be  cured,  but  he  is  not  the 
man  to  risk  it.  Nothing  sickens  new 
men  like  having  to  go  through  a  siege  of 
doctoring  a  diseased  flock. 

Buy  only  good  sheep,  if  you  can't  buy 
so  many  of  them.  Of  all  the  profitless 
stock,  a  hard  lot  of  sheep  is  the  most  so. 
One  thing  we  forgot  to  mention  above, 
and  that  is,  in  buying  sheep  in  the  sum- 
mer or  fell,  to  try  and  learn  whether  they 


have  had  bucks  running  with  them.  One 
of  my  neighbors  bought  a  flock  in  such 
condition  last  fall,  and  has  had  two  hun- 
dred or  more  lambs  dropped  this  winter, 
not  one  of  which  is  alive  at  this  time.  In 
addition  to  the  loss  of  the  lambs,  many 
of  the  ewes  have  died  from  weakness  in 
lambing,  and  of  those  which  live  through 
many  of  them  will  shed  their  wool,  and 
all  shear  but  light  fleeces.  Don't  buy 
ewes  out  of  a  flock  driven  in  from  a  distance 
which  have  had  bucks  driven  with  them, 
even  if  they  have  been  aproned.  Aprons 
will  slip  sometimes,  and,  as  we  have 
heard,  "accidents  will  happen  in  the  best 
of  families." 
SHEEP,  Fits.— See  Sheep,  Epilepsy. 


SWINE: 

DISEASES  AND  MANAGEMENT   OF. 


SWINE,  Treatment  of. — Pigs  should 
always  have  access  to  fresh  water.  No 
matter  how  sloppy  the  food  is,  or  how 
much  dish-water  is  furnished,  they  should 
always  be  supplied  with  pure  water.  We 
are  satisfied  that  pigs  often  suffer  for  want 
of  it. 

Salt,  sulphur,  charcoal,  ashes,  bone- 
dust,  or  superphosphate,  should  occasion- 
ally be  placed  where  the  pigs  can  eat 
what  they  wish  of  them. 

Pigs  will  eat  beans,  if  thoroughly 
boiled,  though  they  are  not  fond  of 
them.  Peas  they  eat  with  avidity,  and 
when  as  cheap  as  corn,  should  be  fed  in 
preference,  as  they  afford  much  the  richer 
manure.  Half  peas  and  half  corn  are 
probably  better  than  either  alone.  Peas 
make  very  firm  pork. 

Oil-cake,  when  fed  in  large  quantities, 
injures  the  flavor  and  quality  of  the  pork, 
but  we  have  fed  small  quantities  of  it 
with  decided  advantage  to  the  health  and 
rapid  growth  of  the  pigs,  without  any  ap- 
parent injury  to  the  lard  or  pork.  It  is 
quite  useful  for  breeding  sows.  It  keeps 
the  bowels  loose,  and  increases  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  the  milk. 

Bran,  except  in  small  quantities,  is  not 
a  valuable  food  for  fattening  pigs.  It  is 
too  bulky.  But  when  the  rich,  concen- 
trated food  is  given,  such  as  corn,  barley, 
peas  or  oil-cake,  pigs  should  be  allowed 
all  the  bran  they  can  eat,  placed  in  a  sep- 
arate trough.  In  this  way  it  becomes  a 
very  useful  and  almost  indispensable  arti- 
cle to  the  pig  feeder.  It  is  also  very  use- 
ful for  breeding  sows.  The  best  roots  to 
raise  for  pigs  are  parsnips  and  mangel- 
wurzel. 

The  period  of  gestation  in  a  sow  is  al- 
most invariably  sixteen  weeks.  In  three 
or  four  days  after  pigging,  a  sow  in  good 
condition  will  generally  take  the  boar. 
But,  as  a  rule,  it  is  not  well  to  allow  it. 
If  she  passes  this  period  she  will  not  take 


the  boar  until  the  pigs  are  weaned.  If  sh« 
fails  the  first  time,  she  will  "come  round 
again"  in  from  two  to  three  weeks. 

In  mild  cases  of  diarrhoea,  nothing  is 
better  than  fresh  skimmed  milk,  thickened 
with  wheat  flour. 

Pigs  should  be  castrated  a  week  or  two 
before  they  are  weaned. 

Nothing  in  the  management  of  pigs  is 
more  important  than  to  provide  a  trough 
for  the  sucking  pigs  separate  from  the 
sow,  and  to  commence  feeding  them 
when  two  or  three  weeks  old. 

Many  of  the  diseases  of  pigs  are  con- 
tagious, and  the  instant  a  pig  is  observed 
to  be  sick  it  should  be  removed  to  a  sep- 
arate pen ;  and  it  would  be  well  to  re- 
gard this  single  case  of  sickness  as  an  in- 
dication that  something  is  wrong  in  the 
general  management  of  the  pigs.  Clean 
out  the  pens,  scald  the  troughs,  scrape 
out  all  decaying  matter  from  under  and 
around  them,  sprinkle  chloride  of  lime 
about  the  pen,  or,  what  is  probably 
better,  carbolic  acid.  Dry  earth  is  a  cheap 
and  excellent  disinfectant.  Use  outside 
wood-work,  troughs,  plank  floors,  etc., 
with  crude  petroleum.  It  is  the  cheap- 
est and  best  antiseptic  yet  discovered. 

To  destroy  lice,  wash  the  pig  all  over 
with  crude  petroleum,  and  the  next  day 
give  him  a  thorough  washing  with  warm 
water  and  soap,  with  the  free  use  of 
the  scrubbing-brush. 

Pigs  should  be  provided  with  scratch- 
ing posts,  having  auger  holes  bored  for 
pegs  at  different  heights,  to  accommodate 
pigs  of  different  sizes. 

The  following  description  may  be  con- 
sidered the  perfection  of  form  in  a  fat 
pig :  The  back  should  be  nearly  straight, 
though  being  arched  a  little  from  head  to 
tail  is  no  objection ;  the  back  uniformly 
broad  and  rounded  across  along  the 
whole  body;   the  touch  along  the  back 


(229) 


:3o 


SWINE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


should  be  firm,  but  springy,  the  thin- 
nest skin  springing  most;  the  shoulders, 
sides  and  hams  should  be  deep  perpen- 
dicularly, and  in  a  straight  line  from 
shoulder  to  ham;  the  closing  behind 
filled  up ;  the  legs  short  and  bones  small; 
the  neck  short,  thick  and  deep;  the 
cheeks  round  aad  filled  out;  the  face 
straight,  nose  fine,  eyes  bright,  ears 
pricked,  and  the  head  small  in  proportion 
to  the  body ;  a  curled  tail  is  indicative  of 
a  strong  back. 

SWINE,  Breeds  and  Breeding— There 
are  several  good  breeds  which  lay  claim 
to  public  favor — none  of  which  are 
free  from  defects,  or  which  embody  all 
the  points  a  of  good  hog — the  Berkshire 
has  retained  the  good  opinion  of  the  pub- 
lic longer  than  any  other  breed,  and  the 
improved  Berkshire  is  probably  our  best 
breed.  The  Berkshire  was  first  obtained 
by  crossing  the  Neapolitan  with  one  of 
the  large  English  breeds.  The  Neapoli- 
tan is  a  descendant  of  the  improved  Roman 
hog,  probably  from  their  best,  a  proof  of  the 
skill  of  that  ancient  people  in  that  di- 
rection. 

Most  of  the  improved  English  breeds 
were  obtained  by  a  cross  of  the  large 
and  rather  coarse  English  hog  with  the 
fine  and  delicate  Chinese.  The  Suffolk 
is  the  result  of  one  of  those  crosses,  and 
is  esteemed  the  best  breed  in  England. 
It  is  of  fair  size,  and  retains  in  a  remark- 
able degree  the  fine  fattening  qualities  of 
its  China  parent. 

The  pure  Suffolk  is  almost  destitute  of 
hair,  a  very  serious  defect  under  our 
scorching  sun  and  dry  and  hot  climate;  it 
is  rather  tender  for  our  western  treatment, 
but  in  fattening,  gives  a  good  return  for 
all  the  food  consumed, 

There  are  several  American  breeds  that 
have  attracted  attention,  as  the  Ma- 
gee  hog  in  Ohio  and  the  Chester  White 
from  Pennsylvania,  both  good  hogs,  but 
as  yet  hardly  entitled  to  be  called  distinct 
breeds.  It  requires  a  long  continued 
breeding  in  one  direction,  with  careful 
and  judicious  selection,  to  form  a  distinct 
breed,  so  that  all  the  pigs  will  be  of  uni- 
form character,  size  and  form ;  till  fully 
established,  there  is  a  tendency  to  breed 
back  generally  to  the  most  defective  pro- 
genitor, and  till  that  tendency  is  over- 
come, the  certainty  of  reproduction  in 
its  perfection  cannot  be  relied  on. 


The  Chester  White,  when  distinctly  es- 
tablished, will  be  as  most  of  the  breeds 
are  now,  valuable  hogs,  the  square  and 
deep  form,  stout  and  erect  legs,  broad 
and  short  head,  quiet  disposition,  good 
fattening  qualities,  and  heavy  weight,  form 
a  combination  of  good  qualities  that  can 
hardly  be  surpassed. 

Although  our  best  breeds  of  hogs  were 
obtained  by  judicious  crossing,  and  our 
future  successful  efforts  will  be  perfected 
in  the  same  way,  yet  the  indiscriminate 
crossing  practiced  by  our  farmers  cannot 
be  too  strongly  condemned.  There  seems 
to  be  a  mania  for  mixing  all  breeds,  while 
the  aim  should  be  to  preserve  each  breed 
distinct  and  pure.  We  often  see  litters  of 
pigs  with  no  two  alike,  but  each  is  a  rep- 
resentation of  some  one  of  the  eight  or 
ten  breeds  whose  blood  is  mingled  in  the 
genealogical  compound.  We  once  made 
a  cross  of  the  Irish  Grazier,  a  large,  slow, 
maturing  hog,  with  the  Berkshire,  and 
then  crossed  that  sow  with  the  Suffolk — 
and  the  product  were  three  distinct 
breeds  from  the  same  litter — first,  a  fine 
delicate  pig  that  would  fatten  at  any  age; 
second,  a  medium-sized  hog  that  would 
fatten  at  twelve  to  eighteen  months ;  and 
third,  a  Grazier  hog,  that  would  weigh 
from  five  to  seven  hundred,  but  must  be 
two  or  two  and  a  half  years  old  before 
they  would  lay  on  fat.  Preserve  the 
breed  pure  and  distinct,  should  be  the 
rule. 

Both  parents  should  be  at  least  one 
year  old  before  being  allowed  to  breed, 
and  if  the  female  should  be  kept  till  five 
or  six  years  for  that  purpose  it  would  ma- 
terially improve  the  size  and  vigor  of  the 
pigs;  while  breeding  from  young  sows, 
deteriorates  both  size  and  vigor.  The 
period  of  gestation  with  the  sow  is  about 
sixteen  weeks,  or  1 1 2  days ;  during  this 
period  the  sow  should  never  be  closely 
confined,  but  should  have  ample  room 
for  exercise,  with  free  access  to  water; 
the  food  should  be  generous,  but  not  too 
heavy  and  heating — such  as  will  insure 
the  most  perfect  health. 

The  best  season  for  sows  to  farrow  is 
April,  or  early  in  May ;  an  April  pig  is 
worth  one-third  more  than  a  July  pig, 
and  more  than  double  a  September  pig. 
Some  breeds  can  be  fattened  at  any  age, 
but  none  will  fatten  as  well  at  one  year 
or  much  as  at  15  to  j 8  months;  any  hog 


SWINE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


231 


must  arrive  fully  at  maturity  before  it  can 
be  easily  fattened.  And  an  April  pig  can 
be  kept  till  a  year  from  the  following  Jan- 
uary at  less  expense  and  trouble  than  a 
September  pig.  While  suckling  the  sow 
should  have  free  access  to  grass,  and 
should  have  a  generous  supply  of  tolera- 
bly rich  slop,  and  if  fed  in  a  trough  easy 
of  access,  the  young  porkers  will  soon 
learn  to  feed  with  her  with  decided  bene- 
fit to  themselves  and  the  mother.  At 
eight  weeks  old  they  should  be  weaned — 
and  if  they  have  learned  to  eat  with  the 
mother  and  are  fed  milk  or  dairy  slop 
with  a  generous  supply  of  fine  bran  or 
coarse  meal  they  will  not  fall  off,  but  will 
continue  growing  without  interruption. 

A  growing  pig  should  never  be  fed 
corn  to  any  amount,  it  contains  too  much 
oil  and  does  not  contain  elements  of 
growth;  light  grain,  bran  and  shorts, 
with  a  good  supply  of  grass  and  succu- 
lent vegetables,  should  constitute  their 
food.  After  weaning,  a  pig  should  never 
be  made  extremely  fat,  it  checks  the 
growth  and  injures  their  thrift  afterwards; 
nor  should  they  be  permitted  to  be- 
come poor — a  poor  pig  can  never  be 
made  to  attain  the  size  or  form  it  would 
have  done  had  it  never  been  stopped  in 
its  growth — like  a  hill  of  corn,  if  it  once 
becomes  feeble  and  sickly,  no  after  cul- 
ture can  atone  for  the  injury  done.  A 
mangy  pig  is  worthless  and  should  be 
consigned  to  the  golgotha  where  the  dead 
animals  of  the  farm  are  deposited. 

Neat,  cleanly  and  well  sheltered  accom- 
modation should  be  provided  for  swine, 
especially  during  the  season  of  growth — 
the  hog  has  been  much  slandered  in  rela- 
tion to  his  uncleanly  habits — in  some  re- 
spect the  hog  is  more  cleanly  than  the 
cow  or  the  horse  or  most  domestic  ani- 
mals. It  is  true,  like  the  elephant  and 
other  pachyderms,  he  is  fond  of  bathing, 
a  cleanly  habit,  and  it  is  more  the  fault 
of  his  keeper  than  his  own  that  he  wal- 
lows in  mud  when  better  accommoda- 
tions are  not  accessible.  But  if  young 
pigs  have  to  lie  in  a  damp  and  dirty  bed, 
their  skin  soon  becomes  encrusted  with 
scurf,  the  ears  and  tail  frequently  drop 
off,  and  the  growth  is  at  once  arrested. 
During  the  entire  rearing  to  the  term  of 
fattening,  the  animal  should  be  kept  in  a 
sleek,  healthy  and  growing  condition. 

The  natural  instincts  of  every  animal 


must  be  consulted  and  followed  to  pro- 
duce the  best  results  when  domesticated. 

The  hog  is  impatient  of  both  heat  and 
cold;  any  unusual  exertion  during  the 
heat  of  summer,  especially  if  in  full  flesh, 
will  frequently  cost  him  his  life;  comfortable 
shade  should  always  be  provided,  conve- 
nient of  access,  such  as  will  protect  them 
from  the  noonday  heats  of  the  summer 
sun ;  neglect  of  this  is  inexcusable  cruel- 
ty, and  will  be  a  serious  drawback  from 
the  credit  side  of  the  pork  account. 

Equally  important  is  ample  protection 
from  the  opposite  extreme  of  the  winter 
cold.  Pigs  dropped  in  the  fall  are  unfit, 
with  all  the  care  that  can  or  will  be  giv- 
en by  our  common  farm  accommodations, 
to  pass  uninjured  the  severity  of  the  win- 
ter season.  Early  spring  pigs  will  do 
much  better,  but  a  well  covered,  well 
protected  and  well  littered  sty  where  the 
pigs  will  not  lie  more  than  one  deep, 
and  when  the  owner  will  not  have  the 
nightmare  from  listening  to  their  unearth- 
ly screams  from  suffering  from  the  biting 
cold,  is  essential  to  successful  pork  raising. 
And  we  do  not  believe  that  any  good 
Christian  can  say  his  prayers  and  sleep 
easily  and  quietly  while  the  whole  neigh- 
borhood is  made  vocal  by  the  cries  of  his 
freezing  pigs. 

During  the  cold  season,  a  proportion 
ofcornasfood  is  not  objectionable.  It 
is  well  calculated  to  keep  up  the  animal 
heat,  and  from  the  care  and  convenience 
of  feeding,  it  is  now,  and  doubtless  will 
continue  to  be,  the  principal  food  at  that 
season.  Yet  the  best  results  will  not  follow 
when  most  of  the  coarser  grains  with  bran 
made  into  slop,  and  refuse  apples,  pota- 
toes, or  other  roots  or  green  food,  consti- 
tute the  diet. 

Dry  grain  of  any  kind  is  not  the  best 
feed,  and  for  this  reason  the  hogs  that  fol- 
low beef  cattle  highly  fed  with  corn  do 
better  than  when  they  receive  the  corn 
directly  from  the  crib. 

During  the  summer,  before  fattening,  a 
clover  or  timothy  pasture  is  indispensable 
to  successful  fattening,  and  to  economical 
production  of  pork — and  the  next  best 
course  is  soiling  with  clover,  timothy,  or 
other  succulent  grasses  or  vegetables. 
Confinement  in  small  pens,  and  heavy 
feeding  with  corn,  is  the  most  expensive, 
as  well  as  the  least  successful  preparation 
for  fattening  in  the  fall  that  can  well  be 


232 


SWINE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


adopted.  If  fed  through  the  hot  weather 
exclusively  on  corn,  the  teeth  become 
sore,  and  the  animal  is  generally  dis- 
eased. At  killing  time  the  livers  will 
generally  be  found  diseased,  and  it  will 
be  found  impracticable  to  make  them  put 
on  fat. 

One  autumn,  when  corn  was  worth 
twenty  cents,  a  neighbor  inquired  of  us 
if  we  could  tell  why  his  hogs  would  not 
fatten,  and  also  saying  that  most  of  his 
neighbors  made  the  like  complaint.  We 
replied  that  the  reason  was  obvious — cheap 
corn  was  the  trouble;  not  that  ten  cent 
corn  is  less  nutritious  than  when  the  price 
is  one  dollar,  but  it  is  fed  too  liberally, 
and  neither  a  hog  or  any  other  animal 
can  stand  full  feeding  with  corn  alone  but 
a  few  months  and  continue  in  health. 
The  proper  course  is  to  so  feed  during 
».he  summer  as  to  preserve  the  animals  in 
the  most  perfect  health,  keep  them  thrift- 
ly  growing,  and  slightly  gaining  in  flesh, 
so  as  to  prepare  them  best  for  the  fatten- 
ing process,  which  is  always  more  or  less 
a  health-destroying  process.  With  good 
clover  or  timothy  pasture,  a  little  corn  or 
other  grain  is  not  objectionable,  but  they 
will  do  well  on  the  pasture  alone — they 
will  grow  but  not  fatten — and  if  kept 
through  the  summer  on  grass  alone,  will 
be  in  admirable  condition  to  take  on  flesh; 
they  will  account  promptly  for  every  ker- 
nel of  corn  judiciously  given  them. 

Their  teeth  and  digestive  organs  are 
all  fresh  and  in  good  condition,  and  with 
strong  appetites  and  vigorous  health, 
their  advance  to  the  condition  of  respect- 
able porkers  is  easy  and  rapid.  Sudden 
changes  from  solid  to  succulent  food 
should  be  carefully  avoided,  and  vice 
versa,  the  change  from  grass  to  heavy 
feeding  with  corn  should  be  very  gradual, 
especially  as  the  fattening  season  com- 
mences. 

There  is  one  primary  rule  in  fattening 
that  should  never  be  violated:  the  change 
of  feed  should  always  be  from  lighter  to 
heavier,  and  never  from  heavier  to  light- 
er. Consequently,  when  taken  from 
grass  and  vegetables,  a  little  soft  corn  or 
meal  should  be  gradually  introduced. 
Corn  cut  while  the  kernel  is  in  the  milk  is 
good  food  to  follow  the  grass.  The  grad- 
ual hardening  of  the  grain  will  be  a  prop- 
er increase  of  the  nutrient  quality  of  the 
food.     When  fairly  established  on  a  diet 


of  sound  corn,  it  should  be  fed  on  a  clean 
floor,  and  in  amount  about  what  will  be 
eaten,  but  not  so  as  to  have  a  kernel  left. 
The  practice  of  leaving  a  quantity  of 
corn  more  than  will  be  eaten  on  the  feed- 
ing floor  is  a  very  wasteful  and  bad  prac- 
tice. The  nice  point  to  ascertain  is  to 
find,  by  measurement,  the  amount  that 
will  be  consumed  without  any  waste,  and 
then  to  always  measure  the  feed,  by  that 
standard,  varying  the  amount  as  their  ap- 
petites require.  There  are  no  animals 
that  will  retain  their  appetite  and  thrive 
as  well  when  fed  to  a  surfeit,  with  the 
unused  food  blown  and  dirty  constantly 
before  them  as  they  will  with  just  enough 
to  give  healthy  and  full  action  to  the 
digestive  organs,  and  to  preserve  the 
appetite  unimpaired.  To  effect  this  the 
last  of  each  feed  should  be  consumed 
with  avidity.  Thus  the  old  adage,  that 
the  lazy  farmer  who  leaned  upon  the 
fence  while  his  hogs  finished  their  meal, 
always  had  the  leanest  pork,  has  much 
significance. 

Plenty  of  water,  with  occasionally  a 
little  salt,  coal  and  ashes  to  correct  the 
acidity  of  the  stomach  of  the  gourmand 
porkers,  completes  the  required  dietary. 
This  system  of  feeding  is  adapted  to 
corn  fattening  as  practiced  at  the  West. 

Our  Eastern  friends  have  a  somewhat 
different  system.  First,  having  secured 
the  necessary  buildings,  kettles,  troughs, 
etc.,  they  commence  the  fattening  pro- 
cess by  boiling  vegetables,  such  as  apples, 
potatoes,  pumpkins,  or  any  other  that 
hogs  will  eat,  and  when  thoroughly  cook- 
ed, these  constitute  the  food  for  the  first 
few  days,  they  then  commence  adding  a 
very  little  meal,  mixing  it  with  the  hot, 
boiled  or  steamed  vegetables,  so  as  to 
cook  it  thoroughly.  When  the  mess  has 
undergone  a  slight  fomentation  it  is  ready 
for  use.  The  amount  of  meal  is  very 
gradually  increased,  till  toward  the  close 
of  the  fattening  season,  when  meal  alone 
is  given  ;  the  meal  is  of  corn,  oats,  buck- 
wheat, and  barley, 'ground,  either  mixed 
or  separately. 

Hogs  kept  in  a  close  pen  and  fed  corn 
through  the  whole  period  of  their  exist- 
ence will  figure  up  the  profits  on  the 
wrong  side  of  the  balance  sheet;  and 
much  depends  on  the  breed;  there  will 
be  a  wide  difference  between  results  from 
a  good  and  inferior  breed  with  the  same 


SWINE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


233 


keeping.  There  is  much  point  in  the 
•reply  of  the  man  when  his  neighbor 
•wanted  to  get  some  of  his  breed  of  hogs, 
•that  he  would  want  his  swill  tub  too. 
Yet,  both  a  good  breed  and  a  well-filled 
trough  are  essential  to  successful  pork 
raising. 

SWINE,  Debility,  General,  or  Emacia- 
tion.— The  falling  off  in  flesh  or  wasting 
away,  of  swine  is  in  most  cases  owing  to 
derangement  in  the  digestive  organs. 
The  cure  consists  in  restoring  the.  tone 
of  these  organs.  We  commence  the 
treatment  by  putting  the  animal  on  a 
boiled  diet,  consisting  of  bran,  meal,  or 
any  wholesome  vegetable  production. 
The  following  tonic  and  diffusible  stimu- 
lant will  complete  the  cure :  powdered 
golden  seal,  powdered  ginger,  equal 
parts.  Dose,  a  teaspoonful,  repeated 
night  and  morning. 

When  loss  in  condition  is  accompanied 
with  cough  and  difficulty  of  breathing, 
mix,  in  addition  to  the  above,  a  few 
kernels  of  garlic  with  the  food.  The 
drink  should  consist  of  pure  water.  Should 
the  cough  prove  troublesome,  take  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  fir  balsam,  and  the  same 
quantity  of  honey;  to  be  given  night  and 
morning,  either  in  the  usual  manner,  or  it 
may  be  stirred  into  the  food  while  hot. 

SWINE,  Epilepsy. — The  symptoms  are 
too  well  known  to  need  any  description. 
It  is  generally  caused  by  plethora,  yet  it 
may  exist  in  an  hereditary  form. 

Feed  with  due  care,  and  put  the  animal 
in  a  well-ventilated  and  clean  situation ; 
give  a  bountiful  supply  of  valerian  tea, 
and  sprinkle  a  small  quantity  of  scraped 
horse  radish  in  the  food;  or  give  pow- 
dered assafoetida,  1  ounce;  powdered 
capsicum,  1  teaspoonful;  table  salt,  1 
tablespoonful.  Mix.  Give  half  a  tea- 
spoonful daily. 

Dr.  Dan  states  with  reference  to  epi- 
lepsy with  which  pigs  are  often  suddenly 
attacked,  that  the  inherited  tendency  may 
be  mitigated  by  keeping  the  animals 
clean,  warm,  and  comfortable,  and  sup- 
plied with  a  sufficiency  of  good,  digesti- 
ble, and  somewhat  laxative  food. 

"  To  eradicate  it  the  stock  must  receive 
an  infusion  of  new  blood;  and  this  is 
especially  necessary,  as  epilepsy  in  pigs 
depends  in  most  cases  on  continued 
breeding  in-and-in." 

SWINE,  Fits.     See  Swine,  Epilepsy. 


SWINE,  BJienmatism  in. — Exposure, 
wallowing  in  filth,  etc. 

It  is  recognized  by  a  muscular  rigidity 
of  the  whole  system.  The  appetite  is 
impaired,  and  the  animal  does  not  leave 
its  sty  willingly. 

Keep  the  animal  on  a  boiled  diet, 
which  should  be  given  to  him  warm. 
Remove  the  cause  by  avoiding  exposure 
and  filth,  and  give  a  dose  of  the  following, 
equal  parts :  Powdered  sulphur,  powdered 
sassafras,  powdered  cinnamon. 

Dose,  half  a  teaspoonful,  to  be  given 
in  warm  gruel.  If  this  does  not  give  im- 
mediate relief,  dip  an  old  cloth  in  hot 
water  (of  a  proper  temperature),  and  fold 
it  round  the  animal's  body.  This  may  be 
repeated,  if  necessary,  until  the  muscular 
system  is  relaxed.  The  animal  should 
be  wiped  dry,  and  placed  in  a  warm 
situation,  with  a  good  bed  of  straw. 

SWINE,  Ophthalmia. — Sudden  changes 
in  temperature,  unclean  sties,  want  of 
pure  air,  and  imperfect  light. 

Keep  the  animal  on  thin  gruel,  and 
allow  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar 
per  day.  Wash  the  eyes  with  an  infusion 
of  marshmallows,  until  a  cure  is  effected. 

SWINE,  Vermin. — Some  animals  are 
covered  with  vermin,  which  even  pierce 
the  skin,  and  sometimes  come  out  by  the 
mouth,  nose,  and  eyes. 

The  animal  is  continually  rubbing  and 
scratching  itself,  or  burrowing  in  the  dirt 
and  mire. 

First  wash  the  body  with  a  strong  lye 
of  wood  ashes  or  weak  saleratus  water, 
then  with  an  infusion  of  lobelia.  Mix  a 
teaspoonful  of  sulphur,  and  the  same 
quantity  of  powdered  charcoal,  in  the 
food  daily. 

Or,  procure  some  leat  tobacco,  and 
boil  it  to  a  strong  amber  in  water  suffi- 
cient to  float  it.  Mix  in,  while  hot,  suffi- 
cient amount  of  lard  or  refuse  grease,  to 
make  a  thin  salve,  rub  on  the  pigs  or 
hogs  troubled,  and  in  less  than  24  hours, 
if  the  ointment  is  thoroughly  applied, 
they  will  not  have  a  single  louse  on  them. 
SWINE,  Colic  in.— Spasmodic  and  flat- 
ulent colic  requires  anti-spasmodics  and 
carminatives,  in  the  following  form :  Pow- 
dered caraway  seeds,  one  teaspoonful; 
powdered  assafoetida,  one-third  of  a  tea- 
spoonful. To  be  given  at  a  dose  in  warm 
water,  and  repeated  at  the  expiration  of 
an  hour,  provided  relief  is  not  obtained. 


234 


SWINE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES, 


SWIKE,  Trichinae. — To  prevent  the 
Trichinae  from  getting  into  our  hogs,  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  most 
likely  sources  of  the  parasite  are  the  ani- 
mal offal  and  garbage  which  they  eat 
when  allowed  to  run  at  large,  and  the  rats 
they  are  apt  to  devour  when  they  can  get 
at  them;  in  illustration  of  which  fact  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  the  pigs  in  Ire- 
land, which  are  allowed  much  more  lib- 
erty of  wandering,  and  are  less  regularly 
fed  than  their  congeners  in  England  and 
Prussia,  are  more  apt  than  these  others 
to  present  the  Trichinae  upon  microscopic 
investigation.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to 
keep  pigs  intended  for  human  consump- 
tion in  clean  sties,  containing  only  one 
or  two  each,  and  impervious  to  rats.  The 
animals  should  be  plentifully  fed  with 
sound  grain,  buttermilk,  etc.,  well  water- 
ed, and  allowed  some  salt  occasionally; 
in  other  words,  placed  in  good  hygienic 
conditions,  and  excluded  from  diseased 
food.  It  may  perhaps  seem  necessary  to 
dwell  upon  the  value  and  necessity 
of  measures  which  commend  themselves 
at  once  as  affording  not  only  the  best 
safeguard  against  the  special  disease  un- 
der notice,  but  as  going  far  toward  the 
prevention  of  other  diseases  to  which  the 
hog  is  subject.  Yet  in  view  of  the  neg- 
lect and  even  positive  abuse  with  which 
pigs  are  treated  throughout  the  land,  it  is 
well  that  breeders  should  understand  the 
fearful  consequences  liable  to  result  from 
carelessness,  which,  in  matters  of  such 
vital  importance,  is  closely  allied  to  crim- 
inality. 

SWINE,  Cholera. — Give  one  pint  of 
turpentine  each  week  to  fifteen  hogs,  or 
in  the  same  proportion  to  a  lesser  num- 
ber, mixing  it  with  slops. 

SWINE,  Choking.— Choking  is  often 
produced  by  feeding  on  roots,  particularly 
round  and  uncut  roots,  like  the  potato. 
The  animal  slavers  at  the  mouth,  tries  to 
raise  the  obstruction  from  the  throat, 
often  groans,  and  appears  to  be  in  great 
pain.  Then  the  belly  begins  to  swell, 
from  the  amount  of  gases  in  the  paunch. 

The  obstruction,  if  not  too  large,  can 
sometimes  be  thrust  forward  by  intro- 
ducing a  flexible  rod,  or  tube,  into  the 
throat.  This  method,  if  adopted,  should 
be  attended  with  great  care  and  patience, 
or  the  tender  parts  will  be  injured.  If 
the  obstruction  is  low  down,  and  a  tube 


is  to  be  inserted,  a  pint  of  olive  or  lin- 
seed oil  first  turned  down  the  throat  will 
so  lubricate  the  parts  as  to  aid  the  opera- 
tion, and  the  power  applied  must  be 
steady.  If  the  gullet  is  torn  by  the  care- 
lessness of  the  operator,  or  the  roughness 
of  the  instrument,  a  rupture  generally 
results  in  serious  consequences.  A  hol- 
low tube  is  best,  and  if  the  object  is 
passed  on  into  the  paunch,  the  tube 
should  remain  a  short  time,  to  permit  the 
gas  to  escape.  In  case  the  animal  is 
very  badly  swelled,  the  dose  of  chloride 
of  lime,  or  ammonia,  should  be  given,  as 
for  the  hoove,  after  the  obstruction  is  re- 
moved. 

Care  should  be  taken,  after  the  ob- 
struction is  removed,  to  allow  no  solid 
food  for  some  days. 

SWINE,  Black  Teeth  in— Sickness  in 
hogs  from  indigestion,  deranged  biliary  or 
urinary  secretion,  is  sometimes  attributed 
to  an  imaginary  disease  called  the  black 
tooth.  The  treatment  usually  adopted  is 
to  examine  the  teeth  of  the  animal,  and 
if  one  is  found  blacker  than  the  rest,  it  is 
supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  the  disease, 
and  is  hammered  off  even  with  the  jaw, 
leaving  the  broken  roots  and  lacerated 
nerves  of  the  tooth  to  increase  the  suffer- 
ing of  the  animal.  Notwithstanding  all 
this  cruel  treatment  the  hog  sometimes 
recovers,  and  would  probably  have  done 
so  much  sooner  if  he  had  been  let  alone. 
The  tooth  in  these  cases  is  not  diseased, 
but  only  stained  by  food  or  otherwise. 
The  cruel  treatment  of  breaking  off  the 
tooth  down  to  the  nerve  would  certainly 
cause  disease,  and  might,  in  connection 
with  the  true  one,  cause  the  death  of  the 
animal.  A  proper  treatment  would  be  to 
wash  the  hog  thoroughly  with  soap  and 
water,  and  give  it  three  or  four  ounces  of 
castor  oil. 

SWINE,  Rot,  Tails  of  Young  Pigs.— 
The  tails  of  young  pigs  frequently  drop 
or  -rot  off,  which  is  attended  with  no 
further  disadvantage  to  the  animal  than 
the  loss  of  the  member.  The  remedies 
are,  to  give  a  little  brimstone  or  sulphur 
in  the  food  of  the  dam;  or  rub  oil  or 
grease  daily  on  the  affected  parts.  It 
may  be  detected  by  a  roughness  or  scab- 
biness  at  the  point  where  separation  is 
likely  to  occur. 

SWINE,  Bleeding. — The  most  conve- 
nient mode  is  from  an  artery  just  above 


SWINE-CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


■35 


the  knee,  on  the  inside  of  the  forearm. 
It  may  be  drawn  more  copiously  from  the 
roof  of  the  mouth.  The  flow  of  blood 
may  usually  be  stopped  by  applying  a 
sponge  or  cloth  with  cold  water. 

The  diseases  of  swine,  though  not  nu- 
merous, are  formidable,  and  many  of 
them  soon  become  fatal.  They  have  not 
been  the  subject  of  particular  scientific 
study,  and  most  of  the  remedies  applied 
are  rather  the  result  of  casual  or  hap- 
hazard suggestion  than  of  well-digested 
inference  from  long-continued  and  accu- 
rate observation. 

The  cardinal  principles  of  successful 
pig  raising  are,  to  breed  only  from  sound 
and  healthy  parents  of  remote  relation- 
ship, to  keep  the  animal  in  dry,  warm, 
and  cleanly  quarters,  to  feed  regularly 
and  with  varying  food,  and  to  remove  as 
early  as  possible  any  diseased  or  weakly 
animal  from  the  herd. 

SWINE,  Apoplexy  and  Inflammation 
of  the  Brain. — In  distilleries,  and  Avhere 
many  hogs  are  kept,  and  too  well  kept, 
this  is  a  very  destructive  and  not  unfre- 
quent  malady.  If  the  swine  had  been 
carefully  observed  it  would  have  been 
seen  that  they  were  making  a  more  than 
usually  rapid  progress,  but  there  was  at 
the  same  time  a  laziness,  or  heaviness,  or 
stupidity  about  them.  A  dose  or  two  of 
physic  would  have  removed  this,  and  not 
have  interfered  with  the  fattening ;  indeed 
they  would  have  thriven  the  better  after 
it.  If  this,  however,  has  been  neglected, 
the  apoplexy  will  probably  be  established. 
The  swine,  in  the  act  of  feeding,  or  when 
moving  across  the  sty,  will  fall  suddenly, 
as  if  struck  with  lightning.  He  will  be 
motionless  for  a  little  while,  and  then  con- 
vulsions will  come  on,  strong  and  dread- 
ful; the  eyes  will  seem  protruded,  the 
head  and  neck  will  swell,  and  the  veins 
of  the  neck  will  be  brought  into  sight, 
notwithstanding  the  mass  of  fat  with 
which  they  may  be  covered.  In  the 
midst  of  his  struggles  the  animal  will  be 
perfectly  unconscious  He  will  often  die 
in  a  few  minutes,  or  should  he  recover,  he 
will  be  strangely  exhausted,  and  some  in- 
ternal injury  will  be  evidently  done,  so 
that  he  will  afterwards  be  very  subject  to 
returns  of  these  attacks,  either  of  apo- 
plexy or  of  fits. 

The  course  here  is  plain  enough.  He 
should  be  bled,  and  bled  copiously.     In- 


deed, the  blood  should  be  suffered  to  flow 
as  long  as  it  will.  Two  or  three  ounces 
of  Epsom  salts  should  then  be  given ;  the 
quantity  and  the  heating  character  of  the 
food  should  be  diminished,  and  a  couple 
of  drachms  of  sulphur  given  daily  in  the 
first  meal. 

When  apoplexy  or  fits  have  once  appeared 
in  a  sty  they  spread  like  wild-fire.  There 
is  nothing  contagious  in  them,  but  there 
is  the  power  of  sympathy  acting  upon  an- 
imals become  too  disposed  to  inflamma- 
tion and  fever.  The  most  forward  of 
them  should  be  disposed  of  as  soon  as 
possible 

The  habit  of  fits  once  established  can- 
not easily  be  broken,  and  the  only  way  to 
prevent  the  continuance  of  much  annoy- 
ance is,  to  separate  those  that  are  oftenest 
affected  from  the  rest,  and  to  fatten  them 
as  soon  as  possible. 

SWINE,  Measles. — This  is  an  inflam- 
matory disease,  not  always  indeed  dis- 
covered during  the  life  of  the  animal,  but 
plain  enough  after  death,  and  very  con- 
siderably diminishing  the  value  of  the 
carcass.  The  red  and  pimpled  appear- 
ance of  the  skin,  or  of  the  cellular  sub- 
stance between  the  flesh  and  the  skin,  suf- 
ficiently marks  the  disease.  It  shows  that 
there  has  been  general  inflammation, 
either  resulting  from  the  fattening  process 
being  carried  too  far,  or,  much  oftener, 
from  the  animal  having  too  suddenly  been 
taken  from  poor  keep,  and  suffered  to  have 
as  much  as  it  will  eat  of  highly  nutritious 
and  stimulating  food.  The  measles  are 
very  seldom  or  never  fatal,  but  the  dis- 
ease may  generally  be  recognized  by  the 
pink  blush  of  the  skin,  or  of  some  parts 
of  it,  and  by  the  hog  rubbing  himself 
more  than  usual,  while  the  skin  is  free 
from  pimples  and  scurf.  The  remedy 
would  be  a  less  quantity  of  food,  or  of  not 
so  stimulating  a  character,  and  occasional 
doses  of  Epsom  salts  or  sulphur. 

SWINE,  Mange. — Few  domesticated 
animals  are  so  subject  to  this  loathsome 
disease  as  the  hog  if  he  is  neglected  and 
filthily  kept ;  but  in  a  well  cleaned  and 
well  managed  piggery  it  is  rarely  or  never 
seen,  unless  some,  whose  blood  from  gen- 
eration to  generation  has  been  tainted 
with  it,  should  be  incautiously  admitted. 
A  mangy  hog  cannot  possibly  thrive  well. 
His  foul  and  scurfy  hide  will  never  loosen,. 


236 


SWINE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


so  as  to  suffer  the  accumulation  of  flesh 
and  fat  under  it. 

Except  it  is  hereditary,  it  may,  although 
with  some  trouble,  be  perfectly  eradicated. 
The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  clean  the 
hog  well ;  without  this  all  external  appli- 
cation and  internal  medicines  will  be 
thrown  away.  The  animal  must  be 
scrubbed  all  over  with  a  good  strong  soap 
lather,  and  when  he  is  well  dried  with 
wisps  of  straw  he  will  be  ready  for  the 
ointment,  and  no  better  one  can  be  used 
than  the  Mild  Ointment  for  Scab  in 
Sheep.  (See  No.  85,  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicines  for.)  A  little  of  this 
should  be  well  rubbed  all  over  him  every 
second  or  third  day;  but  at  the  same  time 
internal  medicine,  such  as  the  Alterative 
Powder,  (See  No.  89,.  Domestic  Ani- 
mals, Medicines  for,)  should  not  be 
omitted.  There  is  no  animal  in  which  it 
is  more  necessary  to  attack  this  and  simi- 
ilar  diseases  constitutionally. 

This,  like  the  scab  in  sheep,  is  a  very 
infectious  disease,  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  scour  the  sty  well  with  soap,  and 
afterwards  to  wash  it  with  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime,  as  recommended  else- 
where. The  rubbing-post,  that  useful  but 
too  often  neglected  article  of  furniture  in 
■every  sty,  should  particularly  be  attended 
to. 

SWINE,  FEET,  Soreness  of  the.— This 
often  occurs  to  pigs  that  have  traveled 
any  distance ;  the  feet  often  becomes  ten- 
der and  sore.  In  such  cases,  they  should 
be  examined,  and  all  extraneous  matter 
removed  from  the  foot.  Then  wash  with 
weak  lye.  If  the  feet  discharge  fetid  mat- 
ter, wash  with  the  following  mixture: 
Pyroligneous  acid,  two  ounces;  water, 
four  ounces. 

In  the  treatment  of  diseased  swine,  the 
"issues,"  as  they  are  called,  ought  to  be 
examined,  and  be  kept  free.  They  may 
be  found  on  the  inside  of  the  legs,  just 
above  the  pastern  joint.  They  seem  to 
serve  as  a  drain  or  outlet  for  the  morbid 
fluids  of  the  body,  and  whenever  they 
are  obstructed,  local  or  general  disturb- 
ance is  sure  to  supervene. 

SWINE,  Pigging.— The  sow  usually 
goes  with  pig  four  months,  but  there  is 
more  irregularity  in  her  time  than  in  that 
of  any  other  of  our  domesticated  quad- 
rupeds. A  week  or  ten  days  before  her 
pigging  she  should  be  separated  from  the 


rest,  otherwise  the  young  ones  would 
probably  be  devoured  as  soon  as  they 
are  dropped ;  and  if  she  shows  any  dis- 
position to  destroy  them,  or  if  she  has 
ever  done  so,  she  should  be  carefully 
watched,  a  muzzle  should  be  put  upon 
her,  and  her  little  ones  should  be  smeared 
with  train  oil  and  aloes  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  teats  of  the  sow  will  sometimes 
swell,  and  hard  knots  may  be  felt  in 
them,  as  in  the  garget  of  cattle.  The 
treatment  should  be  nearly  the  same 
except  that  bleeding  is  scarcely  requisite. 
A  dose  of  physic,  however,  is  indispensa- 
ble. The  Garget  Ointment  for  Cattle 
(See  No.  24,  Domestic  Animals,  Medi- 
cines for,)  may  be  rubbed  with  advant- 
age into  the  teats,  which  should  be  care- 
fully wiped  or  washed  before  the  young 
ones  are  permitted  to  suck  again ;  indeed 
they  will  not  suck  while  any  unusual 
smell  remains  about  the  teats.  The  milk 
should  also  be  gently,  but  well  pressed  out 
of  the  diseased  teats. 

When  it  is  wished  to  spay  a  breeding 
sow,  in  order  that  she  may  be  put  up  for 
fattening,  it  may  be  done  while  she  is 
suckling.  The  young  pigs  may  be  cut  at 
three  or  four  weeks  old;  they  should 
never  be  suffered  to  suck  longer  than  two 
months ;  and  they  may  be  rung  as  soon 
as  convenient  after  weaning.  No  hog 
should  escape  ringing,  even  if  he  is 
destined  to  live  in  the  sty.  It  is  the  only 
way  to  keep  him  quiet,  and  will  con- 
tribute materially  to  his  thriving. 

SWINE,  Quinsy.— This  disease  in  the 
hog  is  compounded  of  sore  throat  and 
enlargement  of  the  glands  of  the  throat, 
and  is  something  like  strangles  in  the 
horse — inflammation  and  enlargement  of 
the  cellular  substance  between  the  skin 
and  muscles  under  the  lower  jaw.  The 
progress  of  the  malady  is  rapid,  and 
the  swelling  is  sometimes  so  great  as  to 
prevent  the  breathing,  and  consequently 
to  suffocate  the  animal.  To  a  skin  so 
thick  as  that  of  the  hog  it  is  useless  to 
make  any  external  application.  The  pa- 
tient should  be  bled ;  two  ounces  of  salts 
should  be  given,  and  half-ounce  doses 
repeated  every  six  hours,  until  the  bowels 
are  well  opened ;  while  warm  weak  wash, 
or  milk  and  water,  should  be  occasionally 
poured  into  the  trough.  It  is  not  often  a 
dangerous  disease  if  remedies  are  early 
adopted. 


SWINE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


=37 


SWINE,  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. — 
This  complaint  is  known  among  the 
breeders  and  fatteners  of  swine  by  the 
term  of  rising  of  the  lights.  There  seems 
to  be  a  peculiar  tendency  in  every  mala- 
dy of  this  animal  to  take  on  a  highly  in- 
flammatory character.  It  is  the  conse- 
quence of  the  forcing  system  that  is 
adopted  in  the  fattening  of  the  hog.  It 
resembles  the  blood  or  inflammatory  fever 
of  oxen  and  sheep — a  general  and  high 
degree  of  fever,  produced  on  a  system  al- 
ready strongly  disposed  to  take  on  in- 
tense inflammatory  action  from  the  slight- 
est causes.  Every  little  cold  is  apt  to  de- 
generate into  inflammation  of  the  lungs 
in  the  fatted  or  fattening  hog;  and  so 
many  cases  of  this  sometimes  occur  in 
the  same  establishment,  or  the  same 
neighborhood — in  fact,  among  those  who 
are  exposed  to  the  same  exciting  cause, 
that  the  disease  is  mistaken  for  an  epi- 
demic. There  is  no  doubt  that  when  this 
heaving  of  the  ligths  begins  to  appear  in 
a  herd  of  swine,  a  great  many  of  them 
are  sooner  or  later  affected  by  it,  and  die. 
It  is  the  cough  or  cold  that  is  epidemic, 
but  it  is  the  plethora  and  inflammatory 
state  of  the  animals  that  cause  it  to  be 
so  general  as  well  as  fatal. 

The  early  symptom  is  cough.  A  cough 
in  a  hog  is  always  a  suspicious  circum- 
stance, and  should  be  early  and  promptly 
attended  to.  The  disease  is  rapid  in  its 
progess.  The  animal  heaves  dreadfully 
at  the  flanks ;  he  has  a  most  distressing 
cough,  which  sometimes  almost  suffocates 
him,  and  he  refuses  to  eat.  The  princi- 
pal guiding  symptom  will  be  the  cough 
getting  worse  and  worse,  and  becoming 
evidently  connected  with  a  great  deal  of 
fever. 

In  many  cases  congestion  takes  place 
in  the  lungs,  and  the  animal  dies  in  three 
or  four  days;  in  others  he  appears  for  a 
while  to  be  getting  better;  but  there  is  a 
sudden  relapse,  a  frequent  dry,  husky 
cough  comes  on,  there  is  a  little  appetite, 
rapid  wasting,  and  the  hog  dies  in  a  few 
weeks,  evidently  consumptive. 

The  first  thing  that  is  to  be  done  is  to 
bleed,  and  the  most  convenient  place  to 
bleed  the  hog  is  from  the  palate.  If  an 
imaginary  line  is  drawn  from  between  the 
first  and  second  front  middle  teeth,  and 
extending  backward  an  inch  along  the 
palate,  and  the  palate  is  there  cut  deeply, 


with  a  lancet  or  fleam,  plenty  of  blood 
will  be  obtained.  A  larger  quantity  of 
blood,  however,  can  be  abstracted  from 
the  vein  on  the  inside  of  the  fore-arm, 
about  an  inch  above  the  knee.  The  ap- 
plication of  cold  water  with  a  sponge  will 
generally  stop  the  bleeding  without  diffi- 
culty, or  at  least  so  far  arrest  it  that  no- 
harm  will  be  done  if  it  should  continue  a 
little  while  longer.  An  assistant  may 
easily  open  the  mouth  sufficiently  for  all 
this  by  means  of  a  halter  or  stout  stick, 
but  beyond  this  the  swine  is  an  awkward 
patient  to  manage.  He  will  struggle  ob- 
stinately against  every  attempt  to  drench 
him,  and  the  inflammation  may  be  ag- 
gravated by  the  contest.  It  will,  there- 
fore, be  necessary  in  the  majority  of  cases 
to  endeavor  to  cheat  him  by  mixing  his. 
medicine  with  his  food. 

Here  we  must  recollect  the  nature  of 
his  stomach ;  it  is  not  of  that  insensible 
character  and  difficult  to  be  acted  upon 
or  nauseated  as  in  the  cow  and  the 
sheep,  but  it  approaches  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible to  the  structure  of  that  of  the  hu- 
man being ;  and  we  must  adapt  our  med- 
icine accordingly.  The  emetic  tartar  must 
be  omitted  from  our  Fever  Medicine,  or 
it  would  sadly  vomit  the  patient.  The 
Fever  Medicine  for  swine  (see  No.  88, 
Domestic  Animals,  Medicines  for,) 
may  be  given. 

In  the  greater  number  of  cases  the  an- 
imal will  readily  take  this ;  but  if  he  is  so 
ill  that  nutriment  of  every  kind  is  refused, 
he  must  be  drenched. 

This  should  be  repeated  morning,  noon 
and  night,  until  the  inflammation  is. 
abated.  A  purgative  should  quickly  fol- 
low, and  we  have  those  for  the  hog  which 
are  mild  as  well  as  effectual,  and  from 
which  no  danger  can  result.  The  Ep- 
som salts  may  be  given  in  doses  of  from 
one  to  three  ounces,  and  they  will  com- 
municate a  not  unpleasant  or  unusual  fla- 
vor to  his  broth  or  swill. 

If  this  inflammation  of  the  lungs  in 
the  hog  rivals  in  the  speed  with  which  it 
runs  its  course,  and  in  its  intensity  and  fa- 
tality, the  blood,  or  inflammatory  fever  of 
oxen  and  sheep,  no  time  should  be  lost  in 
adopting  the  proper  measures,  and  the 
bleeding  should  be  copious,  and  the  med- 
icine given  in  doses  sufficiently  powerful. 
When  the  disease  lingers  on,  and  the  dry, 
husky  cough  remains,  and  the  animal  is. 


238 


SWINE— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


evidently  wasting,  medicine  will  be  in  a 
manner  useless,  and  warmth  and  cleanli- 
ness, and  food  that  has  no  heating  qual- 
ity, afford  the  only  chance  of  cure. 

'  SWINE,  Sore  Ears.— There  are  often 
troublesome  cracks  and  sores  at  the  back 
of  the  large  lop-ears  of  some  breeds.  If 
there  is  any  disposition  to  mange,  it  is 
most  evident  about  the  ears  of  these  ani- 
mals, and  the  mischief  is  sadly  aggravat- 
ed when  brutes  in  human  shape  set  every 
ferocious  dog  at  the  stray  pig,  the  favor- 
ite hold  of  which  is  the  ear.  The  Heal- 
ing Cleaning  Ointment  for  Cattle  (See 
No.  10,  Domestic  Animals,  Medicines 
for,)  will  most  readily  heal  the  sores. 

SWINE,  Costiveness. — This  is  not  an 
uncommon  complaint  of  the  confined 
and  fattening  hog,  and  is  easily  removed 
by  the  Epsom  salts,  or  by  five  grains  of 
calomel  being  given  in  a  little  of  the 
animal's  favorite  food.  It  will  be  danger- 
ous, however,  to  push  the  calomel  beyond 
the  second  or  third  dose,  for  the  hog  is 
very  easily  salivated.  The  bowels  having 
been  well  opened,  a  dose  of  the  Alterative 
Powder  (See  No.  89,  Domestic  Animals, 
Medicines  for),  given  every  fourth  day 
will  be  very  beneficial,  and  will  hasten 
the  fattening  of  the  styed  hog  that  ex- 
hibits any  disposition  to  costiveness. 

Sometimes,  however,  this  costiveness  is 
produced  by  inflammation  of  the  bowels, 
which  is  attended  by  considerable  pain, 
heat  and  tenderness  of  the  abdomen, 
with  a  quick  pulse,  and  other  symptoms 
of  fever,  and  sometimes  by  fits  and  in- 
sensibility. The  treatment  should  consist 
of  copious  bleeding,  oily  laxatives,  clys- 
ters, warm  fomentations  to  the  abdomen, 
and,  if  the  animal  is  not  too  large,  warm 
baths. 

SWINE,  Red  Eruption  in.— This  dis- 
ease is  somewhat  analogous  to  scarlet  fe- 
ver. It  makes  its  appearance  in  the  form 
of  red  pustules  on  the  back  and  belly, 
which  gradually  extend  to  the  whole 
body. 

The  external  remedy  is:  Powdered 
bloodroot,  half  an  ounce;  boiling  vine- 
gar, one  pint.  When  cool,  it  should  be 
rubbed  on  the  external  surface.  The 
diet  should  consist  of  boiled  vegetables, 
coarse  meal,  etc.,  with  a  small  dose  of 
sulphur  every  night. 

SWINE,  Dropsy  in. — The  animal  is 
sad  and  depressed,  the  appetite  fails,  re- 


spiration is  performed  with  difficulty,  and 
the  belly  swells. 

Keep  the  animal  on  a  light,  nutritive 
diet,  and  give  a  handful  of  juniper  ber- 
ries, or  cedar  buds,  daily.  If  these  fat!, 
give  a  table-spoonful  of  fir  balsam  daily. 
SWINE,  Catarrh  in. — Occasional  fits 
of  coughing,  accompanied  with  a  mucous 
discharge  from  the  nose  and  mouth 
caused  by  exposure  to  cold  and  damp 
weather. 

Give  a  liberal  allowance  of  gruel  made 
with  powdered  elm  or  marshmallows,  and 
give  a  teaspoonful  of  balsam  copaiba,  or 
fir  balsam,  every  night.  The  animal  must 
be  kept  comfortably  warm. 

SWINE,  Diarrhoea  in. — For  the  treat- 
ment of  this  malady,  see  division  Sheep, 
Scours. 

SWINE,  Frenzy  in. — This  makes  its 
appearance  suddenly.  The  animal,  hay- 
ing remained  in  a  passive  and  stupid 
state,  suddenly  appears  much  disturbed, 
to  such  a  degree  that  it  makes  irregular 
movements,  strikes  its  head  against  every- 
thing it  meets,  scrapes  with  its  feet,  places 
itself  quite  erect  alongside  of  the  sty, 
bites  anything  in  its  way,  and  frequently 
whirls  itself  round,  after  which  it  sudden- 
ly becomes  more  tranquil. 

SWINE,  Itch  in. — Itch  may  be  cured 
by  anointing  with  equal  parts  of  lard  and 
brimstone.  Rubbing  posts,  and  a  running 
stream  to  wallow  in,  are  preventives. 

SWINE,  Kidney  Worms  in.— The  kid- 
ney worm  is  frequently  fatal;  and  always 
produces  weakness  of  the  loins  and  hind 
legs,  usually  followed  by  entire  prostra- 
tion. A  pig  thus  far  gone  is  hardly 
worth  the  trouble  of  recovering,  even 
where  practicable. 

SWINE,  Preventives. — Preventives  are 
general  thrift,  a  range  in  a  good  pasture, 
and  a  dose  of  half  a  pint  of  wood  ashes 
every  week  or  fortnight  in  their  food.  A 
small  quantity  of  saltpetre,  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, or  tar,  will  effect  the  same  object. 
When  attacked,  apply  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine to  the  loins,  and  administer  calomel 
carefully ;  or  give  half  a  tablespoonful  of 
copperas  daily  for  one  or  two  weeks. 

SWINE,  Blind  Staggers. — Blind  stag- 
gers is  generally  confined  to  pigs,  and 
manifests  itself  in  foaming  at  the  mouth, 
rearing  on  their  hind  legs,  champing  and 
grinding  their  teeth,  and  apparent  blind- 
ness.   The  proper  remedies  are  bleeding 


SWINE— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


239 


and  purging  freely,  and  these  frequently 
fail.  Many  nostrums  have  been  suggest- 
ed, but  few  are  of  any  utility.  It  is  im- 
portant to  keep  the  issues  on  the  inside 
of  the  fore  legs,  just  below  the  knee, 
thoroughly  cleansed. 

Give  half  an  ounce  of  Rochelle  salts, 
in  a  pint  of  thoroughwort  tea.  If  the 
bowels  are  not  moved  in  the  course  of 
twelve  hours,  repeat  the  dose.  A  light 
diet  for  a  few  days  will  generally  com- 
plete the  cure. 

SWINE,  Jaundice  in. — This  disease  is 
recognized  by  the  yellow  tint  of  the  con- 
junctiva (white  of  the  eye),  loss  of  appe- 
tite, etc.  The  remedy  is :  Powdered 
golden  seal,  half  an  once;  powdered  sul- 
phur, one-fourth  of  an  ounce ;  powdered 
blue-flag,  half  an  ounce ;  flaxseed,  one 
pound ;  mix,  and  divide  into  four  parts, 
and  give  one  every  night.  The  food 
must  be  boiled,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
salt  added  to  it. 

SOWS,  Near  Farrowing,  Treatment  of. — 
During  the  whole  period  of  pregnancy 
sows  should  be  moderately  well  fed,  but 
not  so  much  as  to  produce  much  fatness, 
as  this  would  be  the  means  of  reducing 
the  number  of  the  litter,  or  risk  them  be- 
ing smothered  by  their  unwieldy  dam  ly- 
ing down  on  them.  As  farrowing  ap- 
proaches, the  food  must  be  semi-liquid  or 
gently  laxative,  since  costiveness  at  this 


period  generally  fosters  fever,  and  hence 
sows  devour  their  offspring.  Gentle  ex- 
ercise is  beneficial  to  all  pregnant  healthy 
animals,  and  for  this  the  pen  should  be 
roomy.  It  is  best  to  protect  the  sow 
against  injury  from  other  pigs.  The  pen 
should  be  airy  and  clean,  and,  until  the 
last  day  or  two  of  pregnancy,  comforta- 
bly littered.  As  the  time  approaches,  or 
when  uneasiness,  or  the  piling  of  litter 
for  a  bed,  shows  its  near  advent,  clear 
out  the  pen,  and  cover  it  with  "a  thin  lit- 
ter of  chaff  only.  This  is  necessary  to 
prevent  smothering  the  pigs,  particularly 
if  the  sow  be  large  or  fat.  Soon  remove 
the  pigs  when  they  are  brought  forth, 
helping  them  away  until  after  the  after- 
birth. In  all  circumstances  the  after- 
birth should  be  removed  at  once.  How- 
ever natural  it  may  be  for  the  wild  ani- 
mal to  devour  this,  the  practice,  if  allow- 
ed among  domesticated  swine,  develops 
the  propensity  to  devour  their  offspring,  a 
drink  of  milk  gruel,  or  Indian  or  oatmeal 
and  hot  water  will  be  at  once  grateful 
and  supporting  to  the  sow  during  and  af- 
ter parturition ;  and  as  soon  as  the  secre- 
tion of  milk  is  freely  established,  the  diet 
should  be  abundant,  soft  and  laxative. 
The  pen  should  be  kept  clean.  The  litter 
of  chaff  should  be  of  a  limited  amount  for 
a  week,  until  the  pigs  can  be  better  able 
to  protect  themselves. 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS: 

MEDICINES    FOR. 


HORSE,  Alteratives. — This  term  is  not 
very  scientific,  but  it  is  very  general 
use,  and  easily  explains  its  own  mean- 
ing, though  the  modus  operandi  of 
the  drugs  employed  to  carry  it  out  is  not 
so  clear.  The  object  is  to  replace  un- 
healthy action  by  a  healthy  one,  without 
resorting  to  any  of  the  distinctly  defined 
remedies,  such  as  tonics,  stomachics,  etc. 
As  a  general  rule,  this  class  of  remedies 
produce  their  effect  by  acting  slowly  but 
steadily  on  the  depuratory  organs,  as  the 
liver,  kidneys  and  skin.  The  following 
may  be  found  useful : 

1.  Disordered  States  of  the  Skin — 

Emetic  Tartar .5  ounces. 

Powdered  Ginger 3       " 

Opium i       " 

Syrup  enough  to  form  sixteen  balls :  one  to  be 
given  every  night. 

2.  Simply  Cooling — 

Barbadoes  Aloes I  ounce. 

Castile  Soap! - 1^  " 

Ginger -•  -/^  ** 

Syrup  enough  to  form  six  balls :  one  to  be  given 
every  morning. 

3.  Barbadoes  Aloes i}i  drachm. 

Emetic  Tartar ... . 2        " 

Castile  Soap 2        •* 

Mix. 

4.  Alterative  Ball  for  General-  Use — 

Black  Sulphuret  of  Antimony. . 2  to  4  drachms 

Sulphur 2  " 

Nitre 2  " 

Linseed  meal  and  water  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

5.  For  Generally  Defective  Secretions — 

Flowers  of  Sulphur 6  ounces. 

Emetic  Tartar 5  to  8drachms. 

Corrosive  Sublimate 10  grains. 

Linseed  meal  mixed  with  hot  water,  enough  to 
form  six  balls,  one  of  which  may  be  given  two  or 
three  times  a  week. 

6.  In  Debility  of  Stomach — 

Calomel I  scruple. 

Aloes - ...I  drachm. 

Cascarilla  Bark,  in  powder I        " 

Gentian  Root,  "  I        " 

Ginger,  "  I       " 

Castile  Soap 3        " 

Syrup  enough  to  make  a  ball,  which  may  be 
given  twice  a  week,  or  every  other  night. 

HORSE,  Anaesthetics.  —  Anaesthetics 
produce  insensibility  to  all  external  im- 


pressions, and  therefore  to  pain.  They 
resemble  narcotics  in  their  action,  and, 
when  taken  into  the  stomach,  may  be 
considered  purely  as  such.  The  most 
certain  and  safe  way  of  administering 
them  is  by  inhalation,  and  chloroform  is 
the  drug  now  universally  employed.  The 
modus  operandi  of  the  various  kinds  has 
never  yet  been  satisfactorily  explained; 
and  when  the  comparison  is  made,  as  it 
often  is,  to  the  action  of  intoxicating 
fluids,  we  are  no  nearer  to  it  than  before. 
With  alcoholic  fluids,  however,  the  disor- 
der of  the  mental  functions  is  greater  in 
proportion  to  the  insensibility  to  pain;, 
and  if  they  are  taken  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties to  produce  the  latter  effect,  they 
are  dangerous  to  life  itself.  The  ac- 
tion of  anaesthetics  on  the  horse  is  very 
similar  to  that  on  man. 

HORSE/  Anodynes — Sometimes  called 
narcotics,  when  taken  into  the  stomach, 
pass  at  once  into  the  blood,  and  there 
act  in  a  special  manner  on  the  nervous 
centres.  At  first  they  exalt  the  nervous 
force ;  but  they  soon  depress  it,  the  sec- 
ond stage  coming  on  sooner  according  to 
the  increase  of  the  dose.  They  are  given 
either  to  soothe  the  general  nervous  sys- 
tem, or  to  stop  diarrhoea;  or  sometimes 
to  relieve  spasm,  as  in  colic  or  tetanus. 
Opium  is  the  chief  anodyne  used  in  veter- 
rinary  medicine,  and  it  may  be  employed 
in  very  large  doses: 

1.  Anodyne  Drench  for  Colic — 

Linseed  oil I  pint. 

Oil  of  Turpentince 1  to  2  ounces. 

Laudanum I  to  2  ounces. 

Mix,  and  give  every  hour  till  relief  is  afforded. 

2.  Anodyne  Ball  for  Colic — (Only  Useful  in 
Mild  Cases. ) 

Powdered  Opium j£  to  2  drachms. 

Castile   Soap 2  ." 

Camphor 2  " 

Ginger \]/z  " 

Make  into  a  ball  with  Liquorice  powder  and 

Trecale,  and  give  every  hour  while  the  pain  lasts. 

It  should  be  kept  in  a  bottle  or  bladder. 


(240) 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      241 


3.  Anodyne  Ball  (ordinary) — 

Opium ]^  to  I  drachm. 

Castile   Soap 2  to  4       " 

Ginger - I  to  2       " 

Powdered  Aniseed %  to  I  ounce. 

Oil  of  Caraway  Seeds yz  drachm. 

Syrup  enough  to  form  a  ball,  to  be  dissolved  in 
half  pint  of  warm  ale,  and  given  as  a  drench. 

4.  Anodyne  Drench  in  Superpurgation,  or 
Ordinary  Diarrhcea — 

Gum  Arabic 2  ounces. 

Boiling  Water I  pint. 

Dissolve,  and  then  add — 

Oil  of  Peppermint 25  drops. 

Laudanum ]/z  to  I  ounce. 

Mix  and  give  night  and  morning,  if  necessary. 

5.  In  Chronic  Diarrhoxa — 

Powdered  Chalk  and  Gum  Arabic  of 

each -- 1  ounce. 

Laudanum %       " 

Peppermint  Water IO       " 

Mix,  and  give  night  and  morning. 

HORSE,  Antacids. — As  the  term  im- 
plies, these  remedies  are  used  to  neutral- 
ize acids,  whether  taken  into  the  stomach 
to  an  improper  extent,  or  formed  therein 
as  products  of  diseases.  They  are  often 
classed  as  alteratives,  when  used  for  the 
latter  purpose.  They  include  the  al- 
kalies and  alkaline  earths,  but  are  not 
much  used  in  veterinary  medicine. 

HORSE,  Anthelmintics. — Drugs  which 
are  used  to  destroy  worms  receive  this 
name  in  medical  literature,  when  the 
author  is  wedded  to  the  Greek  language. 
The  admirers  of  Latin  call  them  vermi- 
tuges,  and  in  English  they  receive 
the  humble  name  of  worm  medicines. 
Their  action  is  partly  by  producing 
a  disagreeable  or  fatal  impression  on 
the  worm  itself,  and  partly  by  irri- 
tating the  mucous  lining  of  the  bowels, 
and  thus  causing  them  to  expel  their  con- 
tents. Failing,  the  following  may  be  use- 
ful: 

1.  Worm  Ball  (recommended  by  Mr.  Gamgee) 

Asafcetida --.2  drachms 

Calomel I#     " 

Powdered  Savin 1%     " 

Oil  of  Male  Fern ..30  drops. 

Treacle  enough  to  make  a  balk  which  should 

be  given  at  night,  and  followed  by  a  purge  next 

morning. 

2.  Mild  Drench  for  Worms — 

Linseed  Oil I  pint. 

Spirit  of  Turpentine 2  drachms. 

Mix  and  give  every  morning. 
HORSE,  Antispasmodics — Are  medi- 
cines which  are  intended  to  counteract 
excessive  muscular  action,  called  spasm 
or,  in  the  limbs,  cramp.  This  deranged 
condition  depends  upon  a  variety  of 
16 


causes,  which  are  generally  of  an  irritat- 
ing nature ;  and  its  successful  treatment 
will  often  depend  upon  the  employment 
of  remedies  calculated  to  remove  the 
cause,  rather  than  directly  to  relieve  the 
effect.  It  therefore  follows  that,  in  many 
cases,  the  medicines  most  successful  in  re- 
moving spasm,  will  be  derived  from  wide- 
ly separated  divisions  of  the  materia  med- 
ica,  such  as  aperients,  anodynes,  altera- 
tives, stimulants  and  tonics.  It  is  useless 
to  attempt  to  give  many  formulas  for 
their  exhibition :  but  there  are  one  or  two 
medicines  Avhich  exercise  a  peculiar  con- 
trol over  spasm,  and  we  shall  give  them 
without  attempting  to  analyze  their  mode 
of  operation. 

1.  In  Colic — 

Spirit  of  Turpentine.— 3^  ounces. 

Laudanum... ...  .... ...... \%       " 

Barbadoes  Aloes I 

Powder  the  Aloes,  and  dissolve  in  warm  water; 
then  add  the  other  ingredients,  and  give  as  a 
drench. 

2.  Clyster  in  Colic — 

Spirit  of  Turpentine 6  ounces. 

Aloes - 2  drachms. 

Dissolve  in  three  quarts  of  warm  water,  and 
stir  the  turpentine  well  into  it. 

3.  Antispasmodic  Drench — 

Gin 4  to  6  ounces. 

Tincture  of  Capsicum 2  drachms. 

Laudanum 3       " 

Warm  Water i}4  pint. 

Mix  and  give  as  a  drench,  when  here  is  no  in- 
flammation. 

HORSE,  Aperients.  —  Aperients,  or 
purges,  are  those  medicines  which 
quicken  or  increase  the  evacuations  from 
the  bowels,  varying,  however,  a  good 
deal  in  their  mode  of  operation.  Some- 
act  merely  by  exciting  the  muscular  coat 
of  the  bowels  to  contract;  others  cause 
an  immense  watery  discharge,  which,  as 
it  were,  washes  out  the  bowels ;  whilst  a 
third  set  combine  the  action  of  the  two.. 
The  various  purges  also  act  upon  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  canal,  some  stimulating 
the  small  intestines,  whilst  others  pass 
through  them  without  affecting  them,  and 
only  act  upon  the  large  bowels ;  and  oth- 
ers, again,  act  upon  the  whole  canal. 
There  is  a  third  point  of  difference  in 
purges,  depending  upon  their  influencing 
the  liver  in  addition,  which  mercurial  pur- 
gatives certainly  do,  as  well  as  rhubarb 
and  some  others,  and  which  effect  is 
partly  due  to  their  absorption  into  the  cir- 
culation, so  that  they  may  be  made  to 
act,  by  injecting  into  the  veins,  as  strong- 


242 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS— MEDICINES  FOR. 


ly  as  by  actual  swallowing,  and  their  sub- 
sequent passage  into  the  bowels.  Purga- 
tives are  likewise  classed,  according  to 
the  degree  of  their  effect,  into  laxatives 
acting  mildly,  and  drastic  purges,  or  ca- 
thartics, acting  very  severely. 

i.    Ordinary  Physic  Balls — 

Barbadoes  Aloes ...3  to  8  drachms. 

Hard  Soap 4  drachms. 

Ginger ...I       " 

Dissolve  in  as  small  a  quantity  of  boiling  water 
as  will  suffice ;  then  slowly  evaporate  to  the  prop- 
er consistence,  by  which  means  griping  is  avoided. 

2.  A  Warmer  Physic  Ball — 

Barbadoes  Aloes 3  to  8  drachms. 

Carbonate  of  Soda %  drachm. 

Aromatic  Powder 1        " 

Oil  of  Caraway 12  drops. 

Dissolve  as  above,  and  then  add  the  oil. 

3.  Gently  Laxative  Ball — 

Bardadoes  Aloes 3  to  5  drachms. 

Rhubarb  Powder ito2       " 

Ginger 2  " 

Oil  of  Caraway 15  drops. 

Mix  and  form  into  a  ball,  as  in  No.  1. 

4.  Stomachic  Laxative  Balls,  for  Washy 
Horses — 

Barbadoes  Aloes 3  drachms. 

Rhubarb 2       " 

Ginger I        " 

Cascarilla  Powder I        " 

Oil  of  Caraway 15  drops. 

Carbonate   of  Soda \%  drachms. 

Dissolve  the  Aloes  as  in  No.  1,  and  then  add 
the  other  ingredients.  , 

5.  Purging  Balls,  with  Calomel — 

Barbadoes  Aloes 3  to  6  drachms. 

Calomel >£tol  " 

Rhubarb . I  to  2  " 

Ginger J^toi  " 

Castile  Soap 2  " 

Mix  as  in  No.  I. 

6.  Laxative  Drench — 

Bardadoes  Aloes ...3  to  4  drachms. 

Canella  Alba I  to  2       " 

Salt  of  Tartar 1  " 

Mint  Water 8  ounces. 

Mix. 

7.  Another  Laxative  Drench — 

Castor  Oil 3  to  6  ounces. 

Barbadoes  Aloes 3  to  5  drachms. 

Carbonate  of  Soda 2  ** 

Mint  Water 8  ounces. 

Mix,  by  dissolving  the  Aloes  in  the  Mint 
Water  by  the  aid  of  heat,  and  then  adding  the 
other  ingredients. 

8.  A  Mild  Opening  Drench 

Castor  Oil ......4  ounces. 

Epsom  Salts 3  to  5  ounces. 

Gruel 2  pints. 

Mix. 

9.  A  very  Mild  Laxative— 

Castor  Oil.... — 4  ounces. 

Linseed  Oil ......4        " 

Warm  Water  or  Gruel 1  pint. 

Mix. 


10.  Used  in  the  Staggers— 

Barbadoes  Aloes .4  to  6  drachms. 

Common  Salt 6ounces. 

Flour  of  Mustard 1  ounce. 

Water 2  pints. 

Mix. 

11.  A  Gently  Cooling  Drench  in  Slight 
Attacks  of  Cold — 

Epsom  Salts 6  to  8  ounces. 

Whey 2  pints. 

Mix. 

12.  Purgative  Clyster — 

Common  Salt 4  to  8  ounces. 

Warm  Water 8  to  16  pints. 

HORSE,  Astringents — Appear  to  pro- 
duce contraction  on  all  living  animal  tis- 
sues with  which  they  come  in  contact, 
whether  in  the  interior  or  on  the  exterior 
of  the  body;  and  whether  immediately 
applied  or  by  absorption  into  the  circula- 
tion. But  great  doubt  exists  as  to  the 
exact  mode  in  which  they  act ;  and,  as  in 
many  other  cases,  we  are  obliged  to  con- 
tent ourselves  with  their  effects,  and  to 
prescribe  them  empirically.  They  are  di- 
vided into  astringents  administered  by 
the  mouth,  and  those  applied  locally  to 
external  ulcerated  or  wounded  surfaces. 

1.  For  Bloody  Urine — 

Powdered  Catechu %  ounce. 

Alum Yz       " 

Cascarilla  Bark  in  Powder.. .  I  to  2  drachms. 
Liquorice  Powder  and  Treacle  enough  to  form 
a  ball,  to  be  given  twice  a  day. 

2.  For  Diabetes— 

Opium %  drachm. 

Ginger  powdered 2        " 

Oak  Bark  powdered I  ounce. 

Alum As  much  as  the  Tea  will  dissolve. 

Camomile  Tea 1  pint. 

Mix  for  a  drench. 

3.  External  Astringent  Powders  for  Ul- 
cerated Surfaces — 

Powdered  Alum 4  ounces. 

Armenian  Bole 1       " 

Another — 

White  Vitriol 4  ounces. 

Oxide  of  Zinc I       " 

Mix. 

4.  Astringent  Lotion — 

Goulard  Extract 2  to  3  drachms. 

Water yi  pint. 

Another — 

Sulphate  of  Copper I  to  2  drachms. 

Water %,  pint. 

Mix. 

5.  Astringent  Ointment  for  Sore  Heels— r 

Acetate  of  Lead 1  drachm. 

Lard 1  ounce. 

Mix. 

6.  Another  for  the  Same — 

Nitrate  of  Silvenpowdered %  drachm. 

Goulard  Extract I         " 

Lard I  ounce. 

Mix,  and  use  a  very  small  portion  every  night. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       343 


HORSE,  Blisters,  or  Veticanti.— Blis- 
ters are  applications  which  inflame  the 
skin,  and  produce  a  secretion  of  serum 
between  the  cutis  and  cuticle,  by  which 
the  latter  is  raised  in  the  form  of  small 
bladders ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  hair,  these  are  very  imperfect- 
ly seen  in  the  horse.  They  consist  of  two 
kinds— one  used  for  the  sake  of  counter- 
irritation,  by  which  the  original  disease  is 
lessened,  in  consequence  of  the  establish- 
!  ment  of  this  irritation  at  a  short  distance 
from  it;  the  other,  commonly  called 
•"sweating"  in  veterinary  surgery,  by 
which  a  discharge  is  obtained  from  the 
vessels  of  the  part  itself,  which  are  in  that 
way  relieved  and  unloaded ;  there  is  also 
a  subsequent  process  of  absorption  in 
consequence  of  the  peculiar  stimulus  ap- 
plied. 

1.  Mild    Blister    Ointment    (Counter-irri- 
tant)— 

Hog's  Lard 4  ounces. 

Venice  Turpentine I         " 

Powdered  Cantharides 6  drachms. 

Mix  and  spread. 

2.  Stronger  Blister  Ointment  (Counter-ir- 

ritant. ) 

Spirit  of  Turpentine I  ounce. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  by  measure 2  drachms. 

Mix  carefully  in  an  open  place,  and  add — 

Hog's  Lard . .. . 4ounces. 

Powdered  Cantharides I     " 

Mix  and  spread. 

3.  Very  Strong  Blister  Ointment,  (Coun- 
ter-Irritant,)— 

Strong  Mercurial  Ointment 4  ounces. 

Oil  of  Origanum j£     " 

Finely-powdered  Euphorbium..  .3  drachms. 

Powdered  Cantharides %  ounce. 

Mix  and  spread. 

4.  Rapidly  Acting  Blister  Ointment  (Coun- 
ter-irritant)— 

Best  Flour  of  Mustard 8  ounces. 

Made  into  a  paste  with  water.     Add— 

Oil  of  Turpentine ....  ....2  ounces. 

Strong  Liquor  of  Ammonia I       " 

This  is  to  be  well  rubbed  into  the  chest,  belly 
or  back,  in  cases  of  acute  inflammation. 

5.  Sweating  Blister — 

Strong  Mercurial  Ointment 2  ounces. 

Oil  ofOriganum 2  drachms. 

Corrosive  Sublimate ...2        " 

Cantharides,  powdered .--.3        " 

Mix,  and  rub  in  with  the  hand. 
•6.  Strong  Sweating  Blister,  for  Splints, 
Ring-Bones,  Spavins,  etc. — 

Binoidide  of  Mercury 1  to  \%  drachm. 

Lard I  ounce. 

To  be  well  rubbed  into  the  legs  after  cutting  the 
hair  short ;  and  followed  by  the  daily  use  of  Ar- 
nica, in  the  shape  of  a  wash,  as  follows,  which  is 
to  be  painted  on  with  a  brush: 

Tincture  of  Arnica .....I  ounce. 

Water 12  to  15  ounces. 

Mix. 


7.  Liquid  Sweating  Busters — 

Cantharides 1  ounce. 

Spirit  of  Turpentine 2       " 

Methylated  Spirit  of  Wine I  pint. 

Mix  and  digest  for  a  fortnight  Then  strain. 
Another — 

Powdered  Cantharides I  ounce. 

Commercial  Pyroligneous  Acid 1  pint. 

Mix  and  digest  for  a  fortnight.     Then  strain. 

HORSE,  Caustics  or  Cauteries. — Caus- 
tics are  substances  which  burn  away  tbe 
living  tissues  of  the  body,  by  the  decom- 
position of  their  elements.  They  are  of 
two  kinds — first,  the  actual  cautery,  con- 
sisting in  the  application  of  the  burning 
iron,  and  called  firing ;  and  secondly,  the 
potential  cautery,  by  means  of  the  pow- 
ers of  mineral  caustics,  such  as  potassa 
fusa,  lunar-caustic,  corrosive  sublimate, 
etc. 

Firing  is  described  in  the  chapter  on 
operations. 

The  following  are  the  ordinary  chem- 
ical applications  used  as  potential  cau- 
teries : 

1.  Fused  Potass,  difficult  to  manage,  because  it 
runs  about  in  all  directions,  and  little  used  in 
veterinary  medicine. 

2.  Lunar  Caustic,  or  Nitrate  of  Silver,  very 
valuable  to  the  veterinary  surgeon,  and  con- 
stantly used  to  apply  to  profuse  granulations. 

3.  Sulphate  of  Copper,  almost  equally  useful, 
but  not  so  strong  as  Lunar  Caustic ;  it  may  be 
well  rubbed  in  to  all  high  granulations,  as  in 
broken  knees,  and  similar  growths. 

4.  Corrosive  Sublimate  in  powder,  which  acts 
most  energetically  upon  warty  growths,  but 
should  be  used  with  great  care  and  discretion. 
It  may  safely  be  applied  to  small  surfaces,  but 
not  •  vithout  a  regular  practitioner,  to  large  ones. 
It  should  be  washed  off  after  remaining  on  a 
few  minutes.  For  the  mode  of  applying  it  in 
castration,  see  Horse,  Castration. 

5.  Yellow  Orpiment  is  not  so  strong  as  Cor- 
rosive Sublimate,  and  may  be  used  with  more 
freedom.  It  will  generally  remove  warty 
growths,  by  picking  off  their  heads  and  rub- 
bing it  in. 

6.  Muriate  of  Antimony,  called  Butter  of  An- 
timony; a  strong  but  rather  unmanageable 
caustic,  and  used  either  by  itself  or  mixed  with 
more  or  less  water. 

7.  Chloride  of  Zinc  is  a  most  powerful  caus- 
tic It  may  be  used  in  old  sinuses  in  solution, 
7  drachms  in  a  pint  of  water. 

Milder  Caustics — 

8.  Verdigris,  either  in  powder  or  mixed  with 
Lard  as  an  ointment,  in  the  proportion  of  1 
to  3. 

9.  Red  Precipitate,  ditto,  ditto. 

10.  Burnt  Alum,  used  dry. 

11.  Powdered  White  Sugar. 
Mild  Liquid  Caustics — 

12.  Solution  of  Nitrate  of  Silver,  5  to  15  grains 
to  the  ounce  of  distilled  water. 


244 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS-MEDICINES  FOR. 


13.  Solution  of  Blue  Vitriol,  of  about  double  the 
above  strength. 

14.  Chloride  of  Zinc,  I  to  3  grains  to  the  ounce 
of  water 

HORSE,  Charges — Are  adhesive  plas- 
ters which  are  spread  while  hot  on  the 
legs,  and  at  once  covered  with  short  tow, 
so  as  to  form  a  strong  and  unyielding 
support  while  the  horse  is  at  grass. 

I.  Ordinary  Charges — 

Burgundy   Pitch 4  ounces. 

Barbadoes  Tar.... ...6      " 

Beeswax 2      " 

Red  Lead 4      " 

The  three  first  are  to  be  melted  together,  and 
afterwards  the  Lead  is  to  be  added.  The  mixture 
is  to  be  kept  constantly  stirred  until  sufficiently 
cold  to  be  applied.  If  too  stiff  (which  will  de- 
pend upon  the  weather),  it  may  be  softened  by  the 
addition  of  a  little  Lard  or  Oil. 
2.  Arnica  Charge — 

Canada  Balsam 2  ounces. 

Powdered  Arnica  Leaves I  ounce. 

The  Balsam  to  be  melted  and  worked  up  with 
the  leaves,  adding  Spirits  of  Turpentine,  if  neces- 
sary. When  thoroughly  mixed,  to  be  well  rubbed 
into  the  whole  leg,  in  a  thin  layer,  and  to  be  cov- 
ered over  with  the  Charge  No.  I,  which  will  set 
on  its  outside  and  act  as  a  bandage,  while  the  Ar- 
nica is  a  restorative  to  the  weakened  vessels. 
This  is  an  excellent  application. 

HORSE,  Clysters,  or  Enemata.— Clys- 
ters are  intended  either  to  relieve  obstruc- 
tion or  spasm  of  the  bowels,  and  are  of 
great  service  when  properly  applied. 
They  may  be  made  of  warm  water  or 
gruel,  of  which  some  quarts  will  be  re- 
quired in  colic.  They  should  be  thrown 
up  with  the  proper  syringe,  provided  with 
valves  and  flexible  tube. 

For  the  turpentine  clyster  in  colic,  see 
Antispasmodics. 

Aperient  clysters,  see  Aperients. 
1.  Anodyne  Clyster  in  Diarrhoea — 

Starch,  made  as  for  washing 1  quart. 

Powdered  Opium 2  drachms. 

The  Opium  is  to  be  boiled  in  water,  and  added 
to  the  starch. 

HORSE,  Cordials — Are  medicines  which 
act  as  temporary  stimulants  to  the  whole 
system,  and  especially  to  the  stomach. 
They  augment  the  strength  and  spirits 
when  depressed,  as  after  over-exertion  in 
work. 
1.  Cordial  Balls— 

Powdered  Caraway  Seeds 6  drachms. 

Ginger 2       " 

Oil  of  Cloves 20  drops. 

Treacle  enough  to  make  into  a  balL 
Another — 

Powdered  Aniseed. . 6  drachms. 

Powdered   Cardamoms 2       " 

Powdered  Cassia - 1       " 

Oil  of  Caraway. .........20  drops. 

Mix  with  treacle  into  a  ball. 


2.  Cordial  Drench — 

A  quart  of  good  ale  warmed,  and  with  plenty 
of  grated  ginger. 

3.  Cordial  and  Expectorant — 

Powdered   Aniseed yz  ounce. 

Powdered  Squill 1  drachm. 

Powdered  Myrrh .....1*4  drachm. 

Balsam  of  Peru,  enough  to  form  a  ball. 
Another— 

Liquorice  Powder •-•}z  ounce. 

Gum  Ammoniacum 3  drachms. 

Balsam  of  Tolu ij^  drachms. 

Powdered   Squill I  drachm. 

Linseed  meal  and  boiling  water,  enough  to  form 
into  a  mass. 

HORSE,  Demulcents — Are  used  for  the 
purpose  of  soothing  irritations  of  the 
bowels,  kidneys,  or  bladder,  in  the  two 
last  cases  by  their  effect  upon  the  secre- 
tion of  urine. 

1.  Demulcent  Drench — 

Gum  Arabic _j£  ounce. 

Water 1  pint. 

Dissolve  and  give  as  a  drench  night  and  morning, 
or  mixed  with  a  mash. 
Another — 

Linseed 4  ounces. 

Water I  quart. 

Simmer  till  a  strong  and  thick  decoction  is  ob- 
tained, and  give  as  above. 

2.  Marshmallow  Drench — 

Marshmallows A  double  handful. 

Water I  quart. 

Simmer,  as  in  the  second  part  of  No.  1,  and  ust 
in  the  same  way. 

HORSE,  Diaphoretics — Have  a  special 
action  on  the  skin,  increasing  the  per- 
spiration sometimes  to  an  enormous  ex- 
tent. 

1.  Ordinary  Diaphoretic  Drench — 

Solution    of    Acetate   of   Am- 
monia  — 3  to  4  ounces. 

Laudanum.... I  ounce. 

Mix,  and  give  at  night.     Or, 
Another — 

Solution  of  Acetate  of  Ammonia.. 2  ounces. 

Spirits  of  Nitric  ^Ether 2  ounces. 

Mix,  and  give  as  above. 

2.  In  Hide-Bound — 

Emetic  Tartar...... \]/z  drachm. 

Camphor........  ...... "%  drachm. 

Ginger.............. '.2  drachms. 

Opium....  ........ ^  drachm. 

Oil  of  Caraway 15  drops. 

Linseed  meal  and  boiling  water,  to  form  a  ball,, 
which  is  to  be  given  twice  or  thrice  a  week. 

3.  In  Hide-Bound  (but  not  so  efficacious) — 

Antimonial  Powder 2  drachms. 

Ginger ....  ......  ....  I  drachm. 

Powdered  Caraways 6  drachms. 

Oil  of  Aniseed 20  drops: 

Mix  as  above. 

These  remedies  require  moderate  exer- 
cise in  clothing  to  bring  out  their  effects,, 
after  which  the  horse  should  be  wisped 
till  quite  dry. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       245 


HORSE,  Digestives.  —  Digestives  are 
applications  which  promote  suppuration, 
and  the  healing  of  wounds  or  ulcers. 

t.  Digestive  Ointment — 

Red   Precipitate . 2  ounces. 

Venice  Turpentine ......3  ounces. 

Beeswax .....I  ounce. 

Hog's  Lard ..... .4  ounces. 

Melt  the  three  last  ingredients  over  a  slow  fire, 
and  when  nearly  cold  stir  in  the  powder. 

HORSE,  Diuretics.  —  Diuretics  are 
medicines  which  promote  the  secretion 
and  discharge  of  urine,  the  effect  being 
produced  in  a  different  manner  by  differ- 
ent medicines ;  some  acting  directly  upon 
the  kidneys  by  sympathy  with  the  stomach, 
while  others  are  taken  up  by  the  blood- 
vessels, and  in  their  elimination  from  the 
blood,  cause  an  extra  secretion  of  the 
urine.  In  either  case  their  effect  is  to 
diminish  the  watery  part  of  the  blood, 
and  thus  promote  the  absorption  of  fluid 
effused  into  any  of  the  cavities,  or  into 
the  cellular  membrane  in  the  various 
forms  of  dropsy. 

1.  Stimulating  Diuretic  Ball — 

Powdered  Resin 3  drachms. 

Sal  Prunelle 3  drachms. 

Castile  Soap . . .  ......3  drachms. 

Oil  of  Juniper 1  drachm. 

Mix. 

2.  A  More  Cooling  Diuretic  Ball — 

Powdered  Nitre.. ~~*%  to  1  ounce. 

Camphor. ..... ......I  drachm. 

Juniper  berries. I  drachm. 

Soap --•  -3  drachms. 

Mix,  adding  linseed  meal  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

3.  Diuretic  Powder  for  a  Mash — 

Nitre... --••}&  to  jounce. 

Resin.......... . %  to  jounce. 

Mix. 

4.  Another  More  Active  Powder — 

Nitre ........... — ......6  drachms. 

Camphor..... .......X%  drachm. 

Mix. 

HORSE,  Embrocations, — Embrocations 
or  liniments  are  stimulating  or  sedative 
external  applications,  intended  to  reduce 
the  pain  and  inflammation  of  internal 
parts,  when  rubbed  into  the  skin  with  the 
hand. 

1.  Mustard  Embrocation — 

Best  Flour  of  Mustard.. ...... ..6  ounces. 

Liquor  of  Ammonia.... 1%  ounce. 

Oil  of  Turpentine ...... 1^  ounce. 

Mix  with  sufficient  water  to  form  a  thin  paste. 

2.  Stimulating  Embrocation — 

Camphor..........  ........ ..../£  ounce. 

Oil  of  Turpentine.......... ....iX  ounce. 

Spirit  of  Wiae. ............. ...i#  ounce. 

Mix. 


3.  Sweating  Embrocation    for  Wingalls, 
Etc.— 

Strong  Mercurial  Ointment ..2  ounces. 

Camphor....  .... ......  ....  ....^4  ounce. 

Oil  of  Rosemary...... a  drachms. 

Oil  of  Turpentine ......1  ounce. 

Mix. 

4.  Another,  but  Stronger — 

Strong  Mercurial  Ointment 2  ounces. 

Oil  of  Bay .........1  ounce. 

Oil  of  Origanum jounce. 

Powdered  Cantharides •••%,  ounce. 

Mix. 

5.  A  Most  Active  Sweating  Embrocation — 

Biniodide  of  Mercury %  to  1  drachm. 

Powdered  Arnica  Leaves .1  drachm. 

Soap  Liniment.. ...... .....2  ounces. 

Mix. 

HORSE,  Emulsions. — When  oily  mat- 
ters have  their  globules  broken  down  by 
friction  with  mucilaginous  substances,  such 
as  gum  arabic  or  yolk  of  egg,  they  are 
called  emulsions,  and  are  specially  useful 
in  soothing  irritation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, of  the  trachea,  and  bronchi. 

1.  Simple  Emulsion — 

Linseed  Oil ...2  ounces. 

Honey.. .  ...... ... ... 3  ounces. 

Soft  Water 1  pint. 

Subcarbonate  of  Potass 1  drachm. 

Dissolve  the  honey  and  potass  in  the  water ; 
then  add  the  linseed  oil  by  degrees  in  a  large  mor- 
tar, when  it  should  assume  a  milky  appearance. 
It  may  be  given  night  and  morning. 

2.  Another  More  Active  Emulsion — 

Simple  Emulsion,  No.  1 7  ounces. 

Camphor ........1  drachm. 

Opium  in  Powder. -•••J4  drachm. 

Oil  of  Aniseed 30  drops. 

Rub  the  last  three  ingredients  together  in  a 
mortar  with  some  white  sugar;  then  add  the 
emulsion  by  degrees. 

HORSE,  Expectorants. — Expectorants 
excite  or  promote  a  discharge  of  mucus 
from  the  lining  membrane  of  the  bronchial 
tubes,  thereby  relieving  inflammation  and 
allaying  cough. 

1.  Expectorant  Ball  in  Ordinary  Cough 
without  Inflammation — 

Gum  Ammoniacum.. .....^  ounce. 

Powdered  Squill ..........1  drachm. 

Castile  Soap ...2  drachm. 

Honey  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

2.  In  Old  Standing  Cough  (Stomach) — 

Asafoetida ... .. ..3  drachms. 

Galbanum... ................ 1  drachm. 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia #  drachm. 

Ginger 1%  drachms. 

Honey  enough  to  form  a  ball. 

3.  A  Strong  Expectorant  Ball — 

Emetic  Tartar j£  drachm. 

Calomel 15  grains. 

Digitalis #  drachm. 

Powdered  Squills %  drachm. 

Linseed  meal  and  water  enough  to  form  a  ball. 
which  is  not  to  be  repeated  without  great  care- 


246 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS— MEDICINES  FOR. 


HORSE,  Febrifuges— Generally  called 
fever  medicines,  are  given  to  allay  the 
arterial  and  nervous  excitements  which 
accompany  febrile  action.  They  do  this 
partly  by  their  agency  on  the  heart  and 
arteries  through  the  nervous  system,  and 
partly  by  increasing  the  secretions  of  the 
skin  and  kidneys. 

1.  Fever  Ball— 

Nitre. 4  drachms. 

Camphor l%  drachm. 

Calomel  and  Opium,  of  each ....  I  scruple. 
Linseed  meal  as  above.     Or, 
Another — 

Emetic  Tartar i}£  to  2  drachms. 

Compound  Powder  of  Trag- 

acanth 2  drachms. 

Linseed  meal  and  water  enough  to  form  a  ball. 
Or, 
Another— 

Nitre.... 3  drachms. 

Camphor 2  drachms. 

Mix  as  above. 

2.  Cooling  Powder  for  Mash — 

Nitre 6  drachms  to  I  ounce. 

May  be  given  in  a  bran  mash. 

3.  Cooling  Drench — 

Nitre ....I  ounce. 

Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre 2  ounces. 

Tincture  of  Digitalis 2  drachms. 

Whey I  pint. 

HORSE,  Lotions  or  Washes — Consist 
in  liquids  applied  to  the  external  parts, 
either  to  cool  them  or  to  produce  a 
healthy  action  in  the  vessels. 

1.  Cooling  Solution  for  External  Inflam- 
mation— 

Goulard  Extract.... I  ounce. 

Vinegar ....... .2  ounces. 

Spirits  of  Wine,  or  Gin 3  ounces. 

Water \%.  pint. 

Mix,  and  apply  with  a  calico  bandage. 

2.  Another,  Useful  for  Inflamed  Legs,  or 
for  Galled  Shoulders  or  Back — 

Sal  Ammoniac..... I  ounce. 

Vinegar ..4  ounces. 

Spirits  of  Wine. .............. .2  ounces. 

Tincture  of  Arnica. ...... ......2  drachms. 

Water . ......  ...... ...... *4  pint. 

Mix. 

3.  Lotion  for  Foul  Ulcers — 

Sulphate  of  Copper . . . .  1  ounce. 

Nitric  Acid...... ....  ......}£  ounce. 

Water 8  to  12  ounces. 

Mix. 

4.  Lotion  for  the  Eyes— 

Sulphate  of  Zinc 20  to  25  grains. 

Water ........6  ounces. 

Mix. 

5.  Very  Strong  One,  and  only  to  be  drop- 
fed  in — 

Nitrate  of  Silver..... 5  to  8  grains. 

Distilled  Water I  ounce. 

Mix,  and  use  with  a  camel-hair  brush. 

HORSE)  Narcotics. — A  distinction  is 
sometimes  made  between  anodynes  and 


narcotics,  but  in  veterinary  medicine  there 
is  no  necessity  for  separating  them.  (See 
Anodynes.) 

HORSE,    Refrigerants  —  Lower    the 

animal  heat  by  contact  with  the  skin,  the 
ordinary  ones  being  cold  air,  cold  water, 
ice,  and  evaporative  lotions.  (See  Lo- 
tions.) 

HORSE,  Sedatives — Depress  the  ac- 
tion of  the  circulatory  and  nervous  sys- 
tems, without  affecting  the  mental  func- 
tions. They  are  very  powerful  in  their 
effects ;  and  digitalis,  which  is  the  drug 
commonly  used  for  this  purpose,  has  a 
special  quality  known  by  the  name  of  cu- 
mulative ;  that  is  to  say,  if  repeated,  small 
doses  are  given  at  intervals  for  a  certain 
time,  an  effect  is  produced  almost  equal 
to  that  which  would  follow  the  exhibition 
of  the  whole  quantity  at  once.  Besides 
digitalis,  aconite  is  also  sometimes  used 
to  lower  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  by 
many  it  is  supposed  to  be  equal  in  poten- 
cy to  that  drug,  without  the  danger 
which  always  attends  its  use. 

HORSE,  Stimulants. — By  this  term 
is  understood  those  substances  which  ex- 
cite the  action  of  the  whole  nervous  and 
vascular  systems;  almost  all  medicines 
are  stimulants  to  some  part  or  other,  asy 
for  instance,  aperients,  which  stimulate 
the  lining  of  the  bowels,  but  to  the  gener- 
al system  are  lowering.  On  the  other 
hand,  stimulants,  so  called  par  excellence,. 
excite  and  raise  the  action  of  the  brain 
and  heart. 

Old  Ale I  quart. 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia %.  to  2  drachms. 

Tincture  of  Ginger 4  drachms. 

Mix  and  give  as  a  drench. 

For  other  stimulants,  see  Cordials. 

HORSE,  Stomachics. — Stomachics  are 
medicines  given  to  improve  the  tone  of 
the  stomach,  when  impaired  by  bad  man- 
agement or  disease. 

Stomachic  Ball — 

Powdered  Gentian )&  ounce. 

Powdered  Ginger. \%,  drachms. 

Carbonate  of  Soda. I  drachm. 

Treacle  to  form  a  ball ;  or 
Another — 

Cascarilla,  powdered. I  ounce. 

Myrrh.  .  — -  — . 1%  drachm. 

Castile  Soap.... ...I  drachm. 

Mix  with  syrup  or  treacle,  into  a  ball ;  or 

Another — 

Powdered  Colombo /£  to  1  ounce. 

Powdered  Cassia ....I  drachm. 

Powdered  Rhubarb . .  2  draclims. 

Mix  as  in  second  part  of  No.  t . 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       247 


HORSE,  Styptic*. — Styptics  are  reme- 
dies which  have  a  tendency  to  stop  the 
flow  of  blood  either  from  internal  or  ex- 
ternal surfaces.  They  are  used  either  by 
the  mouth,  or  to  the  part  itself  in  the 
shape  of  lotions,  etc.;  or  the  actual  cau- 
tery, which  is  always  the  best  in  external 
bleeding,  may  be  employed.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  part  cannot  be  reached  with 
the  heated  iron,  and  is  yet  within  the  in- 
fluence of  an  injection,  as  in  bleeding  from 
the  nostrils,  for  which  the  following  may 
be  employed : 

Matico  Leaves........... ^  ounce. 

Boiling  Water ........I  pint. 

Infuse,  and  when  cold  strain  and  inject  into  the 
nostrils. 

For  internal  styptics,  see  Astringents. 

HORSE,  Tonics — Augment  the  vigor 
of  the  whole  body  permanently,  whilst 
stimulants  only  act  for  a  short  time. 
They  are  chiefly  useful  after  low  fever. 

Tonic  Ball — 

Sulphate  of  Iron...... ....... ...%  ounce. 

Extract  of  Camomile . ..1  ounce. 

Mix  and  form  into  a  ball,  or 
Another — 

Arsenic ..  ....10  grains. 

Ginger. .. ......  ............I  drachm. 

Powdered  Aniseed I  ounce. 

Compound  Powder  of  Tragacanth..2  drachms. 
Syrup  enough  to  form  a  ball      It  is  a  very  pow- 
erful tonic. 

HORSE,  Vermifuges,  or  Worm  Medi- 
cines, are  described  under  the  head  of 
Anthelmintics,  which  see. 
i.  CATTLE.  Drink,  Cough  and  Fever — 

Take  Emetic  Tartar I  drachm. 

Powdered  Digitalis _j4  drachm. 

Nitre ......3  drachms. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  quart  of  tolerably  thick  gruel. 

2.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Purging — 

Take  Epsom  Salts I  pound. 

Powdered  Caraway  Seeds ...... ..^  ounce. 

Dissolve  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel  and  give. 

3.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Purging— 

Take  Emetic  Tartar %  drachm. 

Nitre. ........2  drachms. 

Powdered  Gentian  Root I  drachm. 

Powdered  camomile  flowers....!  drachm. 

Powdered  ginger .........%  drachm. 

Pour  upon  them  a  pint  of  boiling  ale,  and  give 
the  infusion  when  nearly  cold. 

4.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Expectorant- 
Take  Liquorice  Root 2  ounces. 

Bruise  and  boil  in  a  quart  of  water  until  the 
fluid  is  reduced  to  a  pint,  then  gradually  and  care- 
fully add 

Powdered  Squills .....2  drachms. 

Powdered  Gum  Guaiacum. ......  I  drachm. 

Tincture  of  Balsam  of  Lolu %  ounce. 

Honey 2  ounces. 

Give  it  morning  and  night, 


5.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Turpentine  for 
Worms — 

Take  Oil  of  Turpentine 2  ounces. 

Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre 1  ounce. 

Laudanum........ ...... ...... ..^  ounce. 

Linseed  Oil 4  ounces. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  pint  of  gruel. 

6.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Stimulating- 
Take  Digitalis 1  scruple. 

Emetic  Tartar. ^  drachm. 

Nitre — .. 3  drachms. 

Powdered  Squills 1  drachm. 

Opium 1  scruple. 

Mix,  and  give  with  a  pint  of  gruel. 

7.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Sulphur  Purging— 
Take  Sulphur........ ...... ...... ....8  ounces. 

Ginger —}i  ounce. 

Mix  with  a  quart  of  warm  gruel. 
The  drink  should  be  repeated  every  third  day,  if 
the  bowels  appear  to  require  it. 

8.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Rheumatic- 
Take  Nitre 2  drachms. 

Tartarized  Antimony. 1  drachm. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether I  ounce. 

Aniseed  Powder \  ounce. 

Mix  with  a  pint  of  very  thick  gruel,  and  repeat 
the  dose  morning  and  night,  except  when  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  give  the  Sulphur  Purging  Drink, 
No.  7. 

9.  CATTLE,  Embrocation,  Rheumatic — 
Take  Neatsfoot  Oil 4  ounces. 

Camphorated  Oil,  Spirit  of  Tur- 
pentine and  Laudanum,  each.  ..  1  ounce. 

Oil  of  Origanum 1  drachm. 

Mix. 

10.  CATTLE,  Ointment,  Healing,  Cleans- 
ing- 
Take  Lard......  •—**•........  ......2 pounds. 

Resin J^pound. 

Melt  them  together,  and  when  nearly  cold,  stir 
in  calamine,  very  finely  powdered,  half  a  pound. 

11.  CATTLE,  Camphorated  Oil- 
Take  Camphor  2  ounces,  and  break  into  small 

pieces ;  put  it  into  a  pint  of  spermaceti,  or  com- 
mon olive  oil,  and  let  the  bottle,  being  closely 
corked,  and  shaken  every  day,  stand  in  a  warm 
place  until  the  camphor  is  dissolved. 

12.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Cordial,  Rheu- 
matic— 

Take  rhododendron  leaves,  4  drachms,  boil  it  in  a 

quart  of  water  until  it  is  diminished  to  a  pint ; 

strain  the  decoction,  and  to  half  of  the  liquid, 

warm,  add 

Gum  Guaiacum,  finely  powdered.. 2  drachms. 
Powdered  Caraway  Seeds .......2  drachms, 

Powdered  Aniseed 2  drachms. 

Mixed  with  half  a  pint  of  warm  ale. 

13.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Tonic- 
Take  Gentian  Root,  Powdered.. ...... y^  ounce. 

Ginger,  Powdered. ....... ......1  drachm. 

Epsom  Salts ... ..2  ounces. 

Mix  the  whole  with  a  pint  of  warm  gruel,  and 
give  it  morning  and  night. 

14.  CATTLE,  Drink  for  the  Yellows- 
Take  of  calomel  and  opium,  a  scruple ;  mix  and 

suspend  in  a  little  thick  gruel. 


248 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS— MEDICINES  FOR. 


15.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Physic,  a  Strong — 
Take  Epsom  or  Glauber  Salts j£  pound. 

Kernel  of  Croton  Nut . . .  10  grains. 

Take  off  the  shell  of  the  Croton  nut,  and  weigh 
the  proper  quantity  of  the  kernel,  rub  it  down  to 
a  fine  powder,  gradually  mix  it  with  half  a  pint  of 
thick  gruel,  and  give  it,  and  immediately  after- 
wards  give  the  salts,  dissolved  in  a  pint  and  a  half 
of  thinner  gruel. 

16.  CATTLE,  Ointment,  Blister- 
Take  lard,   12  ounces;  resin,  4  ounces;  melt 

them  together,  and  when  they  are  getting  cold 
add  oil  of  turpentine,  four  ounces,  powdered  cau- 
tharides,  five  ounces;  stirring  the  whole  to- 
gether. 

17.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Astringent- 
Take  Prepared  Chalk 2  ounces. 

Oak  Bark,  Powdered 1  ounce. 

Catechu,  Powdered ^  ounce. 

Opium,  Powdered 2  scruples. 

Ginger,  Powdered ...2  drachms. 

Mix,  and  give  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel. 

18.  CATTLE,    Drink,  Astringent,  with 
Mutton  Suet — 

Take  Mutton  Suet I  pound. 

New  Milk 2  quarts. 

Boil  them  together  until  the  suet  is  dissolved ; 
then  add — 

Opium,  powdered ^  drachm. 

Ginger .. I         •« 

Having  previously  well  mixed  them  with  a 
spoonful  or  two  of  fluid. 

19.  CATTLE,  Whey,  Alum- 
Take  Alum %  ounce. 

Water 2  quarts. 

Boil  them  together  for  10  minutes  and  strain. 

20.  CATTLE,  Astringent,  Stimulating — 
Take  Oil  of  Juniper 2  to  4  drachms. 

Tincture  of  Opium 1  ounce. 

Oil  of  Turpentine.. 1       " 

Mix  and  give  in  a  pint  of  Linseed  Tea  once  or 
twice  a  day. 

21.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Stimulating — 
Take  Epsom  or  Glauber  Salts 1  pound. 

Ginger yz  ounce. 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia -  -  -  X      " 

Pour  I  quart  of  boiling  water  upon  the  ingredi- 
ents ;  stir  them  well  and  give  when  milk-warm. 

22.  CATTLE, Stimulating  Drink,  Mild- 
Take  Ginger I  drachm. 

Gentian 1        " 

Spirit  of  nitrous  Ether 1  ounce. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  pint  of  gruel. 

33.  CATTLE,  Astringent,  Mild- 
Take  Oak  Bark,  powdered ••-%  ounce. 

Catechu,  powdered 2  drachms. 

Opium,  powdered «^  scruple. 

Mix  together  in  a  pint  of  gruel  or  warm  water. 

24.  CATTLE,  Ointment,  Mercurial  Gar- 
get- 
Take  Soft  Soap ...1  pound. 

Mercurial  Ointment 2  Ounces. 

Camphor,  rubbed  down  with  a  lit- 
tle Spirit  of  Wine iounce. 

Rub  them  well  together. 


25.  CATTLE,  Ointment,  Iodine — 
Take  Hydrate  of  Potash 1  drachm. 

Lard 7  drachms. 

Rub  them  well  together. 

26.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Diuretic- 
Take  Powdered  Nitre........ 1  ounce. 

Powdered  Resin  ............ ..2  ounces. 

Ginger 2  drachms. 

Mix  them  well  together  in  a  little  treacle,  and 
give  them  in  a  warm  gruel. 

27.  CATTLE,  Ointment  for  Sore  Teats- 
Take  Elder  Ointment 6  ounces. 

Beeswax 2       " 

Mix  them  together,  and  addd  an  ounce  each  of 
sugar  of  lead  and  alum,  in  fine  powder ;  stir  them 
well  together  until  cold.        • 

28.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Stimulant,  warm- 
Take  Ginger,  powdered l/z  ounce. 

Caraway  Seeds. 6  drachms. 

Allspice ^  ounce. 

Mix  in  a  quart  of  warm  water  or  mild  ale. 

29.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Anodyne- 
Take  Powdered  Opium %  drachm. 

Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre 2  ounces. 

Rub  them  together,  adding  the  fluid  by  small 
quantities  at  a  time,  and  give  the  mixture  in  a  pint 
of  warm  gruel. 

30.  CATTLE  Drink,  Purgative,  strong — 

Take  Epsom  or  Glauber  Salts 12  ounces. 

Flour   of  Sulphur 4      " 

Powdered  Ginger 4  drachms. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether 1  ounce. 

To  be  dissolved  in  warm  water. 

31.  CATTLE,   Drink,  Cordial- 
Take  Caraway  Powder ...1  ounce. 

Gentian,  powdered . •-,&     " 

Essence  of  Peppermint 20  drops. 

Mix. 

32.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Tonic- 
Take  Gentian 2  drachms. 

Tartrate  of  Iron 1  drachm. 

Ginger I        " 

Mix  and  give  in  a  pint  of  gruel. 

33.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Tonic,  Mildest- 
Take  Gentian -. 2  drachms. 

Emetic  Tartar yz  drachm. 

Nitre j^  ounce. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether %      ** 

Give  in  gruel. 

34.  CATTLE,  Lotion,  Disinfectant — 
Take  Solutiou  of  Chloride  of  Lime,  in 

powder - %  ounce. 

Water 1  pint. 

Mix. 

45.  CATTLE,  Murrain,  Drink  for— 

Take  Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre }$  ounce. 

Laudanum %     ** 

Chloride  of  Lime,  in  powder 2  ounces. 

Prepared  Chalk Iounce. 

Rub  them  well  together,  and  give  them  with  « 
pint  of  warm  gruel. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       249 


36.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Tonic,  for    Mur- 
rain- 
Take  Columbia  Root 2  drachms. 

CanellaBark ..2       " 

Ginger I  drachm. 

Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre j4  ounce. 

Rub  them  together,  and  give  in  a  pint  of  thick 
grueL 

37.  CATTLE,  Fumigation- 
Take  Common  Salt 2  pounds. 

Oil  of  Vitrol I  pound. 

38.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Laxative- 
Take  Epsom  Salts yz  pound. 

Sulphur 2  to  4  ounces. 

Nitre ..%  ounce. 

Ginger 2  drachms. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether 1  ounce. 

Dissolve  in  warm  water  or  gruel,  and  repeat 
once  a  day  for  several  days. 

39.  CATTLE,  Liniment- 
Take  Alum  and  White  Vitriol,  of  each.. }£  ounce. 

Treacle .....I  gill. 

Dissolve  in  a  pint  of  warm  water. 

40.  CATTLE,  Astringent  Powder- 
Take  Blue  Vitriol,  powdered #  ounce. 

Powdered  Alum %  " 

Prepared  Chalk 2  " 

Armenian  Bole I  " 

Mix. 

41.  CATTLE,  Tonic,  Strong- 
Take  Powdered  Ginger 1  drachm. 

Powdered  Caraway  Seeds I         " 

Gentian,    powdered 4        " 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether 1  ounce. 

To  be  mixed  slowly  with  gruel. 

42.  CATTLE,  Drink  for  Inflammation  of 
the  Bladder — 

Take  Antimonial  Powder 2  drachms. 

Powdered  Opium I  scruple. 

Rub  well  together  with  a  small  portion  of  very 
thick  gruel,  and  repeat  the  dose  morning  and 
night. 

43.  CATTLE,  Eye  Lotion,  Sedative  (1)— 

Take  dried  leaves  of  Fox  Glove,  powdered,  \}i 
ounce ;  infuse  them  in  a  pint  of  Cape  or  Dry 
Raisin  Wine  for  a  fortnight,  and  keep  the  infusion 
for  use. 

44.  CATTLE,  Eye  Lotion,  Sedative  (2)— 
Take  Extract  of  Goulard 2  drachms. 

Spirituous  Tincture  of  Digitalis, 
(made  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Vinous    in    Receipt    43, 

No.  1) 2  drachms. 

Tincture  of  Opium 2        " 

Water I  pint. 

This  should  also  be  introduced  into  the  eye. 
Two  or  three  drops  at  a  time  will  suffice. 

45.  CATTLE,     Lotion     for    the     Eye, 
Strengthening — 

Take  White  Vitriol I  scruple. 

Spirit  of  Wine X  drachm. 

Water. I  pint. 

Mix  them  together,  and  use  the  lotion  in  the 
same  manner  as  Nos.  43  and  44. 


46.  CATTLE,  Drink,  Cordial- 
Take  Caraway  Seed  in  powder...... ..  «^  ounce. 

Aniseed,  in  powder y2       " 

Ginger , >£      " 

Mix  with  a  pint  of  good  ale,  made  hot. 

47.  CATTLE,  Physic  Drink,  for  Locked 
Jaw,  Strong — 

Take  Barbadoes  Aloes I ^  ounces 

Kernel  of  Croton  Nut,  powder'd.  10  grains. 
Dissolve  in  as  small  quantity  of  boiling  water 
as  possible,  and  give  them  when  the  liquid  is  suf- 
ficiently cool. 

48.  CATTLE,  Anodyne  Drink  for  Lock- 
ed Jaw — 

Take  Camphor '....I  drachm. 

Rub  it  down  in  an  ounce  of  Spirits  of  Wine ; 
to  this  add — 

Powdered  Opium I  drachm. 

And  give  the  mixture  in  a  small  quantity  of 
thick  gruel. 

49.  CATTLE,  Embrocation  for  Bite  of 
Serpents — 

Take  Hartshorn  and  Olive  Oil  equal  quantities. 
Shake  them  well  together,  and  rub  the  wound 
and  the  neighboring  parts  well  with  the  liniment 
morning  and  night. 

50.  CATTLE,  Lotion,  Discutient — 
Take  Bay  Salt 4ounces. 

Vinegar 1  pint. 

Water I  quart. 

Oil  of  Origanum I  drachm. 

Add  the  oil  of  salt  first ;  rub  them  well  down 
wi  h  a  little  water;  then  gradually  add  the  bal- 
ance of  the  water  and  vinegar. 

51.  CATTLE,  Embrocation  for  Strains — 
Take  Bay  Salt 4  ounces. 

Oil  of  Origanum I  drachm. 

Rub  them  well  together,  until  the  salt  is  reduced 
to  a  powder;  then  add — 

Vinegar ^  pint. 

Spirits  of  Wine 2  ounces. 

Water I  quart. 

52.  CATTLE,  Embrocation  for  Strains, 
Strongest — 

Take  Spirit  of  Turpentine l/z  pint. 

Oil  of  Origanum %  ounce. 

Olive  Oil iji  pint. 

Cantharides I  ounce. 

Mix  them  together ;  shake  them  often  and  keep 
in  a  bottle  for  use. 

53.  CATTLE,  Charge  for  Old    Strains 
and  Lameness — 

Take  Burgundy  Pitch 4  ounces. 

Common  Pitch 4      " 

Yellow  Wax 2      " 

Barbadoes  Tar....  ....  ......  ....6      " 

Melt  them  together  in  a  ladle,  and  apply  the 

mixture  to  the  parts  when  thoroughly  warm  and 

liquid. 

54.  CATTLE,  Mange  Ointment- 
Take  Flour  of  Sulphur 1  pound. 

Strong  Mercurial  Ointment 2  ounces. 

Common  Turpentine %  pound. 

Lard 1%  pounds. 

Melt  the  Turpentine  and  Lard  together;  stir 
well  in  the  Sulphur  when  these  begin  to  cool ;  *•■£ 
afterwards  rub  down  the  mercurial  ointment  o»  » 
marble  slab  with  the  other  ingredients. 


25° 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS— MEDICINES  FOR. 


55.  CATTLE,  Diink,  Alterative- 
Take  Flour  of  Sulphur. ............ ..2  ounces. 

Black  Sulphuret  of  Antimony....!       " 

^Ethiop's  Mineral %       " 

Nitre 2      " 

Mix  and  divide  into  four  powders;   give  one 

every    second    morning  in  a  little  thick  gruel. 

Turning  into  a  salt  marsh  will  be  an  excellent 

auxiliary. 

56.  CATTLE,  Vermin,  Mercurial  Oint- 
ment for — 

Take  Strong  Mercurial  Ointment 1  ounce. 

Lard 7  ounces. 

Mix  them  well  together,  and  rub  the  ointment 
well  on  wherever  the  lice  appear. 

57.  CATTLE,  Vermin,  Lotion  for — 
Take  Corrosive  Sublimate,  2  drachms;    rub  it 

down  in  2  ounces  of  Spirits  of  Wine,  and  add  a 
pint  of  water. 

58.  CATTLE,   Tonic  Powders,  Altera- 
tive— 

Take  Flower  of  Sulphur 4  ounces. 

Black  Sulphuret  of  Antimony. I  ounce. 

^Ethiop's  Mineral %  ounce. 

Nitre ...2  ounces. 

Powdered   Gentian 2  ounces. 

Powdered  Ginger.... .....i  ounce. 

Mix,  and  divide  into  six  powders,  and  give  one 
daily. 

59.  CATTLE,  Bull  Burnt,  Lotion  for— 
Take  Goulard's   Extract ...1  ounce. 

Spirit  of  Wine.... 2  ounces. 

Water.... --•#  pint. 

Mix. 

60.  CATTLE,  Cow-pox,  Lotion  for— 
Take  Sal  Ammoniac .....j^  ounce. 

White  Wine  Vinegar ---is  pint. 

Camphorated  Spirit  of  Wine 2  ounces. 

Goulard's  Extract I  ounce. 

Mix,  and  keep  it  in  a  bottle  for  use. 

61.  CALVES,  Drink  Aperient  for— 
Take  Epsom  salts,  from  1  to  2  ounces,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  and  age  of  the  calf,  and  dissolve  in 
half  a  pint  of  gruel ;    then  add  ginger,  I  scruple ; 
essence  of  peppermint,  3  drops.     Mix. 

62.  CALVES,  Diarrhoea  in— 

Take  Prepared  Chalk 2  drachms. 

Powdered  Opium 10  grains. 

Powdered  Catechu. %  drachm. 

Ginger ...... ^5  drachm. 

Essence  of  Peppermint 5  drops. 

Mix,  and  give  twice  a  day  in  half  pint  of  gruel, 

63.  CALVES,  Purging,  to  Stop- 
Take  Dover's  Powder 2  scruples. 

Starch  or  Arrow-root,  in  powder.  1  ounce. 

Compound  Cinnamon  Powder 1  drachm. 

Powdered  Kino ...^drachm. 

Boil  the  starch  or  arrow-root  in  a  pint  of  water 
until  it  becomes  well  thickened,  and  then  gradually 
.stir  in  the  other  ingredients. 

64.  CALVES,  Hoove  in— 

Take  Oil  of  Turpentine t  ounce. 

Linseed  Oil ...3  or  4  ounces. 

Ginger,   Powdered 1  drachm. 

Mix.  To  be  repeated  at  the  interval  of  a  week, 
as  often  as  may  be  required. 


65.  SHEEP,  Tonic  Drink- 
Take  Gentian  Root,  powdered 1    drachm. 

Caraway  Powder X4  drachm. 

Tincture  of  Caraway. 10  drops. 

Give  in  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  thick  gruel. 

66.  SHEEP,  Purging  Drink  for— 

Take  Epsom  Salts 2  ounces. 

Powdered  Caraway ]^  ounce. 

Warm  thin  gruel  sufficient  to  dissolve  the  salts. 

67.  LAMBS,  Astringent  Drink  for — 

Take  Compound   Chalk  Powder    with 

Opium 1  drachm. 

Gentian 1  scruple. 

Essence  of  Peppermint 3  drops. 

Mix  with  a  little  thin  starch,  and  give  morning 
and  night. 

68.  SHEEP,  Cooling  Fever  Drink- 
Take  Powdered  Digitalis  .. 1  scruple. 

Emetic  Tartar..... io  grains. 

Nitre 2  drachms. 

Mix  with  thick  gruel,  and  let  it  be  given  twice 
each  day. 

69.  SHEEP,  Laxative  Medicine — 
Take  Epsom  Salts 1  ounce. 

Ginger 1  scruple. 

Gentian .........1  drachm. 

Warm  Water 2  ounces. 

Linseed  Oil ....1  ounce. 

The  above,  may  be  given  either  alone  or  with 
gruel,  to  a  full-grown  sheep :  and  from  one-fourth 
to  one-half  to  a  lamb,  according  to  its  age. 

70.  SHEEP,  Strengthening  Drink- 
Take  Prepared  Chalk...... r......i  ounce. 

Catechu '. %  drachm. 

Opium 20  grains. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether.. 2  drachms. 

.  Gentian 1  drachm. 

To  be  dissolved  in  gruel,  and  given  twice  a  day 
till  the  purging  ceases;  after  which  the  last  two 
ingredients,  with  a  drachm  of  nitre  and  ten  grains 
of  tartarized  antimony,  should  be  given  in  gruel 
once  a  day. 

71.  SHEEP,  Physic  for  Blown- 
Take  Glauber  salts,  1  ounce,  and  dissolve  in 

peppermint  water,  4  ounces ;  to  this  add  tincture 
of  ginger,  1  drachm;  tincture  of  gentian,  I 
drachm ;  boiling  water,  I  ounce.  This  should  be 
given  every  six  hours  until  the  bowels  are  opened, 
and  half  the  quantity  on  each  of  the  four  next 
mornings. 

72.  SHEEP,  General  Tonic  Drink- 
Take  Gentian 2  drachms. 

Colombo ........ ..1  drachm. 

Ginger #  drachm. 

Give  in  four  ounces  of  warm  gruel. 

73.  SHEEP,  Mixture  for  the  Rot- 
Take  Common  Salt 8  ounces. 

Powdered  Gentian 2  ounces. 

Ginger 1  ounce. 

Tincture  of  Colombo 4  ounces. 

Put  the  whole  into  a  quart  bottle  so  as  to  fill 
the  bottle. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       251 


74.  SHEEP,    Second    Mixture   for    the 
Rot- 
Take  of  the  Receipt,  Mixture  for  the  Rot 

(which  see),  one  quart.  To  this  add,  spirits  of 
turpentine,  3  ounces.  Shake  them  well  together 
when  first  mixed,  and  whenever  the  medicine  is 
given,  two  tablespoonsfuls  are  the  usual  dose. 

75.  SHEEP,  Caustic  Astringent  Powder 
for  Foot- Rot — 

Take  Verdigris,  Bole,  Armenian,  and  Sugar  of 
Lead,  equal  parts.  Rub  them  well  together,  until 
they  are  reduced  to  a  fine  powder. 

76.  SHEEP,  Arsenical  Wash  for  Lice — 
Take  Arsensic 2  pounds. 

Soft  Soap 4  pounds. 

Dissolve  in  30  gallons  of  water. 

77.  SHEEP,  Mercurial  Wash  for  Lice — 
Take  Corrosive  Sublimate,  1  ounce ;    Spirits  of 

Wine,  2  ounces.  Rub  the  Corrosive  Sublimate  in 
ihe  spirit  until  it  is  dissolved,  and  then  add  Cream 
of  Tartar,  1  ounce ;  Bay  Salt,  4  ounces.  Dissolve 
the  whole  in  two  quarts  of  water,  and  apply  a 
little  of  it  with  a  small  piece  of  sponge  wherever 
the  lice  appear. 

78.  SHEEP,  Fly  Powder  for— 

Take  White  Lead,  two  pounds ;  Red  Lead,  one 
pound,  and  mix  them  together. 

79.  SHEEP,  Ointment  for  Sore  Heads — 
Take  Black  Pitch 2  pounds. 

Tfcr ....I  pound. 

Flower  of  Sulphur I  pound. 

Melt  them  in  an  iron  pot  over  a  very  slow  fire, 
stirring  together  the  ingredients  as  they  begin  to 
melt,  but  carefully  watching  the  compound,  and 
removing  the  pot  from  the  fire  the  moment  the  in- 
gredients are  well  mixed,  and  before  they  begin  to 
boil,  for  they  would  then  rapidly  swell  to  an  extra- 
ordinary extent,  and  the  whole  mass  would  run 
over  into  the  fire. 

80.  SHEEP,  Astringent  Powder  for — 
Take  Prepared  Chalk ........}£  ounce. 

Ginger ft  drachm. 

Catechu,  Powdered ............ }4  drachm. 

Powdered  Opium....... 2  grains. 

Give  this  in  a  little  gruel,  twice  daily  until  the 
purging  abates. 

81.  SHEEP,  Mild  Laxative- 
Take  Linseed  Oil 2  ounces. 

Powdered  Opium 2  grains. 

To  be  mixed  with  linseed  tea.  Linseed  and 
oatmeal  gruel  should  be  given  several  times  a  day, 
and  the  second  day  the  Astringent  Powder 
for  sheep  should  be  given. 


82.  SHEEP,  Tonic  Drink  for  Debility- 
Take  Gentian  and  Powdered  Caraway  Seeds,  of 

each  an  ounce ;  Columbo  and  Ginger,  of  each, 
half  an  ounce.  Pour  a  quart  of  boiling  water 
upon  them,  and  let  the  infusion  stand  three  days, 
stirring  it  well  every  day.  Then  pour  off  the 
clear  liquid,  and  bottle  it  for  use.  Give  a  table- 
spoonfui  daily,  in  a  little  gruel,  mixed  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  good  ale. 

83.  SHEEP,   Lotion   for  Cloudiness  on 
the  Eyes — 

Take  Corrosive  Sublimate,  4  grains ;  rub  it 
down  with  Spirits  of  Wine,  %  ounce ;  and  add  I 
pint  of  water. 

84.  SHEEP,    Mercurial    Ointment    for 
Scab — 

Take  Crude  Quicksilver I    pound. 

Venice  Turpentine .......... %  pound. 

Spirits  of  Turpentine 2  ounces. 

Mix. 

85.  SHEEP,  Mild  Ointment  for  Scab — 

Take  Flower  of  Sulphur I    pound. 

Venice  Turpentine ..............4  ounces. 

Rancid  Lard ..2  pounds. 

Strong  Mercurial  Ointment. .^ounces. 

Rub  them  well  together. 

86.  SHEEP,     Powerful     Ointment    for 
Scab- 
Take  White  Hellebore ..--3  ounces. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury......... 2  ounces. 

Fish  Oil 12  pounds. 

Resin 6  ounces. 

Tallow yi  pound. 

The  two  first  ingredients  to  be  mixed  with  a 
portion  of  the  oil,  and  then  melt  the  other  ingre- 
dients and  add. 

87.  SHEEP,  Smearing  Mixture  for  Scab 
Take  a  gallon  of  Common  Tar  and  12  pounds 

of  any  sweet  grease.  Melt  them  together,  stir- 
ring them  well  while  they  are  cooling. 

ZZ.  SWINE,  Fever  Medicines  for— 
Take  Digitalis..... 3  grains. 

Antimonial  Powder 6  grains. 

Nitre y%  drachm. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  little  warm  swill,  or  milk,  or 
mash. 

89.  SWINE,  Alterative  Powder  for— 
Take  Flower  of  Sulphur %  ounce. 

^Ethiop's   Mineral , 3  grains. 

Nitre  and  Cream  of  Tartar ......  ^  drachm. 

Mix  and  give  daily  in  a  little  thickened  gruel  or 
wash. 


POULTRY-KEEPERS'   GUIDE. 


POULTRY,  Management  and  Profit  of. 

- — Except  among  professional  poultry- 
breeders,  and  amateurs  who  can  afford  to 
gratify  their  fancy  without  regard  to  pe- 
cuniary remuneration,  poultry  has  usually 
been  left  to  care  for  itself  to  a  great  ex- 
tent. The  real  profit  of  poultry-keeping 
is  becoming  better  understood,  however, 
and  the  care  of  fowls,  in  regard  to  both 
food  and  shelter,  is  increasing. 

In  the  milder  seasons  of  the  year,  do- 
mestic fowls,  left  to  their  own  free  ways, 
are  almost  invariably  healthy.  They  se- 
cure exercise,  pure  air,  pure  water,  variety 
of  food,  and  access  to  fine,  dry  soil  in 
which  to  bathe.  As  health  is  the  first 
condition  of  success  in  poultry-keeping, 
this  fact  presents  the  key  to  the  whole 
matter,  of  profitable  management  of 
poultry  on  farms  and  in  large  numbers  as 
a  specialty.  If*  fifty  hens,  kept  in  health, 
can  be  made  to  produce  a  clear  annual 
profit  of  $50,  a  thousand  in  like  condi- 
tion may  be  made  to  yield  a  proportion- 
ate profit.  The  chief  difficulty  experi- 
enced is  that  of  keeping  large  numbers 
in  good  condition,  and  this  difficulty 
arises  from  failure  to  observe  to  the  ex- 
tent required  the  conditions  which  pro- 
mote success  with  a  few  fowls.  The  pro- 
portion of  range  necessary,  of  sheltered 
space,  of  food,  water,  care,  etc.,  must  be 
extended  mathematically  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  fowls  kept;  and  then, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  profit  is  as 
certain  with  many  hens  as  with  a  few. 

Upon  the  farm,  where  a  few  fowls  are 
kept  for  the  benefit  of  the  family,  and 
have  during  much  of  the  year  free  range, 
most  of  the  conditions  of  moderate  suc- 
cess are  attained.  With  a  little  care  and 
expense,  however,  absolutely  necessary  at 
some  seasons  of  the  year,  better  results 
may  always  be  secured ;  and  regular  care 
is  necessary  from  those  who  in  cities  or 
villages  engage  in  poultry-keeping  for 
pleasure  or  profit,  hoping  for  success. 


It  is  obvious  that  poultry  must  have 
room  for  exercise,  and  a  place  for  rest, 
laying,  and  brooding,  and  such  places 
should  be  fruitful,  convenient,  and  health- 
fully located.  The  best  soil  upon  which 
to  keep  poultry  is  a  sandy  one,  resting 
upon  gravel,  as  it  retains  the  least  mois- 
ture; stagnant  moisture  being  a  fruitful 
source  of  disease.  Any  soil  upon  which 
an  inclosure  for  fowls  is  erected  should  be 
well  drained.  The  place  should  have  a 
southern  or  southeastern  slope,  preferably 
the  former,  and  be  sheltered  from  the 
north  and  east,  thus  securing  warmth  of 
the  sun  and  of  location,  and  security 
from  cold  winds.  The  hen-house  should 
afford  proper  shelter  and  warmth;  perches 
and  nests  should  be  kept  clean  and  the 
air  pure,  without  permitting  any  percept- 
ible draught.  The  floor  should  be  hard 
and  perfectly  dry,  concrete  or  solidly 
packed  earth  being  the  best  material. 
Whether  composed  of  stone,  brick,  or 
wood,  the  house  must  be  suited  to  the 
nature  of  its  occupants.  Success  will  be 
diminished  in  proportion  to  the  neglect 
of  any  of  these  conditions. 

A  room  eight  to  ten  feet  square  is 
large  enough  for  a  roosting  and  laying 
house  for  twenty-five  hens.  If  the  walls 
are  plastered,  the  protection  against  ver- 
min and  cold  will  be  greater  than  when 
otherwise.  The  sunny  side,  except  of  the 
nest-room,  should  be  composed  of  glass, 
commencing  one  foot  above  the  ground 
or  floor,  and  if  the  glass  is  small  there 
will  be  less  liability  of  breakage  by  the 
fowls.  The  perches  should  be  low,  espe- 
cially for  the  heavier  breeds,  unless  there 
is  convenient  access  to  them  by  means  of 
steps,  so  that  the  fowls  may  not  injure 
themselves  in  jumping  to  the  floor.  A 
good  arrangement  is  one  in  which  one 
perch  is  elevated  above  the  other  and 
behind  it,  the  perches  being  about  two 
feet  apart  and  the  lower  one  two  feet 
from   the  floor.     Some  prefer,  however, 


(2S2) 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


253 


not  to  furnish  perches  for  Cochins  and 
Brahmas,  but  to  litter  the  floor  with 
straw  each  night  for  them  to  rest  upon. 
Perches  for  heavy  fowls  should  be  broad 
enough  to  give  good  support  to  the 
breast,  or  deformity  of  the  breast-bone 
will  ensue.  The  ground  beneath  should 
in  all  cases  be  strewed  with  sand  or 
ashes,  and  removed  often  enough  to  pre- 
vent taint.  Boxes  for  nests  for  sitting 
should  be  movable,  for  convenience  of 
cleansing,  secluded,  and  placed  low. 
Many  place  the  nests  upon  the  ground. 
Chopped  straw  is  a  good  material  with 
which  to  fill  nest-boxes,  and  should  be 
clean.  Where  the  fowls  cannot  have 
perfect  freedom,  it  is  necessary  for  their 
health  that  an  inclosed  yard  should  join 
the  hen-house,  to  which  they  may  have 
access.  An  eighth  of  an  acre  in  grass  is 
the  proper  proportion  of  land  for  twenty- 
five  hens,  but  a  smaller  yard  will  answer 
if  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  if  a  sufficient 
amount  of  vegetable  food  is  supplied. 
Feed  and  water  troughs  or  boxes  ot  suffi- 
cient capacity  should  be  provided,  and  so 
arranged  for  cleanliness  and  economy  as 
to  prevent  the  fowls  from  having  access 
to  them  in  any  unnecessary  way.  If 
more  than  one  breed  of  fowls  are  to  be 
kept,  the  arrangements  for  their  accomo- 
dation, above  suggested,  should  be  du- 
plicated. If  a  smaller  number,  the  pro- 
portions of  house  and  yard  may  be  di- 
minished. These  arrangements  are  such 
as  are  suggested  and  approved  by  the 
most  experienced  keepers,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America. 

Large  numbers  of  fowls  may  be  profita- 
bly kept  by  observing  in  due  proportion 
the  conditions  of  success  with  a  few. 
They  may  be  kept  in  large  flocks,  with  ex- 
tended conveniences,  or  divided  into 
small  flocks  of  fifty  or  less.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  want  of  success  with 
large  numbers  of  birds  is  most  frequently 
caused  by  neglect  in  the  matter  of  clean- 
liness and  food,  causing  disease,  or  low 
condition,  destructive  of  profit,  since  it 
has  been  demonstrated  by  years  of  expe- 
rience, that  thousands  of  fowls  may  be 
kept  together  with  large  and  certain  re- 
muneration. The  editor  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Ploughman  remarks  that  he  has 
"frequently  expressed  the  conviction  that 
with  proper  management  a  large  number 
of  fowls   will  prove  proportionately  as 


profitable  as  a  small  number,"  and  re- 
commends in  substance  as  follows :  That 
an  acre  of  land,  at  least,  should  be  given 
to  every  two  hundred  fowls ;  wild,  rocky 
land  covered  with  bushes  being  as  good 
as  any;  and  that  a  flock  of  a  thousand 
should  have  six  acres.  It  should  be 
fenced  with  boards  or  pickets,  and  houses 
should  be  erected,  according  to  plans  ap- 
proved for  smaller  numbers,  large  enough 
to  accommodate  a  hundred  fowls  with 
shelter,  roosts  and  nests.  They  should 
face  the  south,  and  the  fronts  should  be 
partially  or  entirely  glazed,  the  sashes 
opening  on  hinges  at  the  top,  so  as  to  be 
opened  in  summer  for  free  circulation  of 
air.  There  should  also  be  provided  a 
number  of  low  sheds  about  the  grounds, 
beneath  which  the  fowls  may  take  shelter 
from  the  sun  and  storms.  There  should 
be  abundance  of  pure  water,  easily  ac- 
cessible. Fowls  selected  for  breeding 
should  be  kept  separate  from  the  others, 
in  flocks  of  twenty,  with  the  proper  com- 
plement of  male  birds.  This  writer  fur- 
ther says : 

With  a  large  flock  properly  kept  on 
such  a  tract  as  we  have  described,  there 
is  no  question  as  to  its  profits.  The  poul- 
terer embarking  in  an  enterprise  of  this 
kind  should  keep  in  view : 

1.  That  the  cheapest  and  most  accessi- 
ble land  is  the  most  desirable,  always 
provided  that  a  near  and  sure  market  is  at 
command. 

2.  That  the  utmost  economy  consist- 
ent with  the  safety,  comfort,  and  health 
of  the  poultry,  should  be  exercised  in  the 
erection  of  the  buildings  and  fences. 

3.  That  an  abundance  of  pure  water  is 
accessible  or  attainable. 

4.  That  fowls  over  three  years  old  are 
not  profitable,  and  a  stock  should  be 
thoroughly  renewed  every  two  years. 

5.  That  only  the  largest,  hardiest,  and 
best  fowls  should  be  used  as  breeders. 

6.  That  a  careful  supervision  of  the 
flock  is  necessary,  and  that  it  enjoy  the 
most  perfect  health  and  greatest  comfort 
in  summer  and  winter. 

These  suggestions  accord  with  the  con- 
ditions under  which  Mr.  Warren  Leland, 
of  New  York,  has  successfully  raised,  for 
many  years,  large  numbers  ot  fowls,  se- 
curing abundance  of  eggs  and  poultry, 
principally  for  use  in  the  Metropolitan 
Hotel,  in  the  city  of  New.  York.     Mr. 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


Leland's  method  with  fowls  is  reported  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute *  a  I  from  that  work,  and  his  letters 
to  Farmers'  Club  of  that  Institute 

an  i  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  we 
condense  the  following  statement : 

He  devotes  eighteen  acres  in  one  yard 
of  his  "Highland  Farm,"  at  Rye,  New 
York,  to  his  poultry,  consisting  of  hens, 
ducks,  turkeys  and  geese.  The  broods 
have  another  large  lot,  and  the  turkeys 
have  a  half  mile  range.  The  eighteen- 
acre  lot  is  rough  land,  unsuited  for  tillage, 
having  in  it  rocks,  bushes,  grass,  weeds, 
and  sandy  places,  and  also  a  pond.  It 
is  supplied  with  heaps  of  ashes,  bones, 
lime,  and  a  portion  is  occasionally  plowed 
to  furnish  worms.  The  fowls  have  woods 
and  bushes  to  range  in,  the  turkeys  trees 
to  roost  in,  and  the  ducks  and  geese  en- 
joy the  privileges  of  the  pond.  There 
are  natural  and  artificial  shelters  for  all, 
consisting  of  sheds,  hillsides,  bushes, 
nooks  and  hiding  places  of  all  sorts  for 
hens  with  broods,  and  trees  are  cut  and 
bent  down  into  the  grounds  for  shelter 
and  roosts.  The  wings  of  none  are 
clipped,  and  the  hens  may  scratch  and 
turkeys  fly  at  pleasure,  within  the  limits  of 
the  grounds.  After  a  trial  of  some  years, 
Mr.  Leland  has  discarded  coops,  finding 
that  the  greater  freedom  he  allows,  the 
more  healthful  and  profitable  are  his 
fowls.  The  principal  features  of  his  sys- 
tem are  freedom,  cleanliness,  proper  and 
sufficient  food  during  the  year,  and 
change  of  cocks  every  spring.  In  sum- 
mer, with  the  range  they  have,  his  fowls 
secure  a  good  supply  of  animal  food  from 
the  fields,  in  worms,  grubs,  bugs,  grass- 
hoppers, etc.  They  are  also  supplied  at 
all  seasons  with  the  refuse  scraps  from  the 
Metropolitan  Hotel.  Mr.  Leland  says: 
"Egg-making  is  no  easy  work,  and  hens 
will  not  do  much  of  it  without  high  feed. 
They  need  just  what  a  man  who  works 
requires — wheat  bread  and  meat."  He 
feeds  wheat,  even  when  it  costs  $2  per 
bushel.  No  old  nests  are  allowed.  Af- 
ter each  brood  is  hatched  the  boxes  are 
taken  out  and  whitewashed  inside  and 
out,  and  after  lying  in  the  sun  and  rain 
a  few  days,  they  are  half  filled  with  clean 
straw  and  returned  for  use.  The  old 
straw  is  burned.  Each  of  the  250  to  300 
hens  on  hand  in  the  spring  is  permitted 
to  have  one  brood  during  the  year.     Four 


or  five  will  have  broods  the  same  day, 
and  to  the  hen  which  appears  to  be  the 
best  mother,  all  the  chickens  are  given. 
The  others  are  given  a  cold  bath  and 
placed  in  confinement  a  few  days,  after 
which  they  return  to  the  flock  and  their 
nests.  Mr.  Leland  produces  a  great 
many  eggs,  which  pay  for  food  and  at- 
tendance, and  makes  sales  of  poultry, 
amounting  to  several  thousand  dollars 
annually.  If  a  hen  comes  off  about  the 
1  st  of  April  with  ten  chickens,  by  the 
middle  of  June  they  will  weigh  twenty 
pounds  and  be  worth  five  dollars.  He 
asserts  that  he  can  produce  a  thousand 
pounds  of  poultry  cheaper  than  he  can 
produce  the  same  weight  of  mutton,  beef, 
or  pork.  He  finds  as  great  profit  from 
turkeys  as  from  hens,  and  greater  with 
more  attention.  One-year-old  turkeys  are 
found  to  be  the  best  mothers,  and  gob- 
blers of  that  'age  are  also  preferred. 
Three  hatchings  are  put  with  one  turkey 
in  a  large  coop,  half  hidden  in  tall  grass. 
as  bare  ground  is  fatal  to  the  young. 
The  chicks  do  not  require  food  until  the 
third  day,  when  cracked  wheat  is  given 
them.  They  require  great  care  during 
the  first  two  weeks,  and  must  not  be  left 
out  in  the  rain  or  wet,  but  after  that 
age  they  grow  without  much  care.  Af- 
ter the  season  of  grasshoppers,  they  are 
fed  on  corn,  and  late  in  September  they 
are  ready  for  market.  In  the  fall  of  1875 
Mr.  Leland  sold  450  turkeys,  grown  that 
year,  for  $1,752 — nearly  $4  each.  He 
also  sold  320  ducks  for  $352,  and  over  80 
geese  at  $1  80  each.  No  food  is  given 
the  geese  after  they  are  feathered;  yet 
Mr.  L.  says  other  poultry  is  better  and 
more  profitable.  He  holds  ducks — a  cross 
between  pure -bred  Muscovy  and  English, 
which  are  hardy,  hnest  for  meat  and  best 
for  eggs — in  high  esteem.  The  latter  are 
fed  on  corn.  His  young  chickens  in 
1875  numbered  about  3,000,  and  his  stock 
of  all  kinds  of  poultry  about  4,000.  It 
was  estimated  to  be  worth  $4,000  in 
November  of  that  year,  when  poultry 
was  higher  than  it  has  since  been.  Mr. 
Leland  prefers  the  large  bronze  turkeys, 
Poland  geese,  which  lay  earliest,  and 
light  Brahma  hens.  His  cocks  are  of  all 
kinds,  as  he  finds  excellent  results  from 
the  crosses  secured,  and  no  old  cocks  arc 
allowed  on  the  place.  When  nine  months 
old  his  early  spring  pullets  begin  to  lay, 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


255 


and  he  gets  200  to  250  eggs  daily 
during  the  cold  season.  He  prefers  the 
Brahmas  because  they  mature  early  for 
spring  chickens,  are  handsome,  hardy 
good-layers,  look  well  when  dressed,  and 
are  of  large  size.  No  other  hens  are 
kept.  The  Black  Spanish  and  White 
Leghorn  have  been  found  better  for  eggs, 
but  they  are  undesirable  for  the  table. 
He  feeds  corn,  wheat,  chopped  turnips, 
refuse  cabbage,  and  the  waste  bread  and 
meat  scraps  from  his  hotel,  and  sour  milk 
from  his  farm;  also  burnt  bones,  lime, 
etc.,  for  shell-making.  During  the  past 
ten  years  Mr.  L.  has  annually  raised  about 
3,000  chickens,  450  turkeys,  and  500 
ducks  and  geese,  and  he  thinks  that  the 
business  might  be  made  generally  profita- 
ble, especially  in  rocky  neighborhoods, 
and  on  a  scale  more  extensive  than  his 
own.     He  says : 

The  great  secret  of  my  success  is  in 
keeping  near  the  conditions  of  nature. 
At  the  outset  I  became  convinced  that, 
above  all  things,  fowls  must  have  space 
and  cleanliness;  that  they  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  do  well  if  confined  in  cramped 
and  offensive  quarters.  With  space  and 
cleanliness,  I  cannot  understand  why  the 
number  need  be  limited. 

He  has  never  kept  an  account  of  his 
poultry  business,  being  satisfied  with  its 
continuous  success.  He  pays  $250  per 
year  and  board  to  one  man  to  attend 
his  fowls,  and  buys  about  200  bushels 
of  grain  each  year,  which,  with  the  veg- 
etables and  refuse  from  his  hotel,  inter- 
est on  land,  and  cost  of  buildings,  make 
up  the  regular  expenses. 

The  committee  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute Farmers'  Club,  appointed  to  visit 
poultry  yards  and  ascertain  the  best  mode 
of  wintering  poultry,  reported  through  its 
chairman,  that  Mr.  Leland  had  the  best 
winter  quarters  for  his  hens,  ducks,  and 
geese,  they  had  ever  seen.  The  follow- 
ing description  of  his  winter  manage- 
ment of  poultry  is  taken  partly  from  the 
report  of  the  committee,  and  in  part 
from  statements  given  by  Mr.  Leland. 
For  the  winter  quarters  of  his  flock — 
which  at  that  season  is  reduced  to  300 
early  spring  pullets,  30  cocks,  30  turkeys, 
(sometimes  many  more),  and  a  few  geese 
and  ducks — he  has  a  stone  buildings  75 
feet  long  and  25  feet  wide,  which  faces 
the  South.    The  openings  on  the  north 


side  are  small  and  filled  with  window- 
glass,  and  in  some  cases  with  double 
sashes.  Those  on  the  south  are  much 
larger,  consisting  of  double  doors,  which 
are  opened  on  sunny  days.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  north  side  is  a  wide,  old-fash- 
ioned fire-place.  Nearly  every  day  in 
winter  a  fire  is  kept  up  with  chunks, 
knots,  and  logs  that  would  otherwise  be 
useless.  The  walls  being  of  stone  and 
the  floor  of  earth  or  rock,  the  fire  can 
be  left  without  danger.  The  chimney 
can  easily  be  closed,  or  the  logs  rolled 
out  into  the  middle  of  the  building,  and 
feathers  or  sulphur  be  used  for  fumiga- 
tion, which  is  done  whenever  hen  lice 
appear.  Smoke  is  found  to  be  better 
than  carbolic  acid,  or  kerosene,  or  white- 
wash, to  drive  away  vermin.  On  cold 
and  wet  days  the  fowls  gather  before  the 
fire,  warm  themselves  and  trim  their 
feathers ;  and  when  the  fire  dies  out  they 
wallow  in  the  warm  ashes.  Lime  and 
plaster  are  freely  used  in  the  building  to 
absorb  odors  and  compost  droppings. 
Roosts  are  made  of  oak  slats  an  inch 
thick  and  two  and  one-half  inches  wide, 
fastened  to  the  rafters  near  the  ridge. 
About  two  teet  below  the  perches  is  a 
scaffold  of  boards  that  fit  closely.  This 
is  covered  with  plaster  and  ashes  from 
time  to  time,  which,  with  the  accumu- 
lated droppings  of  the  hens,  are  frequent- 
ly swept  off,  put  into  barrels  with  all  re- 
fuse filth,  and  used  upon  corn  land.  The 
manure  is  valued  at  one  dollar  per  year 
from  each  hen,  as  the  same  amount  of 
fertilizing  salts  in  bone-dust,  which  would 
cost  fifty  dollars,  is  annually  saved  from 
fifty  hens.  The  wide  perches  used  ena- 
ble the  hens  to  cover  their  feet  entirely 
with  their  warm  feathers,  and  prevent 
freezing  in  the  coldest  nights.  The  offal 
of  the  farm  and  refuse  from  the  kitchen 
are  thrown  into  this  hen-house  to  be  pick- 
ed over;  and  besides  this  the  poultry  is 
fed  about  a  bushel  of  corn  per  day  in 
winter,  and  half  a  bushel  in  summer. 
Mr.  Leland  raises  excellent  crops  of  corn, 
having  the  best  manure,  and  he  feeds  the 
product  of  four  acres  in  keeping  and  fat- 
tening his  poultry. 

The  use  of  fumigation  for  driving 
away  vermin  may  be  successful  in  a  build- 
ing such  as  we  have  described,  but  can- 
not be  relied  on  as  the  best  means  under 
all  circumstances.     Whitewash  for  walls, 


256 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


perches,  nests,  etc.,  will  always  be  found 
useful;  and  probably  the  best  for  protec- 
tion against  insects  is  that  in  which  an 
ounce  of  carbolic  acid  is  used  with  each 
four  quarts  of  lime  water.  This  recipe,  it 
is  claimed,  is  certain  death  to  parasites. 
A  solution  of  one  part  of  acid  to  sixty 
parts  of  warm  water  may  be  used  then 
thoroughly  wet  with  it  on  all  parts  of  the 
body,  and  afterwards  as  a  wash  for  fowls, 
the  mixture  being  cooled  before  use,  and 
the  fowls  placed  on  dry,  clean  straw  and 
dried  in  the  sun.  A  soap  for  washing 
fowls,  also,  may  be  made  by  dissolving 
four  pounds  of  common  bar-soap  in  hot 
water,  and  adding  one  to  two  ounces  of 
carbolic  acid,  according  to  the  desired 
strength,  and  then  letting  it  cool  and  be- 
come hard  again. 

POULTRY,  Breeds,  the  Most  Popular— 
The  profits  of  poultry-keeping  being 
derived  principally  from  two  sources — 
the  sale  of  eggs  and  of  poultry,  mostly 
chickens,  in  market,  the  question  of  breed 
is  an  important  one.  For  eggs,  it  would 
seem  that,  with  proper  attention  and  care, 
the  non-sitters  are  preferable;  but  some 
of  the  varieties  of  non-sitters  are  not 
hardy,  and  the  extra  attention  such  fowls 
require  may  be  greater  in  cost  than  the 
enhanced  value  of  their  production. 
Fowls  have  been  classified,  not  only  in 
respect  to  their  qualities  of  flesh  and  as 
layers,  but  also  with  a  view  to  other 
characteristics.  The  following  classifica- 
tion, based  on  the  statement  of  an  ex- 
perienced poultry  firm  in  New  York,  is 
approved  by  Tegetmeier : 

1.  Hardiness.  —  Hardy;  Brahmas, 
Houdans,  Hamburgs,  Creve  Cceurs,  Span- 
ish, and  Leghorns.  Delicate:  La  Fleche, 
Polands,  and  Bantams. 

2.  Quietude. — Domestic  and  quiet: 
Brahmas  and  Cochins.  More  vivacious  ; 
Spanish,  Leghorns,  and  Dorkings.  Active: 
Hamburgs  and  Games. 

3.  Size  of  Birds. — Large:  Brahmas, 
Cochins,  La  Fleche,  Houdans,  Creve 
Cceurs,  and  Dorkings.  Medium:  Polands, 
Spanish,  Leghorns,  and  Games.  Small: 
Hamburgs  and  Sultans.  Diminutive: 
Bantams  and  Silkies. 

4.  Size  of  Eggs. — Layers  of  large  eggs, 
averaging  about  7  to  a  pound:  La  Fleche, 
Houdans,  Creve  Coeurs,  and  Black  Span- 
ish. Layers  of  medium  eggs,  averaging  8 
to  9  to  a  pound:    Leghorns,     Cochins, 


Brahmas,  Polands,  Dorkings,  Games,  and 
Sultans.  Layers  of  small  eggs,  averaging 
9  to  10  to  a  pound :  Hamburgs. 

5.  Number  of  Eggs. — Great  layers: 
Hamburgs,  Spanish,  Leghorns,  and  Po- 
lands. 

6.  Incubation.  —  Good  sitters  :  Co- 
chins, Brahmas,  Dorkings,  and  Games. 
Non-sitters  ;  Houdans,  Creve  Cceurs,  La 
Fleche,  Spanish,  Polands,  Hamburgs,  and 
Leghorns. 

7.  Valuable  for  Flesh. — True  table- 
birds  :  La  Fleche,  Houdans,  Creve  Cceurs, 
and  Dorkings.  Flesh  less  Juicy  :  Cochins 
and  Brahmas. 

8.  For  Eggs  and  Chickens,  which 
are  generally  equally  desired,  from  fowls 
usually  kept  on  farms,  the  testimony  pre- 
ponderates greatly  in  favor  of  the  Brah- 
mas; for,  in  addition  to  being  good  flesh 
fowls,  both  as  to  weight  and  quality,  they 
are  good  winter,  and  may  be  considered 
at  least  fair  summer,  layers;  they  are 
quiet,  hardy,  and  come  early  to  maturity. 
Other  breeds,  considered  superior  in 
quality  of  flesh,  or  as  egg  producers,  may 
be  found  more  desirable,  being  raised 
with  equal  success  in  many  localities. 
Generally,  however,  the  Brahman  is  con- 
sidered the  most  profitable  fowl  for  the 
farmer. 

POULTRY,  Diseases  of.— In  this  cli- 
mate the  diseases  of  our  poultry  are  few 
in  number,  and  are  generally  controlled 
by  proper  treatment.  On  this  point,  it  is 
said,  with  truth  too,  that  "prevention  is 
better  than  cure ; "  and  when  the  former 
cannot  be  altogether  secured,  the  latter 
must  be  attended  to  immediately,  or  all 
attempts  at  a  cure  will  prove  fruitless. 
Although  poultry  are  no  less  liable  to 
disorders  than  cattle  or  other  tame  ani- 
mals, but  very  little  attention  has  been 
paid  to  them,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the 
small  value  of  individual  fowls  compared 
with  sheep  or  horses ;  and  it  is  frequently 
most  economical  to  kill  them  at  once. 
These  disorders,  however,  though  few  in 
number,  are  far  irom  being  devoid  of  in- 
terest, not  only  as  sometimes  leading  to 
correct  views  of  the  diseases  of  other 
animals,  but  so  far  as  the  saving  of  even 
a  few  shillings,  by  curing  them  when  that 
is  possible,  or  of  rendering  their  eggs  or 
flesh  more  wholesome  and  palatable,  as 
well   as   the  humane  motive  of  adding 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


257 


comfort  to  the  creatures  intrusted  to  our 
care. 

POULTRY,  Apoplexy.— This  disease  is 
very  frequent  among  fowls,  and  makes  its 
attack,  in  most  instances,  without  the 
slightest  warning.  M.  Flourens,  of  Paris, 
says  there  are  two  degrees  of  apoplexy 
among  fowls— one  deep-seated  and  the 
other  superficial — each  having  different 
symptoms.  Deep-seated  apoplexy  is  char- 
acterized by  complete  disorder  of  move- 
ment, while  superficial  apoplexy  is  mani- 
fested only  by  deficient  muscular  energy 
and  inability  in  walking.  Deep-seated 
apoplexy  is  accompanied  by  superficial 
apoplexy;  but  as  the  latter  is  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  former,  it  ought  to  be  care- 
fully attended  to,  in  order  to  prevent  its 
passing  to  what  may  be  termed  the  second 
stage,  though  both  stages  are  capable  of 
being  cured  by  a  natural  process,  as  an 
individual  case  proves. 

M.  Flourens  had  brought  to  him  in  the 
month  of  April  a  young  fowl,  whose  gait 
indicated  that  of  a  tipsy  animal  so  much 
that  the  peasants  called  it  the  "  tipsy  hen." 
Whetherstanding,  or  walking,  or  running, 
it  reeled  and  staggered,  advancing  always 
in  a  zigzag  manner,  frequently  turning  to 
the  right  when  it  wished  to  turn  to  the  left, 
and  to  the  left  when  it  wished  to  turn  to 
the  right,  and  instead  of  going  forward  it 
went  backward.  Its  legs  also  often  bent 
under  it,  so  that  it  fell  down ;  above  all, 
when  it  flew  high  up  to  perch,  it  could 
not  govern  nor  regulate  its  movements, 
but  fell  and  rolled  about  on  the  ground  a 
long  while  without  being  able  to  get  upon 
its  legs  or  recover  its  balance.  These 
movements  so  nearly  resemble  those 
which  had  been  produced  by  experiment, 
that  M.  Flourens  was  impatient  to  ex- 
amine the  brain.  He  found  the  bone  of 
the  skull  to  be  covered  with  black  carious 
points.  On  penetrating  the  dura  mater, 
a  quantity  of  clear  water  ran  out,  while 
the  cerebellum  was  yellowish,  rust-colored 
streaks  on  the  surface,  and  in  the  centre 
was  a  mass  of  purulent  coagulated  matter 
as  large  as  a  horse-bean,  contained  in  a 
cavity  perfectly  isolated,  and  having  its 
sides  very  thin  and  smooth. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  apo- 
plexy are  plain  and  decisive.  A  fowl, 
apparently  in  the  most  robust  health,  falls 
down  suddenly,  and  is  found  either  dead, 
or   without   sensation   or  the  power  of 

*7 


motion.  These  symptoms  are  occasioned 
by  the  rupture  of  a  small  vessel  (usually 
at  the  base  of  the  brain),  and  the  con- 
sequent effusion  of  blood,  which,  by  its 
pressure,  produces  the  evil. 

Causes. — Apoplexy  is  almost  invari- 
ably caused  by  a  full  habit  of  body ;  it  is 
therefore  frequent  in  overfed  birds,  and  is 
most  common  among  laying  hens,  which 
are  sometimes  found  dead  on  the  nest — 
the  expulsive  efforts  required  in  laying 
being  the  immediate  cause  of  the  attack. 
Unnatural  and  overstimulating  food,  as 
greaves,  hemp-seed,  and  a  large  propor- 
tion of  pea  or  corn  meal,  greatly  predis- 
poses to  the  disease. 

This  disorder  is  termed  by  some  epi- 
lepsy, megrims,  or  giddiness.  Many 
promising  chickens  are  lost  by  this  com- 
plaint. Without  any  kind  of  warning, 
they  fall,  roll  on  their  backs,  and  struggle 
for  a  minute  or  two,  when  they  rise, 
stupid  and  giddy,  and  slowly  return  to 
their  food.  One  fit  having  occurred,  is 
quickly  followed  by  others,  each  more 
violent  than  the  preceding,  until  at  length 
the  little  animal  staggers  about,  half  un- 
conscious, refusing  to  eat,  rapidly  wasting, 
and  soon  dies  convulsed.  In  some  cases 
it  occurs  when  the  fowl  is  poor  and  half- 
starved  ;  but  then  the  food  has  been  im- 
proper; it  has  been  watery  or  disposed  to- 
fermentation;  diarrhoea  has  followed,  and 
the  fits  are  the  consequence  of  intestinal 
irritation.  Other  young  fowls  will  have 
occasional  fits,  from  which,  however,  they 
in  most  cases  rapidly  recover,  and  appear 
to  be  little  or  nothing  the  worse  for  them. 

Treatment. — In  this  disease  much 
may  be  done  in  the  way  of  prevention — 
little  toward  a  cure  in  an  actual  attack ;. 
the  only  hope  consists  in  an  instant  and 
copious  bleeding.  It  has  been  said  that 
bleeding  is  out  of  the  question ;  for  how 
is  a  bird  to  be  bled,  and  where  ?  We 
would  reply,  it  is  not  out  of  the  question ; 
for  we  have  saved  the  lives  of  several 
birds  by  its  prompt  employment.  And 
as  to  the  mode  of  operating,  it  is  the 
same  as  in  other  animals — simply  opening 
a  vein  with  a  sharp-pointed  pen-knife,  or, 
still  better,  a  lancet.  The  largest  of  the 
veins  seen  on  the  under  side  of  the  wing 
should  be  selected,  and  opened  in  a  longi- 
tudinal direction,  not  cut  across ;  and  so 
long  as  the  thumb  is  pressed  on  the  vein, 
at  any  point  between  the  opening  and  the. 


258 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


body,  the  blood  will  be  found  to  flow 
freely.  If  the  bird  recovers  after  the 
operation,  it  should  be  kept  quiet,  and  on 
light  and  scanty  food,  and  the  affected 
fowl  should  be  confined  in  a  rather  dark 
coop,  and  kept  warm. 

POULTRY,  The  Pip.— This  may  be 
regarded  as  a  token  of  derangement  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  alimentary 
canal  generally,  and  not  as  a  local  dis- 
ease. 

Cause. — This  disease  is  generally  at- 
tributed to  the  want  of  water,  or  to  bad 
water,  such  as  the  drainings  of  dung-hills, 
sinks,  etc.,  which  fowls  will  drink  when 
they  can  get  no  other. 

Symptoms. — The  occurrence  of  a  dry, 
horny  scale  upon  the  tongue  is  generally 
regarded  as  characteristic  of  this  disease, 
which,  however,  is  by  some  confounded 
with  gapes.  We  are  quite  assured  that 
the  dry,  scaly  tongue  is  only  a  symptom 
caused  by  some  other  disease,  which 
forces  the  fowl  (which  habitually  breathes 
through  the  nostrils),  to  respire  through 
the  mouth ;  in  this  case  the  constant 
current  of  air  dries  the  tongue,  which 
becomes  hard  at  the  point,  and  assumes 
a  very  horny  character.  Thus,  in  any 
inflammatory  affection  of  the  wind-pipe, 
in  gapes,  catarrh,  or  roup,  when  the 
nostrils  are  closed  by  the  discharge,  the 
pip,  as  it  is  termed,  makes  its  appearance. 
It  should  be  regarded,  however,  as  a 
symptom  only,  and  not  as  the  disease 
itself.  The  beak  becomes  yellow  at  the 
base,  the  plumage,  becomes  ruffled,  the 
bird  mopes  and  pines,  the  appetite  gradu- 
ally declines  to  extinction,  and  at  last  it 
dies,  completely  worn  out  by  fever  and 
starvation. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  varies 
with  the  cause.  In  all  cases  the  mouth 
should  be  frequently  moistened;  and  if 
the  scale  of  hardened  membrane  is 
loose,  it  should  be  removed.  The  absurd 
plan  of  nipping  off  the  end  ot  the 
tongue  in  chickens  is  still  practiced  in 
some  parts  of  the  country ;  it  is  almost 
needless  to  say,  that  it  is  alike  useless  and 
barbarous. 

A  cure  may  be  effected  by  a  low  diet; 
that  is,  in  the  case  of  common  fowls,  by 
an  allowance  of  fresh  vegetable  food,  as 
onions  or  parsley  chopped  and  mixed 
with  potatoes  and  a  little  Indian  or  oat- 
meal, granting  at  the  same  time  a  plenti- 


ful supply  of  pure  water.  Give,  also,  a 
teaspoonful  of  castor-oil  or  thereabouts, 
according  to  the  age  or  strength  of  the 
fowl.  Do  not  scrape  the  tongue,  nor  use 
rough  modes  of  cleaning  it ;  but  apply  a 
little  borax,  dissolved  in  pure  water,  and 
tincture  of  myrrh,  by  means  of  a  camel- 
hair  brush,  two  or  three  times  a  day.      *• 

The  following  has  been  recommended. 
Give  three  times  a  day,  for  two  or  three 
days,  a  piece  of  garlic,  the  size  of  a  pea ; 
if  garlic  cannot  be  obtained,  cnion, 
shallot,  or  chive  will  answer;  and  if 
neither  of  these  be  convenient,  two  grains 
of  black  pepper,  to  be  given  in  fresh 
butter,  may  be  substituted. 

POULTRY,  To  Preserve  in  Winter. — 
"About  the  15th  of  November,"  said 
the  late  Judge  Buel,  "  I  purchased  a 
quantity  of  poultry  for  winter  use.  The 
insides  were  carefully  drawn,  their  place 
partially  filled  with  charcoal,  and  the 
poultry  hung  in  an  airy  loft.  It  was  used 
through  the  winter,  till  about  the  first  of 
February,  and  although  some  were  kept 
seventy  days,  none  of  it  was  the  least 
affected  with  must  or  taint,  the  charcoal 
having  kept  it  sweet." 

POULTRY,  Vertigo.  —  Symptoms.— 
Fowls  affected  with  this  disease  may  be 
observed  to  run  round  in  a  circle,  or  to 
flutter  about  with  but  partial  control  over 
their  muscular  actions. 

Cause. — The  affection  is  one  evidently 
caused  by  an  undue  determination  of 
blood  to  the  head,  and  is  dependent  on  a 
full-blooded  state  of  the  system. 

Treatment. — We  have  always  found 
that  holding  the  head  under  a  stream  of 
cold  water  for  a  short  time  immediately 
arrested  the  disease ;  and  a  dose  of  any 
aperient,  such  as  calomel,  jalap,  or  castor- 
oil,  removes  the  tendency  to  tne  com- 
plaint. 

POULTRY,  Giddiness.— See  Voultry, 
Epilepsy. 

POULTRY,  Paralysis. — Symptoms. — 
An  inability  to  move  some  of  the  limbs. 
In  fowls  the  legs  are  usually  affected,  and 
are  totally  destitute  of  the  power  of 
motion. 

Causes. — Paralysis  usually  depends  on 
some  affection  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  is 
another  result  of  overstimulating  diet. 

Treatment. — Nothing  can  be  done 
by  way  of  cure ;  the  case  may  be  re- 
garded as  hopeless,  or  nearly  so. 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


259 


POULTEY,  Catarrh— Symptoms.— The 
symptoms  of  catarrh  in  fowls  are  identical 
with  those  so  familiar  in  the  human  sub- 
ject— namely,  a  watery  or  sticky  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  and  a  slight  swelling  of 
the  eyelids ;  in  worse  cases  the  face  is 
swollen  at  the  sides,  and  the  disease  has 
the  appearance,  or  seems  to  run  on  to 
true  roup. 

Causes. — Exposure  to  cold  and  damp- 
ness, such  as  a  long  continuance  of  cold 
wet  weather,  or  roosting  in  places  which 
are  open  to  the  north  or  west. 

Treatment. — In  simple  cases,  removal 
to  a  dry,  warm  situation,  and  a  supply  of 
food  rather  more  nutritious  and  stimulat- 
ing than  usual,  soon  effect  a  cure.  We 
have  found  a  little  mashed  boiled  potatoes, 
well  dusted  with  black  pepper,  very  ad- 
vantageous. In  severe  cases,  the  disease 
so  closely  resembles  roup,  that  it  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner. 

POULTRY,  Gapes. — Of  all  diseases,  real 
or  presumed,  to  which  our  domestic  fowls 
are  subjected,  the  most  frequent  is  the 
gapes,  sometimes  called  pip.  It  is  a  very 
common  and  troublesome  disorder,  and 
often  proves  fatal.  All  domestic  birds, 
particularly  young  fowls,  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  it,  and  generally  in  the  hot 
weather  of  July  and  August.  By  some  it 
is  considered  a  catarrhal  disease,  similar 
to  the  influenza  in  human  beings,  produc- 
ing a  thickened  state  of  the  membrane 
lining  the  nostrils,  mouth  and  tongue. 

Causes. — This  disease  is  supposed  to 
be  produced  from  filthy,  sour  diet,  and 
drinking  from  dirty  puddle  water,  infected 
with  putrid,  decaying  substances,  ill-venti- 
lated fowl-house  confinement,  or  a  spot 
of  ground  tenanted  year  after  year  by 
fowls,  without  attention  to  cleanliness,  to 
renovation  of  the  soil,  etc.  At  the  same 
time,  let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
M  gapes"  is  an  epidemic  disease. 

The  gapes  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
caused  by  a  sort  of  internal  worm  infest- 
ing the  wind-pipe ;  but  though  this  may 
have,  in  some  instances,  been  observed, 
it  is  by  no  means  uniformly  met  with  in 
all  the  disorders  accompanied  with  gaping. 
Symptoms. — The  name  is  sufficiently 
expressive  as  to  the  symptoms  of  tnis  dis- 
ease ;  gaping,  coughing,  and  sneezing, 
dullness,  and  inactivity,  ruffled  feathers, 
and  loss  of  appetite. 

On  the   dissection  of  chickens    dying 


with  this  disease,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
wind-pipe   contains  numerous  small   red 
worms  about  the  size  of  a  small  cambric 
needle;  on  the  first  glance  they   would 
likely  be  mistaken  for  blood-vessels.     It 
is  supposed  that  these  worms  continue  to 
increase  in  size  until  the  wind-pipe  be- 
comes   completely    filled    up,    and    the 
chicken   suffocated.      The   disease    first 
shows  itself  when  the  chicken  is  between 
three  and  four  months  old,  and  not  gener- 
ally after,  by  causing  a  sneezing  or  snuff- 
ing through  the  nostrils,   and  a  frequent 
scratching  of  itself  at  the  roots  of  the  bill. 
Treatment.  —  The    plan     formerly 
adopted,  of  giving  remedies  internally   to 
remove  the  worms,  is  not  a  good  one,  as 
the  medicine  has  to  be  absorbed,  pass  into 
the  blood,  and  act  powerfully  upon   the 
body  of  the  fowl,  before  its  purpose  can 
J  be  accomplished;  its  direct  application  to 
the  worms  is  therefore  preferable,      This 
is  readily  secured  by  stripping   the   vane 
from  a  small  quill  feather,  except  half  an 
inch  from  its  extremity ;  this  should  then 
be   dipped  in  spirits  of  turpentine ;  and, 
the   chicken  being  securely   held  by  an 
assistant,  the  feather  so  prepared  is  passed 
neatly  down  through  the  small  opening  of 
the  wind-pipe,  which  is  readily  seen  at  the 
base  of  the  tongue,  and  giving  it  one   or 
two  turns  will  generally  bring  up  and  de- 
stroy the  worms.     The  turpentine  at  once 
kills  the  worms,  and  its  application  excites 
a  fit  of  coughing,  during  which  those  that 
were  left  by  the  feather  are  expelled.  This 
mode  of  application   requires  some  dex- 
terity, and  at  times  the  irritation  proves 
fatal.      We  therefore  suggest  the  shutting 
up  of  the  chicken  in  a  box,   with   some 
shavings  dipped  in  spirits  of  turpentine, 
when  the  vapor  arising  from  the  extended 
surface  produces,  in  most  cases,  an  equally 
beneficial  result.     Creosote,  used  in  the 
same  manner,  has  been  found  most  extra- 
ordinarily efficacious. 

Prevention. — We  know  a  person,  a 
very  large  breeder  of  fowls,  who  always 
gives  his  chickens,  at  six  weeks  old,  wheat 
steeped  in  turpentine.  This  is  given  them 
once  in  the  morning,  when  fasting,  and 
as  a  preventive  against,  instead  of  waiting 
for  the  arrival  of,  the  gapes.  Let  their 
first  food  be  coarse  corn  meal,  almost  dry ; 
then  give  cracked  corn.  As  soon  as  they 
can  swallow  whole  grains,  let  them  have 
them    unbroken.     All    poultry-yards,  o£ 


260 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


course,  should  be  supplied  with  lime,  and 
the  chickens  should  have  free  access  to 
pure  water.  After  the  gapes  appear,  the 
cure  is  always  doubtful;  but  crushed  corn, 
soaked  in  very  strong  alum-water,  is  also 
a  good  remedy. 

Or,  pills  of  sulphur,  turpentine,  and 
wheat  flour. 

Or,  oil  of  turpentine,  two  drachms; 
linseed  oil,  one  ounce;  or  oil  of  turpentine, 
two  drachms,  with  flour  enough  to  make 
it  into  twenty  pills.  For  twenty  doses, 
give  every  other  day  three  or  four  pills, 
allowing  three  hours  to  elapse  between 
each  dose. 

Or,  tobacco  smoke. 

Or,  gapes  are  not  caused  by  lice,  but 
by  parasitic  worms,  which  exist  in  the 
windpipe.  They  may  be  removed  by 
inserting  a  loop  of  horse-hair  in  the 
throat,  and  withdrawing  it  with  a  twisting 
motion,  which  detaches  the  worms  and 
brings  them  out.  Gapes  may  be  pre- 
vented by  changing  the  location  of  the 
yards  and  ranges,  and  especially  by 
securing  a  supply  of  pure  water. 

POULTRY,  Roup.— There  are  no  dis- 
eases to  which  poultry  are  subject  from 
which  we  have  suffered  more  than  from 
roup,  catarrh,  or  swelled  head,  which  we 
consider  one  and  the  same  disease.  The 
term  roup  is  very  indefinite,  being  applied 
to  very  dissimilar  disorders  of  poultry, 
such  as  the  obstruction  of  the  rump 
gland,  the  pip,  and  gapes,  already  de- 
scribed, and  to  almost  every  sort  of 
catarrh,  to  which  gallinaceous  fowls  are 
much  subject.  But  the  chief  disease  to 
which  chickens  and  fowls  are  liable, 
originates  in  changes  of  weather  and 
variations  of  temperature ;  and  when  the 
malady  becomes  confirmed,  with  running 
at  the  nostrils  and  other  well-known 
symptoms,  they  are  termed  roupy. 

The  word  roup  is  supposed  to  be  a 
corruption  of  croup,  to  which  children 
are  subject,  and  which  often  proves  fatal. 
It  affects  fowls  of  all  ages,  and  is  either 
acute  or  chronic,  beginning  sometimes 
suddenly  and  sometimes  gradually,  as 
the  result  of  neglected  cords,  stormy 
weather,  or  damp  lodgings. 

Symptoms — The  most  prominent  symp- 
toms of  roup  are  at  first  identical  with 
those  of  severe  catarrh;  as  difficult  and 
noisy  breathing,  a  cough,  a  kind  of  rat- 
tling in  the  throat,  beginning  with  what 


is  termed  gapes.  There  is  considerable 
discharge  from  the  nostril  of  fetid  matter, 
like  the  glanders  in  horses ;  at  first  thin, 
and  limpid,  but  soon  loses  its  transparent 
character,  becoming  more  or  less  opaque, 
and  of  a  very  peculiar  and  offensive  odor ; ; 
froth  appears  in  the  inner  corner  of  the 
eye;  the  lids  swell,  and  in  severe  cases 
the  eyeball  is  entirely  concealed ;  the  nos- 
trils are  closed  by  the  discharge  drying 
around  them,  and  the  eyelids  are  aggluti- 
nated together;  the  diseased  secretion 
accumulating  within  the  sides  of  the  face, . 
frequently  swell  to  an  extreme  degree, 
and  the  bird,  unable  to  see  or  feed,  suf- 
fers from  great  depression,  and  sinks  rap- 
idly. 

As  secondary  symptoms,  the  appetite  is 
all  but  gone,  except  for  drink ;  the  crop 
feels  hard  to  the  touch,  and  the  feathers 
are  staring,  ruffled,  and  without  a  healthy 
gloss.  The  fowl  sits  moping  and  wast- 
ing in  corners,  always  apparently  in  great 
pain.  In  this  stage  of  the  disease,  it  is 
supposed  to  be  infectious;  and  whether  so > 
or  not,  it  is  certainly  proper,  for  cleanli- 
ness' sake,  if  nothing  else,  to  separate  the 
diseased  from  the  healthy  ones,  to  pre- 
vent the  disorder  from  spreading  through, 
the  yard. 

As  fowls  habitually  breathe  through, 
the  nose,  the  mouth  being  kept  closed,  it 
follows  that  there  is,  even  in  the  early 
stages,  some  difficulty  of  breathing,  and  a. 
distension  of  the  loose  skin  below  the 
under  jaw  may  be  often  noticed.  The 
frothy  matter  appearing  at  the  corner  of 
the  eye,  results  from  the  same  cause ;  the 
air,  stopped  in  its  passage  through  the 
nose,  passes  up  the  tear-duct,  and  pro- 
duces the  appearance  of  bubbles. 

With  respect  to  the  communication  of 
this  disease,  our  experiments  prove  that 
it  is  exceedingly  contagious.  It  is,  we 
are  inclined  to  think,  frequently  commu- 
nicated by  fowls  drinking  out  of  the  same 
vessels,  as  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils 
of  the  sick  bird  contaminates  the  water 
as  it  drinks. 

Treatment. — In  general,  we  should 
say,  kill  a  roupy  fowl  at  once,  unless  it  is 
valuable,  as  the  risk  of  its  contaminating 
the  whole  yard  is  great.  At  all  events, 
let  it  be  removed  from  the  yard  at  once. 
Combined  with  every  remedy,  cleanliness 
is  indispensable,  as  the  first,  the  last,  and 
the  best,  without  which   all   others   are 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


261 


vain,  and  worse  than  vain,  as  they  may 
be  pernicious  by  feeding,  instead  of  starv- 
ing the  disease. 

Warm,  dry  lodging,  and  nutritious  food, 
are  the  first  essentials  to  recovery;  in  ad- 
dition, the  frequent  removal  of  the  dried 
discharge  from  around  the  eyes  and  nose, 
by  warm  bathing  the  nostrils  with  Castile 
soap-suds  as  often  as  necessary,  and  the 
swollen  eyes  with  warm  milk  and  water. 
In  the  way  of  internal  medicine,  we  find 
that  nearly  equal  numbers  recover  under 
various  modes  of  treatment.  We  have 
tried  the  following  remedies,  viz  :  A  pep- 
per-corn in  a  pill  of  dough  the  three  fol- 
lowing days,  the  patient  being  much 
chilled.  Afterward,  bathe  the  swollen 
parts  with  camphorated  spirits,  or  brandy 
and  water. 

"But  facts  are  better  than  words,"  says 
Boswell,  and  we  have  the  following  case 
from  a  Middlesex  farmer :  A  cock,  about 
four  or  five  months  old,  apparently  turn- 
ed out  by  some  one  to  die,  came  astray, 
and  was  in  the  last  stage  of  roup.  The 
discharge  from  his  mouth  and  nostrils 
was  very  considerable,  and  extremely 
pungent  and  fetid,  while  his  eyes  appear- 
ed to  be  affected  with  inflammation,  as 
bad  as  what  surgeons  term  Egyptian 
ophthalmia.  The  roup,  it  may  be  stated, 
was  somewhat  prevalent  at  the  time,  and 
a  very  fine  cock  had  perished  in  a  corner 
hard  by,  of  cold  and  hunger,  from  not 
being  able  to  eat.  The  roupy  cock  was 
placed  by  the  fireside,  his  mouth  and  nos- 
trils washed  with  warm  water  and  soap, 
which  made  him  expectorate  and  sneeze  off 
a  quantity  of  the  offensive  obstructing  mat- 
ter. His  eyes  were  washed  with  warm 
milk  and  water,  and  the  head  gently 
rubbed  with  a  dry  cloth.  As  he  could 
not  see  to  eat,  he  was  put  into  a  rabbit- 
hutch,  with  a  warm  bed  of  hay  to  squat 
on.  Some  hours  afterward,  his  head  was 
again  washed,  and  as  there  was  much  in- 
termittent fever,  though  the  cold  stage 
prevailed,  a  stimulant  plan  was  adopted. 
Long  pellets  were  formed  of  barley  meal, 
flour,  mustard,  and  grated  ginger,  with 
which  he  was  crammed  several  times  a 
day,  his  head  bathed,  and  warmth  at- 
tended to.  He  had  milk-warm  water, 
sweetened  with  molasses,  to  drink,  for  the 
purpose  of  counteracting  the  too  heating 
qualities  of  the  stimulants.  The  fireside 
always  seemed  to  invigorate  him ;  yet  he 


still  breathed  with  difficulty,  and  gaped, 
and  had  a  rattle  in  his  throat.  In  three 
days,  the  stimulants,  warmth,  and  clean- 
liness, improved  him  so  much,  that  he 
began  to  see  a  little,  and  in  a  week  his 
sight  was  nearly  perfect.  A  little  mus- 
tard was  still  given  him  in  his  water,  and 
then  some  flour  of  sulphur.  He  had  al- 
so a  pinch  of  calomel  in  some  dough. 
He  was  gradually  brought  so  as  to  season 
him  to  the  cold,  and,  in  a  month,  was  in 
high  health  and  spirits.  Having  moulted 
late,  he  caught  a  cold  on  the  first  frost, 
and  suffered  a  relapse,  having  cough, 
gaping,  ruffled  feathers,  and  aguish  shak- 
ing; warm  lodging,  and  occasionally  a 
lounge  by  the  fireside,  proved  a  speedy 
remedy  without  medicine." 

Dr.  Bennett,  in  his  "Poultry  Book," 
remarks,  "But  for  roup  and  all  putrid  af- 
fections, I  confidently  prescribe  the  fol- 
lowing, and  consider  it  the  only  true  treat- 
ment :  Take  finely  pulverized;  fresh-burnt 
charcoal,  and  new  yeast,  of  each  three 
parts;  pulverized  sulphur,  two  parts; 
flour,  one  part;  water,  quantity  sufficient; 
mix  well,  and  make  into  boluses  of  the 
size  of  a  hazel-nut,  and  give  one  three 
times  a  day.  Cleanliness  is  no  less  ne- 
cessary than  warmth,  and  it  will  some- 
times be  desirable  to  bathe  the  eyes  and 
nostrils  with  warm  milk  and  water,  or 
suds,  as  convenient." 

Mr.  Giles,  who  is  excellent  authority, 
having  had  more  than  thirty  years'  ex- 
perience with  fowls,  and  being  the  owner 
of  an  extensive  collection  of  fowls,  says, 
"As  soon  as  discovered,  if  in  warm 
weather,  remove  the  infected  ones  to 
some  well  ventilated  apartment,  or  yard ; 
then  give  a  dessert-spoonful  of  castor  oil ; 
wash  their  heads  with  warm  Castile  soap- 
suds, and  let  them  remain  until  the  next 
morning,  fasting.  Scald  for  them  Indian 
meal,  adding  two  and  a  half  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts  for  ten  hens,  or  in  propor- 
tion for  a  less  or  larger  number ;  give  it 
warm,  and  repeat  the  dose  in  a  day  or 
two,  if  they  do  not  recover." 

POULTRY,  Consumption.  —  Notwith- 
standing their  warm  covering  of  feathers, 
from  their  peculiar  structure,  fowls  are 
exceedingly  liable  to  cold  and  other  ca- 
tarrhal diseases,  exhibiting  themselves  in 
the  symptoms  of  hoarseness,  snorting  and 
sneezing.  It  must  be  considered,  also, 
that  fowls  are  originally  natives  of  a  trop- 


2C. 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


ical  climate;  and,  though  long  natural- 
ized, they  still  retain  so  much  of  their 
original  habits  as  to  influence  them  in  this 
respect.  Very  wet  or  very  dry  weather, 
or  extremes  of  cold  or  of  heat,  are  equal- 
ly fatal;  whereas,  when  the  weather  is 
genial  and  equal,  fowls  always  thrive  best. 
The  old  poultry,  in  the  meanwhile,  fre- 
quently bear  all  changes  of  weather, 
without  showing  any  symptoms  of  roup. 

Symptoms. — Consumption,  which  is 
caused  by  the  presence  of  scrofulous  tu- 
bercles in  the  lungs,  may  almost  always 
be  induced  in  chickens  by  confining  them 
in  cold,  dark,  unhealthy  places ;  we  have 
also  found  tubercles  in  other  organs,  of 
the  body.  The  symptoms  of  consump- 
tion are  not  strongly  marked  in  the  early 
stages ;  in  the  more  advanced  state  there 
is  wasting,  cough,  and  expectoration  of 
matter.  They  are  also  affected,  more  or 
less,  by  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
are  placed,  spending  a  large  portion  of 
their  existence  in  coops  and  under  shel- 
ter, so  that  they  are  more  liable  to  be  af- 
fected by  exposure. 

Treatment. — It  is  fortunate  that  con- 
sumption can  always  be  prevented  by 
wholesome,  abundant  diet,  and  good 
housing,  for  in  advanced  stages  it  is  quite 
incurable;  when  it  is  suspected  to  be 
commencing,  cod-liver  oil  may  be  given, 
mixed  with  barley  meal ;  but  as  the  dis- 
ease is  hereditary,  a  fowl  so  preserved 
would  be  worse  than  useless  as  a  stock- 
bird.  Temperature  is  the  dominant  prin- 
ciple, to  which  attention  ought  to  be  paid. 

POULTRY,  Crop-Bound. —  Symptoms. 
The  crop,  or  membranous  dilatation  of 
the  gullet,  whose  office  it  is  to  receive 
food  as  it  is  swallowed,  and  to  retain  it 
until  sufficiently  softened  by  maceration, 
is  sometimes  so  overcharged,  that  it  is 
unable  to  expel  its  contents  into  the 
stomach.  From  the  emptiness  of  the 
latter  organ,  the  bird  feels  hungry,  and 
by  continuing  to  eat,  adds  to  the  mis- 
chief, until  at  last,  by  the  contraction 
of  the  crop  and  the  swelling  of  the 
grain,  a  hardened  mass  is  formed,  weigh- 
ing, in  some  cases,  nearly  a  pound, 
and  by  the  enormous  protuberance  it 
causes,  giving  evident  indications  of  its 
presence.  Sometimes  the  disease  is  oc- 
casioned by  a  single  object  being  swal- 
lowed, whose  size  is  too  large  to  permit 
i'  to  pass  into  the  stomach.     In  this  case 


it  serves  as  a  nucleus  for  other  matters, 
and  a  mass  is  formed  around  it.  "  I 
have,"  says  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  "  now  lying 
before  me  a  piece  of  bone,  one  inch  and 
a  half  long  by  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
broad,  which  was  imbedded  in  a  mass  of 
horse-hair,  oat-husk,  and  other  vegetable 
fibres,  the  whole  forming  an  egg-shaped 
solid,  two  and  a  half  inches  in  the  long 
and  one  and  a  quarter  in  the  short 
diameter.  This  caused  the  death  of  the 
Dorking  in  whose  crop  it  was  found." 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  this 
disorder  is  very  simple.  With  a  sharp 
pen-knife  an  incision  must  be  made 
through  the  skin  and  upper  part  of  the 
crop;  the  impacted  mass  loosened  by 
some  blunt-pointed  instrument,  and  re- 
moved. If  it  has  remained  many  days,, 
and  is  very  offensive,  the  crop  may  then 
be  washed  out  by  pouring  in  some  warm 
water.  The  incision,  if  small,  may  be 
left;  but  if  large,  a  stitch  or  two  is  ad- 
visable. The  bird  should  be  fed  on  soft 
food  a  day  or  two,  and  will  rapidly 
recover.  Sometimes  a  dessert-spoonful 
of  gin  will  stimulate  the  crop  sufficiently 
to  overcome  the  mass,  and  render  the  use 
of  the  knife  unnecessary. 

POULTRY,  Diarrhoea.  —  "  There  are 
times  when  fowls  dung  more  loosely  than 
at  others,  especially  when  they  have  been 
fed  on  green  or  soft  food;  but  this  may 
occur  without  the  presence  of  disease. 
But  should  this  state  deteriorate  into  a 
confirmed  and  continued  laxity,  immedi- 
ate attention  is  required  to  guard  against 
fatal  effects." — Dr.  Bennett. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  diar- 
rhoea, or  looseness,  are  so  evident  as  to 
render  description  hardly  necessary.  Las- 
situde, emaciation,  and,  in  very  severe 
cases,  voiding  of  calcareous  matter,  white, 
streaked  with  yellow,  resembling  the  yolk 
of  a  stale  egg,  and  sticking  to  the  feathers 
near  the  vent.  It  becomes  acrid,  from 
the  presence  of  ammonia,  and  causes 
inflammation,  which  extends  speedily 
through  the  intestines. 

Causes. — Diarrhoea  is  generally  pro- 
duced by  a  too  scanty  supply  of  grain — 
which  necessitates  an  excess  of  green 
food — dampness,  undue  acidity  in  the 
bowels,  and  unwholesome  diet  of  any 
description. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  simple, 
and  of  course  depends  upon  the  cause. 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


26$. 


When  the  disease  is  brought  on  by  a 
diet  of  green  or  soft  food,  the  diet  must 
be  changed,  and  water  given  sparingly. 
Five  grains  of  powdered  chalk,  the  same 
quantity  of  rhubarb,  and  three  of  cayenne 
pepper,  may  be  administered ;  and  if  the 
relaxation  is  not  speedily  checked,  a 
grain  of  opium  and  one  of  powdered 
ipecacuanha  may  be  given  ever"  four  or 
six  hours. 

Dr.  Bennett  recommends,  wnen  it 
arises  from  undue  acidity,  chalk  mixed 
with  meal ;  but  rice-flour  boluses  are  most 
to  be  depended  upon." 

POULTRY,  Feathers,  Loss  of.— This 
disease,  which  is  common  to  confined 
fowls,  is  by  no  means  to  be  confounded 
with  the  natural  process  of  moulting.  In 
the  annual  healthy  moult,  the  fall  of  the 
feathers  is  occasioned  by  the  protrusion 
of  new  feathers  from  the  skin.  In  the 
diseased  state  which  we  now  consider, 
where  the  feathers  fall,  no  new  ones  come 
to  replace  them,  but  the  fowl  is  left  bald 
and  naked.  A  sort  of  roughness  appears 
also  on  the  skin. 

The  loss  of  feathers  and  the  wants  of 
poultry  in  confinement,  are  clearly  shown 
by  a  correspondent  of  the  Boston  Medical 
Journal,  in  the  following  amusing  sketch: 
"  A  most  pleasing  illustration,"  says  he, 
"  was  the  want  of  lime,  and  the  effects  of 
its  presence,  which  came  under  my  notice 
on  my  voyage  from  South  America  to 
France.  We  had  omitted  to  procure 
gravel  for  our  poultry,  and  in  a  few  days 
after  we  were  at  sea,  the  poultry  began  to 
droop,  and  wound  up  their  afflictions  with 
the  pip,  or,  as  the  sailors  term  it,  the 
scurvy.  Their  feathers  fell  from  their 
bodies,  and  it  was  perfectly  ludicrous  to 
see  the  numerous  unfeathered  tribe  in  the 
most  profound  misery,  moping  away  their 
time  in  an  utter  state  of  nudity.  Amusing 
myself  one  day  by  fishing  up  gulf-weed, 
which  floated  in  immense  fields  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  I  took  from  it  num- 
erous small  crabs,  about  the  size  of  a  pea. 
The  poultry,  with  one  accord,  aroused 
themselves  from  their  torpor,  and  seem- 
ingly, as  if  by  instinct,  aware  of  the 
therapeutic  qualities  of  these  interesting 
animals,  partook  of  them  with  greater 
avidity  than  any  invalid  ever  swallowed 
the  '  waters  of  the  springs.'  After  a  few 
hours,  the  excellence  of  the  remedy  was 
apparent ;  the  cocks  began  to  crow,  the 


hens  to  strut  and  look  saucy,  and  in  a 
few  days  all  appeared  in  quite  a  holiday 
suit  of  feathers,  derived  from  the  lime, 
the  constituent  part  of  the  crab-shells." 

Symptoms. — A  falling  off  in  appetite, 
moping,  and  inactivity;  the  feathers  star- 
ing and  falling  off  till  tke  naked  skin 
appears. 

Remedy. — This  affection  is  supposed 
by  some  to  be  constitutional  rather  than 
local.  External  remedies,  therefore,  may 
not  always  be  sufficient.  Stimulants,  ap- 
plied externally,  may  serve  to  assist  the 
operation  of  what  medicine  may  be  given. 
Sulphur  may  be  thus  applied,  mixed  with 
lard.  Cayenne  and  sulphur,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  quarter  each,  mixed  with 
fresh  butter,  is  good  to  be  given  inter- 
nally, and  will  act  as  a  powerful  altera- 
tive. The  diet  should  be  changed,  and 
cleanliness  and  fresh  air  are  indispensable. 

POULTRY,  Feathers,  Eating;  their.— 
Eating  each  other's  feathers  is  a  habit 
which  fowls  often  contract,  when  confined 
in  yards,  but  is  not,  perhaps,  fully  under- 
stood. "  It  is  a  morbid  appetite,"  says  a 
writer  in  the  Cultivator,  "  apparently  in- 
duced in  the  outset  by  the  impatience  of 
the  fowls  under  confinement."  It  is  well 
known  that  fowls  are  very  fond  of  blood : 
and  when  moulting,  the  new  feathers  are 
what  is  generally  called  blood-shot;  that 
is,  the  ends  of  the  quills,  when  quite 
young,  have  a  drop  or  so  of  blood,  which 
induces  the  fowls  to  pluck  for  the  blood 
contained  in  them ;  and  we  knew  it  to  be 
kept  up  till  some  individuals  of  the  flock, 
who  were  made  special  victims,  were  al- 
most entirely  denuded  of  their  feathers, 
and  sometimes  have  even  had  their  en- 
trails torn  out. 

The  best  preventives  are  animal  food, 
such  as  bones  (not  burnt),  oyster-shells, 
charcoal,  and  fresh  meat,  with  clean  wa- 
ter and  clean  apartments.  Sometimes  a 
particular  fowl  shows  a  more  inveterate 
disposition  to  eat  feathers  than  the  rest 
of  the  flock.  It  is  best  to  kill  or  remove 
such. 

In  a  letter  read  before  the  British  As- 
sociation, from  M.  Sace,  of  Neufchatel, 
Switzerland,  giving  an  account  of  some 
experiments  in  the  feeding  of  domestic 
fowls,  he  informs  us  that  some  hens,  fed 
upon  barley  alone,  would  not  lay  well, 
and  that  they  tore  of?  each  other's  feath- 
He  then  mixed  with  the  barley  some  feafh- 


264 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


eis,  chopped  up,  which  they  ate  eagerly, 
and  digested  freely.  By  adding  milk  to 
the  food,  they  began  to  lay,  and  ceased 
plucking  out  each  other's  feathers.  He 
concludes,  that  this  proceeding  arose  from 
the  desire  of  the  hens  for  azote  food. 

POULTRY,  White  Comb "This  dis- 
ease," say  the  authors  of  the  "Poultry 
Book,"  "makes  its  first  appearance  in  the 
form  of  small  white  spots  on  one  or  both 
sides  of  the  comb  of  -the  cock,  which  are 
so  thickly  clustered  together  as  to  be 
sometimes  mistaken  for  a  sprinkling  of 
meal  or  other  white  powder.  It  seems 
to  be  of  a  scorbutic,  or  leprous  nature — 
a  form  of  disease  to  which  all  animals 
of  eastern  origin  are  particularly  liable. 
It  is  a  disease  to  which  the  Shanghai  is 
constitutionally  subject ;  although  we  have 
heard  of  its  existence  in  birds  exposed  to 
irregular  diet  and  want  of  cleanliness. 
The  disease  should  be  attacked  as  soon 
as  it  makes  its  appearance.  The  conse- 
quences of  neglect  are  related  in  the  fol- 
lowing communication,  with  the  appro- 
priate remedy: 

"The  disease  is  not  confined  to  the 
combs  only,  but  spreads  itself  down  the 
neck,  both  in  front  and  back,  and  takes 
off  all  the  feathers  as  far  as  it  goes,  leav- 
ing the  stumps.  I  saw  a  bird  very  lately, 
with  his  neck  and  breast  entirely  stripped 
of  feathers,  but  the  stumps  all  left,  so 
that  no  hope  of  their  return  can  be  en- 
tertained until  the  time  of  moulting. 

"Now  to  the  remaining  question,  'How 
can  it  be  cured?'  By  applying  cocoa  nut 
oil  and  turmeric.  This  simple  remedy  has* 
been  tried  with  perfect  success.  No  oth- 
er oil  but  that  of  the  cocoa  nut  seems  to 
answer  the  purpose.  The  proportions 
are  about  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  turme- 
ric powder  to  one  ounce  of  cocoa  nut 
oil.  The  latter,  at  an  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, is  solid,  and  very  much  resembles 
spermaceti;  but  it  easily  blends  with  the 
turmeric,  and  forms  a  yellow  ointment. 
Three  or  four  applications,  with  a  day's 
interval  between  each,  will  usually  be 
found  effectual." 

M.  Tegetmeier  suggests  the  separation 
of  the  sick  bird,  a  plain,  unstimulating, 
wholesome  diet — say  of  oatmeal  and  wa- 
ter, with  a  supply  of  green  vegetables — 
and  the  administration  of  some  altera- 
tive medicine:  as  flour  of  sulphur  ten 
grains,  and  calomel  one  grain,  given  ev- 


ery other  night ;  or  a  three-grain  Plum- 
mer's  pill  might  be  given  instead.  The 
plumage  will  not  often  reappear  until 
next  moulting  time. 

POULTRY,  Vermin,  Lice.— The  whole 
feathered  tribe  seem  to  be  peculiarly  lia- 
ble to  be  infected  with  lice;  and  there 
have  been  instances  where  fowls  have 
been  so  covered  in  this  loathsome  man- 
ner, that  the  natural  color  of  the  feathers 
has  been  undistinguishable. 

Mascall  says,  "They  get  them  in  scrap- 
ing abroad  among  foul  straw,  or  on  dung- 
hills, or  when  they  sit  in  nests  not  made 
clean,  or  in  the  hen-house,  by  their  dung 
lying  long  there,  which  corrupts  their 
bodies  and  breeds  lice  and  fleas." 

The  presence  of  vermin  is  not  only  an- 
noying to  poultry,  but  materially  inter- 
feres with  their  growth,  and  prevents  their 
fattening.  In  trifling  cases,  no  particular 
attention  is  requisite ;  but  when  the  cases 
are  bad,  the  fowls  should  be  removed  from 
the  rest. 

A  writer  in  the  Cultivator  recommends 
mixing  sulphur  with  Indian-meal  and  wa- 
ter, and  feed  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  of  sulphur  to  twenty-four  fowls,  in 
two  parcels,  a  few  days  apart.  It  is  said 
this  will  completely  exterminate  the  lice, 
and  produce  a  remarkably  healthy  and 
glossy  appearance  in  the  fowls.  Strew 
oil-meal  about  the  floor,  in  the  nests,  and 
against  the  rafters  and  sides  of  the  build- 
ings. Lining  the  nests  infected  with  lice 
with  tobacco  stems  will  expel  them  not 
only  from  the  nests  but  from  the  body  of 
the  fowl.  Another  writer  in  the  same 
paper  says,  "Lice  may  be  destroyed  by 
placing  lard  beneath  the  wing  and  on  the 
back  of  the  chicken."  Sulphur,  thor- 
oughly dusted  into  the  roots  of  the  feath- 
ers, and  spread  over  the  entire  skin,  if 
used  twice  or  thrice  at  intervals  of  a  few 
days,  is  a  certain  cure.  But  the  best 
remedy  we  have  ever  found  is  cleanliness 
in  their  roosting  places  and  nests,  which 
should  be  often  whitewashed  with  hot 
lime-water,  and  to  place  plenty  of  slack- 
ed lime,  dry  ashes  and  sand,  well  mixed, 
where  they  can  roll  and  bathe,  by  which 
means  they  will  soon  free  themselves  of 
the  pests. 

Hens,  while  hatching,  are  very  apt  to 
become  infested  with  lice;  so  much  so 
that  they  are  often  driven  from  the  nest. 
We  have  known  the  eggs  covered,  and 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 


*5 


the  nest  alive  with  them.  In  such  cases 
■we  would  recommend  removing  the  litter 
and  eggs,  and  cleansing  the  nest  with 
scalding  water.  Then  line  the  nest  with 
tobacco  stems. 

A  friend  of  the  author  was  complain- 
ing last  spring  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping 
his  hens  on  the  nest  in  consequence  of 
the  vermin  infesting  them.  We  recom- 
mended the  above,  which  was  adopted 
with  perfect  success,  and  he  raised  a 
greater  number  of  chickens  than  ever  be- 
fore. This  year  he  raised  250,  while  last 
year  he  raised  not  more  than  20  or  30 
from  the  same  number  of  hens. 

POULTRY,  Rheumatism  and  Cramp.— 
These  diseases,  though  differing  in  their 
nature,  arise  so  constantly  from  the  same 
cause,  and  are  so  readily  removed  by  the 
same  treatment,  that  we  have  placed 
them  together.  A  disinclination  and  in- 
ability to  move  the  limbs,  evidently  not 
arising  from  mere  weakness  or  a  perma- 
nently cramped  condition  of  the  toes,  are 
sufficiently  characteristic. 

Causes. — Both  disorders  are  caused 
by  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  and  the 
tendency  to  them  may  be  much  counter- 
acted by  preventing  the  fowls,  during 
their  chickenhood,  from  running  among 
wet  grass  early  in  the  morning. 

Treatment. — Local  applications  are 
perfectly  useless.  Good  food,  and  a 
warm,  dry  habitation,  are  generally  effec- 
tual. When  chickens  are  hatched  at  such 
times  as  February  and  March,  it  must  not 
be  expected  that  any  treatment  can 
counteract  perfectly  the  unnatural  cir- 
cumstances under  which  they  are  placed. 
If  exposed,  they  suffer  from  cold;  and  if 
confined  in  close  rooms,  the  want  of 
fresh  air,  natural  green  and  insect  food, 
produce  equally  unfortunate  results. 

POULTRY,  Eggs,  Eating  their— It  is 
well  known  that  hens  when  kept  shut  up, 
are  very  apt  to  eat  their  eggs.  The  best 
preventive  is  to  keep  them  well  supplied 
with  lime  and  gravel,  and  with  fresh 
meat,  in  some  form. 

Another  way  is  to  break  an  egg  and 
dust  the  contents  nicely  with  fine  Cay- 
enne pepper,  afterwards  turning  the  egg 
round  so  as  to  get  the  pepper  below  the 
yelk,  it  possible,  and  leave  the  egg  in  the 
offender's  nest ;  or,  if  he  catches  her  in 
the  act  of  eating  an  egg,  let  him  drive 
her  away  quietly,  and  place  pepper  in 


the  remainder  of  the  egg,  endeavoring, 
as  stated  before,  to  get  the  pepper  under- 
neath. He  will  very  soon  see  her  running 
furiously  about  with  distended  beak.  If 
one  dose  is  not  sufficient,  administer 
another  a  little  stronger.  If  fowls  are 
well  supplied  with  lime  and  gravel  rubbish 
and  animal  food  (fresh  meat)  in  some 
form,  hens  will  not  eat  their  eggs.  Arti- 
ficial or  china  eggs  should  be  used  as 
nest  eggs. 

POULTRY,  Stomach,  Inflammation  of 
the. — Symptoms. — When  a  fowl  mopes 
and  refuses  to  eat,  without  any  apparent 
cause,  or  selects  only  soft  food,  rejecting 
corn  or  grain,  and,  gradually  pining,  be- 
comes excessively  thin,  inflammation  of 
the  stomach  may  be  suspected. 

Causes. — Overstimulating  food,  espe- 
cially peas,  hemp-seed,  etc.,  necessarily 
make  a  greater  call  upon  the  digestive 
organs  than  more  simple  and  wholesome 
diet.  The  amount  of  gastric  juice  must 
be  in  proportion  to  the  digestibility  of  the 
food;  and  hence,  under  the  use  of  peas, 
corn,  hemp-seed,  etc.,  the  organ  is  over- 
worked and  stimulated  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  become  inflamed.  The  secretion 
of  gastric  juice  then  ceases,  the  food  is 
not  digested,  and  consequently  distends 
the  stomach  to  an  enormous  degree ;  so 
that,  although  not  naturally  larger  than 
the  finger,  we  have  seen  it  four  or  five 
times  the  size  of  the  gizzard. 

Treatment. — The  prevention  of  this 
disease,  by  the  use  of  wholesome  and 
natural  diet,  is  easy ;  the  cure  in  advanced 
cases  very  uncertain.  The  only  treatment 
to  be  relied  on  would  be  the  immediate 
employment  of  a  plain  dietary,  consisting 
of  cooked  soft  food,  so  as  to  make  the 
least  possible  call  on  the  digestive  organs ; 
and  if  to  this  regimen  an  occasional 
grain  of  calomel,  at  intervals  of  several 
days,  be  added,  all  is  done  that  can  be 
likely  to  benefit  the  patient. 

POULTRY,  Swelled  Head.— See  Poul- 
try, Roup. 

POULTRY,  Eggs,  Color  of.— Fowls  to 
which  a  portion  of  chalk  is  given  with 
their  food,  lay  eggs,  the  shells  of  which 
are  remarkable  for  their  whiteness.  By 
substituting  for  chalk  a  calcareous  earth, 
rich  oxide  of  iron,  the  shells  become  of  a 
light  cinnamon  color. 

POULTRY,  Megrims. — See  Poultry, 
Apoplexy. 


a66 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


POULTRY,  Bones  to  Pulverize  for.— 

Put  the  bones  in  a  stove  and  allow  them 
to  burn  white,  when  they  can  be  easily 
pulverized;  then  mix  with  corn  meal, 
and  feed  twice  a  day. 

POULTRY,  Woundi  of.  —  Wounds 
caused  by  fighting,  or  by  accidents, 
should  be  kept  clean,  and  the  parts 
washed  with  Venice  turpentine. 

POULTRY,  Ulcers  in.— (See  Poultry, 
Wounds  of.) 

POULTRY,  For  Market,  Killing  and 
Preparing. — If  you  wish  to  prepare  your 
poultry  in  the  nicest  manner  for  the  mar- 
ket, so  that  it  will  invariably  secure  the 
best  price,  observe  the  following  rules, 
viz. :  First,  fat  them  well,  and  allow  them 
to  remain  in  the  pens  twenty-four  hours 
without  food  previous  to  being  killed. 
Then,  when  you  kill  them,  instead  of 
wringing  their  necks,  cut  their  heads  off 
at  a  sing7e  blow  with  a  sharp  axe  or  cleav- 
er, and  then  hang  them  up  by  their  legs 
and  allow  them  to  bleed  freely,  and  pick 
them  immediately,  while  warm.  Some, 
however,  prefer  to  run  a  small  pen-knife 
into  the  jugular- vein  by  the  side  of  the 
neck,  just  under  the  joles.  In  this  case, 
let  the  heads  remain  on.  In  picking, 
great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  tear  the 
skin ;  the  wings  should  not  be  cut  off,  but 
picked  to  the  end.  If  the  head  should 
be  cut  off,  the  skin  of  the  neck  should  be 
neatly  tied  over  the  end.  Most  persons 
like  to  see  the  heads  of  fowls  left  on ;  it 
makes  a  better  show.  The  heads  of 
ducks  and  geese  should  always  be  cut  off. 
No  cut  should  be  made  in  the  breast ;  all 
the  offal  should  be  taken  out  behind,  and 
the  opening  should  be  made  as  small  as 
possible. 

Some  persons  send  their  poultry  to 
market  with  their  intestines  in.  This,  to 
say  the  least,  is  a  dirty,  slovenly  practice, 
doing  great  injury  to  the  flesh,  as  it  par- 
takes of  the  flavor  of  the  excrements 
when  suffered  long  to  remain  undressed, 
and  is  otherwise  impaired  from  the  stag- 
nant blood.  After  removing  the  intes- 
tines, wipe  out  the  blood  with  a  dry  cloth, 
but  no  water  should  be  used  to  cleanse 
them.  With  a  moist  cloth  take  off  the 
blood  that  may  be  found  upon  the  car- 
cass, and  hang  them  in  a  cool,  dry  room 
until  ready  to  carry  to  market,  or  other- 
wise to  be  used.  Do  not  remove  the 
gizzard  from  its  place ;  but,  if  the  fowl  be 


very  fat,  make  a  larger  hole,  turn  the 
leaves  out,  and  fasten  them  with  a  small 
skewer.  When  prepared  in  this  way, 
your  poultry  will  be  much  nicer,  and  en-  . 
titled  to  a  better  price  than  when  butch- 
ered and  dressed  in  the  ordinary  way. 

We  have  often  noticed  the  careless,, 
slovenly  manner,  and  little  attention  paid 
to  external  appearance  of  poultry  offered 
for  sale  in  our  markets;  and  we  have  no- 
ticed the  quick  sale  and  higher  price 
when  due  regard  was  paid  to  have  the 
skin  all  sound  and  clean;  the  breast  not 
mutilated  by  a  long  cut,  the  shrinking 
skin  exposing  the  drying  meat  covered 
with  hay-seed  or  chaff,  but  well  covered 
all  over  with  fat,  of  a  rich,  golden  yellow. 
Much  of  the  poultry  exposed  for  sale  has 
been  through  the  process  of  scalding  to 
facilitate  picking;  this  practice  should 
never  be  resorted  to.  It  turns  the  rich 
yellow  of  the  fat  into  a  tallowy  hue,  and 
oftentimes  starts  the  skin,  so  that  it  peels 
off  unless  very  carefully  handled. 

Much  care  and  attention  is  required 
after  the  poultry  is  dressed  and  cool.  It 
should  be  carefully  packed  in  baskets  or 
boxes,  and,  above  all,  it  should  be  kept 
from  the  frost.  A  friend  who  was  very 
nice  in  these  matters,  used  to  bring  his 
turkeys  to  market  in  the  finest  order  pos- 
sible, and  always  obtained  a  ready  sale 
and  the  highest  price.  His  method  was 
to  pick  them  dry,  while  warm,  and  dress 
them  in  the  neatest  manner;  then  take  a 
long,  deep,  narrow,  tight  box,  with  a 
stick  running  from  end  to  end  of  the  box, 
and  hang  the  turkeys  by  the  legs  over  the 
stick,  which  prevents  bruising  or  disfig- 
uring them  in  the  least. 

Too  much  should  not  be  exposed  at  a 
time  for  sale,  nor  should  they  be  hauled 
over  too  often.  Appearance  is  every- 
thing with  poultry,  as  well  as  other  ar- 
ticles, and  has  great  influence  on  the 
purchaser. 

POULTRY,  Age  of.— Farmers  usually 
sell  poultry  alive.  Poulterers  in  towns, 
on  the  other  hand,  kill  and  pluck  every 
sort  of  fowl  for  sale,  so  that  the  purchaser 
has  it  in  his  power  to  judge  of  the  car- 
cass; and  if  he  buys  an  inferior  article  at  a 
high  price  it  must  be  his  own  fault.  It  is- 
easy  to  judge  of  a  plucked  fowl,  whether 
old  or  young,  by  the  state  of  the  legs.  If 
a  hen's  spur  is  hard,  and  the  scales  on  the 
legs  rough,  she  is  old,  whether  you  see 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


:67 


her  head  or  not ;  but  the  head  will  cor- 
roborate your  observation,  if  the  under 
bill  is  so  stiff  that  you  cannot  bend  it 
down,  and  the  comb  thick  and  rough. 
A  young  hen  has  only  the  rudiments  of 
spurs,  the  scales  on  the  legs  smooth, 
glossy,  and  fresh  colored,  whatever  the 
color  may  be,  the  claws  tender  and  short, 
the  under  bill  soft,  and  the  comb  thin 
and  smooth.  An  old  hen  turkey  has 
rough  scales  on  the  legs,  callosities  on 
the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  long,  strong 
claws ;  a  young  one,  the  reverse  pf  all 
these  marks.  A  young  goose  or  duck  is 
distinguished  by  the  tenderness  of  the 
skin  under  the  wings,  the  strength  of  the 
joints  of  the  legs,  and  the  coarseness  of 
the  skin. 

POULTRY,  Canker  in.— This  disease  is 
indicated  by  the  mouth  and  throat  be- 
coming filled  up  with  a  cheesy  substance 
of  very  offensive  odor,  which  causes  in 
some  cases  a  stoppage  of  the  windpipe, 
and  death  by  suffocation.  It  is  to  be 
treated  successfully  as  follows :  i.  If  the 
fowl  is  not  worth  a  good  deal  cut  its  head 
off.  2.  If  worth  saving,  with  a  small 
spoon  and  pincers,  take  out  all  the  cheesy 
matter,  and  wipe  out  all  the  slimy  mucus 
from  the  mouth,  nostrils,  and  eyes.  3. 
Prepare  a  solution  of  chlorinated  soda  or 
chloride  of  lime.  If  the  chlorinated  soda 
(Labaraque's  solution)  is  used,  dilute  it 
with  one  or  two  parts  of  water.  Wash 
the  head,  eyes,  nostrils,  mouth  and  throat 
out  thoroughly,  using  a  soft  swab  with 
one  of  these  solutions,  and  in  twenty 
minutes,  give  the  fowl  a  good  feed  of 
chopped  meat,  mixed  with  bread  soaked 
in  ale  or  spirits  and  water,  and  well 
sprinkled  with  Cayenne  pepper.  Give 
some  solution  of  iron  in  the  water,  and 
keep  up  the  diet  indicated  until  well. 
Put  the  whole  flock  on  a  similar  diet  for 
a  few  days,  especially  those  having  colds. 

POULTRY,  Croup.— Try  and  remove 
the  croup  membranes  from  the  mouth 
with  a  feather,  and  then  touch  the  parts 
with  a  feather  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  10  grains  to  1  ounce 
of  rain  water.  Feed  no  raw  grain,  but 
well  boiled  oat  meal  or  corn  meal  will  be 
excellent.  Put  half  an  ounce  of  carbonate 
of  soda  in  every  quart  of  the  water  drank 
by  the  chickens,  and,  if  possible,  change 
their  roosting-place  to  a  new  building. 
If  this  last  cannot  be  done,  clean  the 


place  thoroughly,  and  wash  it  over  with  a 
solution  at  the  rate  of  an  ounce  of  car- 
bolic acid  to  a  quart  of  water. 

POULTRY,  Drooping  Wings.— This,  in 
either  turkeys  or  chickens,  is  caused  by 
vermin.  To  cure  it,  grease  their  heads,. 
the  under  sides  of  their  wings,  and  their 
bodies  under  their  wings,  with  lard  or 
fried  meat  fat,  or  any  other  grease.  In 
a  few  days  their  wings  will  be  natural, 
and  their  appetite  and  comfort  will  re- 
turn. 

POULTRY,  Fattening.— The  fowls  de- 
signed for  being  fattened  should  be  well 
and  liberally  fed  from  the  time  they  are 
hatched.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
they  can  be  kept  low  when  young,  and 
got  up  to  a  great  size  by  liberal  feeding 
when  put  up  to  fatten.  The  fowls  so- 
treated  are  stunted  in  their  growth,  the 
bony  frame-work  becomes  set,  and  they 
never  afterward  attain  a  large  size;, 
whereas  with  liberal  feeding  they  become 
fit  for  the  fattening-coop  at  the  age  of 
about  four  months  in  summer,  and  from 
five  to  six  in  winter.  It  cannot  be  too 
strongly  impressed  upon  those  who  are 
desirous  of  obtaining  poultry  of  first-rate 
quality,  that  fowls  are  only  in  perfection 
for  the  table  before  they  have  attained 
their  complete  development.  The  cock- 
erels should  be  put  up  when  "their  tails 
begin  to  turn" — namely,  just  when  the 
two  long  sickle  feathers  or  streamers  be- 
gin to  top  the  straight  feathers  of  the 
tail;  and  the  pullets  before  they  have 
laid.  They  may  be  either  confined  with- 
in a  small  space  or  placed  in  a  coop,  in  a 
warm  and  rather  dark  situation,  and,  of 
course,  under  cover.  The  fowls  should 
be  separated  from  each  other  by  parti- 
tions in  the  coop,  and  no  more  space 
ought  to  be  allowed  them  than  is  neces- 
sary to  make  them  comfortable,  without 
allowing  room  for  exercise. 

The  fattening-coops  should  stand  on 
legs,  in  order  to  raise  them  to  a  conven- 
ient height  from  the  ground,  so  that  the 
dung  may  be  removed  daily;  or  each 
may  have  a  shallow  drawer  underneath, 
being  daily  filled  with  fresh  earth — an  ad- 
mirable plan — the  fowls  being  very  fond 
of  nestling  in  dry  earth,  and  earth  being 
a  deodorizer  and  disinfectant,  it  is  most 
conducive  to  their  health.  The  most 
scrupulous  cleanliness  must  be  observed, 
in  the  case  of  fattening  fowls;  the  troughs- 


»63 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


in  front  of  the  coop  must  be  removed 
when  the  fowls  have  ceased  eating,  the 
remains  of  food  taken  out,  and  the 
troughs  scalded  and  laid  in  the  sun  to 
dry  daily.  Not  a  particle  of  food  that 
has  become  sour  should  be  given  to  them; 
indeed,  they  will  eat  better  if  fresh  food, 
and  of  a  different  kind,  be  given  to  them 
at  each  meal.  When  first  put  into  the 
coop  they  should  not  have  any  thing 
placed  before  them  for  some  hours,  till 
they  have  recovered  from  their  fright  at 
being  caught,  and  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  their  new  residence.  Afterwards 
they  should  be  fed  with  much  regularity 
three  times  each  day,  giving  them  at 
each  meal  as  much  as  they  can  eat,  but 
not  leaving  anything  for  them  to  pick  up 
in  the  intervals. 

When  first  placed  in  the  coop  they 
may  be  fed  twice  a  day  on  boiled  pota- 
toes, mashed  up  with  coarse  oat  meal, 
and  moistened  with  a  little  new  milk. 
The  third  meal  may  be  Patna  rice,  well 
boiled,  with  a  little  milk  added.  When 
the  fowls  are  nearly  fat,  the  rice  may  be 
given  twice  a  day  and  the  potatoes  only 
once;  the  rice  makes  the  flesh  white  and 
clear.  A  little  vegetable,  chopped  fine, 
may  occasionally  be  given  to  vary  the 
character  of  the  food;  the  earth  in  the 
coop  will  supply  the  small  stones  neces- 
sary for  their  digestion.  The  first  meal 
should  be  given  early  in  the  morning,  the 
second  about  mid-day,  and  the  last  at 
dusk,  when  the  other  fowls  are  going  to 
roost. 

On  this  system  of  feeding  a  fowl  will 
become  perfectly  fatted  in  from  two  to 
three  or  four  weeks  at  the  outside.  When 
fat  it  should  be  immediately  killed;  for 
not  only  is  it  unprofitable  to  keep  it  any 
longer,  but  it  deteriorates  very  rapidly,  los- 
ing weight  and  becoming  hard  and  coarse 
in  the  flesh.  Before  being  killed  the  fowls 
should  be  kept  for  fifteen  or  sixteen  hours 
without  food  or  water.  If  this  precau- 
tion is  not  taken,  (and  it  is  unfortunately 
often  neglected,)  the  food  in  the  crop  and 
intestines  ferments.  When  this  is  the 
case  in  summer,  the  fowl  in  a  few  hours 
turns  green,  and  is  entirely  unfit  for  the 
table. 

POULTRY,  Costiveness.— "  The  exist- 
ence of  this  disease,"  says  Dr.  Bennett, 
"  will  become  apparent  by  observing  the 
unsuccessful    attempts    of    the    fowl    to 


relieve  itself.  It  frequently  proceeds  from 
continued  feeding  ot  dry  diet,  without 
access  to  green  vegetables.  Indeed,  with- 
out the  use  of  these,  or  some  such  substi- 
tute, as  boiled  potatoes,  costiveness  is 
sure  to  ensue.  The  want  of  a  sufficient 
supply  of  good  water  will  also  produce 
the  disease,  on  account  of  that  peculiar 
structure  which  has  already  been  ex- 
plained, by  which  fowls  are  unable  to 
void  their  urine  except  in  connection  with 
the  foeces  of  solid  food,  and  through  the 
same  channel." 

Remedy. — Soaked  bread,  with  warm 
skim-milk,  is  a  mild  remedial  agent,  and 
will  usually  suffice.  Boiled  carrots,  or 
cabbage,  is  more  efficient.  A  meal  of 
earth-worms  is  sometimes  advisable,  and 
hot  potatoes,  mixed  with  lard,  are  said  to 
be  excellent. 

POULTRY,  Houses,  to  Fumigate— Fu- 
migating poultry  houses  with  sulphur, 
thrown  on  glowing  coals  in  an  earthen 
vessel,  and  keeping  the  house  closed  for 
several  hours,  is  said  to  be  a  perfect  rem- 
edy for  insects  of  all  kinds.  The  poultry 
must  of  course  be  removed  before  the  ex- 
periment, and  the  person  using  it  must 
guard  against  being  suffocated,  and  the 
building  from  being  fired. 

POULTRY,  Vermin,  to  Destroy  in.— 
Tobacco  smoke,  with  good  food  and 
cleanliness.  If  infested  with  lice,  damp 
the  skin  under  the  feathers  with  water, 
then  sprinkle  a  little  sulphur  on  the  skin. 
If  the  bird  be  covered  with  insects  or  par- 
asites, they  will  all  disappear  in  the  course 
of  twelve  hours. 

POTLTRY,  Blindness,  Remedy  for.— 
Foment  with  warm  water,  then  drop  a 
few  drops  ot  the  following  solution  into 
the  eyes:  Laudanum,  one  teaspoonful; 
Water,  a  teaspoonful. 

POULTRY,  Dry  Picking— The  practice 
of  scalding  poultry  before  plucking  has 
very  properly  been  vetoed  by  the  market 
dealers.  Fowls  may  be  plucked  with 
equal  facility  and  with  better  effect  in 
preserving  the  flesh  immediately  after 
death,  and  before  they  have  had  time  to 
cool.  The  action  of  the  market  men  is 
to  be  commended,  and  those  sending 
dressed  poultry  to  market  will  do  well  to 
act  in  accordance  with  it. 

POULTRY,  Rump-Root  or  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Oil  Vessel  in. — Open  the  ttt' 
mor  and  squeeze  out  the  oil. 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


269 


POULTRY,  Caponiang.  —  Caponizing 
has  been  practiced  but  little  in  this 
country,  the  practice  being  now  confined 
mostly  to  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 
Mr.  G.  H.  Leavitt,  an  experienced  poul- 
try breeder  of  New  York,  says  that  95  per 
cent,  of  the  capons  raised,  are  raised  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  that  the  same  propor- 
tion of  experiments  is  successful.  In  most 
parts  of  this  country  the  practice  is  un- 
known, even  among  those  who  breed  fowls 
for  market.  Both  cockerels  and  pullets 
may  be  caponized,  the  latter  being  called 
in  France  poulardes.  The  effect  of  depriv- 
ing them  of  reproductive  powers  is  to 
cause  them  to  fatten  more  easily,  with  less 
food ;  it  increases  their  size  beyond  what 
would  otherwise  be  attained,  and  makes 
them  more  tender  and  more  desirable  for 
the  table.  So  much  superior  are  capons 
esteemed  to  be,  that  it  is  singular  the 
practice  is  so  limited.  The  weight  is  in- 
creased one-third,  and  the  meat  is  much 
finer  and  commands  one-third  more  price 
than  other  market  fowls.  Mr.  Robert  B. 
Engle,  of  Masonville,  New  Jersey,  who  is 
qualified  to  speak  from  experience,  says : 
"  The  operation  is  simple  and  easily  per- 
formed. An  expert  in  the  business  can 
castrate  two  hundred  in  a  day,  for  which 
we  pay  four  cents  each.  The  capons 
fatten  more  readily  than  cocks,  attain 
greater  weight,  and  their  flesh  is  much 
more  tender  and  juicy,  and  is  better  flav- 
ored, and  consequently  commands  a 
higher  price,  which  in  Philadeiphia  and 
New  York,  as  compared  with  other  prime 
chickens,  is  as  35  cents  per  pound  are  to 
25  cents  in  the  Philadelphia  market.  The 
difference  in  price  ranges  from  six  to  ten 
cents  per  pound,  as  to  quality.  .  .  I 
believe  that  if  all  roosters  that  are  to  be 
kept  until  full  grown  for  market  were 
properly  castrated  it  would  enhance  their 
value  from  30  to  40  per  cent." 

Instruments  for  making  capons  may  be 
purchased  for  $5  per  set,  and  consist  of  a 
spring,  with  which  the  incision,  made  by 
a  sharp  knife,  is  kept  open  during  the 
operation ;  nippers  and  hook,  with  which 
to  remove  the  covering  of  the  testicles ;  a 
tube  containing  a  silk-worm  gut,  with 
which  the  connection  of  the  testicle  with 
the  bird  is  severed,  and  a  spoon  for  re- 
moving the  severed  parts.  The  opera- 
tion may  be  performed  with  more  simple 
implements,  however ;  as  a  sharp  pocket- 


knife,  a  pair  of  forceps,  a  sharp-pointed' 
hook,  a  horse-hair,  and  a  teaspoon.  The 
operation  is  performed  in  the  following 
manner,  as  described  by  those  familiar 
with  it :  Confine  the  fowl  to  a  table  or 
board,  left  side  downward,  by  weights  or 
by  straps  which  will  securely  fasten  the 
legs  and  wings,  the  latter  being  drawn  well 
over  the  back,  and  the  legs  extended  back- 
ward, the  upper  ohe  drawn  farthest  out. 
The  head  and  neck  should  be  left  free. 


Fig.  283. 
The  position  of  the  confined  fowl  is  de- 
noted in  the  accompanying  cut.  Pluck 
the  feathers  from  a  spot  an  inch  and  a. 
half  in  diameter,  near  the  hip  joint,  and 
on  a  line  from  the  hip  to  the  shoulder 
joint.  Draw  the  skin  back,  so  that  when 
left  to  itself  again  it  will  cover  the  wound 
in  the  flesh  and  make  an  incision  between 
the  last  two  ribs,  commencing  an  inch 
from  the  back-bone  and  extending  obli- 
quely downward.  The  incision  should 
be  about  an  inch  long,  and  only  deep 
enough  to  separate  the  ribs,  not  wounding 
the  intestines.  The  proper  location  for 
the  incision  is  indicated  by  the  line 
through  the  circle  in  the  cut.  The  wound 
is  kept  open  by  a  spring  or  otherwise  for 
convenience  of  subsequent  operations. 
Cut  open  the  membrane  covering  the  in- 
testines, with  care,  pushing  them  with  the 
spoon  forward  toward  the  breast-bone 
first,  if  they  are  not  sufficiently  drawn  up. 
The  testicles  will  then  be  exposed  to  view. 
They  are  connected  with  the  back  and 
sides  by  cords  and  covered  with  a  thi» 


270 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


seized  with  the  forceps  or  nippers  and 
torn  open  with  the  hook,  commencing 
with  the  lower  or  left  testicle,  which  is 
generally  nearer  the  rump  than  the  right 
one.  Then  introduce  the  tube  containing 
the  silkworm  gut,  or  the  horse-hair,  with 
which  to  sever  the  connection  of  the 
testicle,  using  the  bowl  of  the  spoon  when 
horse-hair  is  employed  to  facilitate  the 
operation,  and  with  a  sawing  motion 
sever  the  chords.  A  similar  process  is 
repeated  with  the  right  testicle,  and  then 
both,  with  the  blood  around  the  wounds, 
are  to  be  removed  with  the  bowl  of  the 
spoon.  The  left  testicle  should  first  be 
removed  to  prevent  the  blood  which  may 
issue  from  it  from  covering  the  right  one 
and  rendering  the  operation  more  diffi- 
cult. After  the  operation  the  skin  must 
be  drawn  over  the  wound  and  a  few 
stitches  taken  in  it  with  fine  linen  thread, 
after  which  the  fowl  may  be  released. 

Caponizing  should  be  performed  during 
a  warm  spell,  and  as  soon  as  the  sex  of 
the  fowls  can  be  discerned,  and  should 
be  preceded  by  fasting  them  twenty- 
four  hours  and  followed  by  feeding  imme- 
diately after  the  operation,  and  during 
twenty-four  hours,  at  least,  on  soft  food. 
The  caponized  fowls  will  eagerly  partake 
of  food,  and  will  be  restored  to  health  in 
a  few  days  if  the  operation  has  been  care- 
fully performed.  In  making  poulardcs  it 
is  sufficient  merely  to  cut  across  the  egg- 
tube  with  a  sharp  knife. 

HENS,  To  Make  Lay.— The  best  food 
for  this  purpose,  fed  each  alternate  day,  is 
the  following:  to  3  gallons  of  boiling 
water,  add  ^  ounce  of  common  salt,  a 
teaspoonful  of  Cayenne  pepper,  and  4 
ounces  of  lard.  Stir  the  mixture  until 
the  pepper  has  imparted  considerable  of 
its  strength  to  the  water.  Meantime  the 
salt  will  have  dissolved  and  the  lard 
melted.  Then,  while  yet  boiling,  stir  in 
meal  made  of  oats  and  corn,  ground 
together  in  equal  parts,  until  a  stiff  mush 
is  formed.  Set  away  to  cool  down  to  a 
milk  warmth.  Before  feeding,  taste  to  see 
that  you  have  neither  an  overdose  of  salt 
or  pepper.  In  winter,  on  the  days  that 
the  above  mixture  is  omitted,  give  the 
hsns  fresh  meat,  chopped  fine,  and  at  all 
times  plenty  of  pure  water,  grain,  gravel 
and  lime. 

HENS,  Feeding  Nettles  to  Laying.— 
The    Vienna    Agricultural    and     Forest 


Journal  states  that  hens  fed  in  the  winter 
with  chopped  and  boiled  nettle  leaves,  or 
with  the  seeds,  and  kept  in  a  warm  place, 
will  continue  to  lay  during  the  entire 
winter.  The  experiment  was  first  sug- 
gested by  noticing  the  eagerness  with 
which  both  domestic  and  wild  fowl  de- 
vour the  nettle  leaves  and  seeds  whenever 
the  opportunity  is  afforded.  This  pro- 
clivity is  believed  to  be  the  reason  why, 
with  the  enormous  yield  of  seeds  by  the 
nettle,  comparatively  so  few  plants  are 
produced.  It  is  stated  also  that  in  Den- 
mark the  seeds  and  leaves  of  the  nettle 
are  fed  very  carefully  to  horses,  after 
having  been  collected,  dried  and  ground; 
three  times  a  week,  morning  and  even- 
ing, a  handful  of  this  nettle  dust  is  mixed 
with  the  oats,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  horses  are  said  to  become  fleshy  and 
sleek,  and  their  hair  to  grow  unusually 
long,  and  to  assume  a  silky  lustre,  re- 
markably beautiful. 

HENS,  Setting,  How  to  Prevent.- Put 
in  a  trough  sufficient  water  to  make  a 
depth  of  one  inch ;  place  the  hen  therein, 
and  cover  the  top  for  about  a  day.  The 
trough  should  be  deep  enough  to  allow 
the  hen  to  stand  up. 

HEN,  How  to  Choose  a  Good.— A  hen 
should  have  bright  eyes,  a  pendant  comb, 
yellow  or  bluish  legs,  be  of  middling  size, 
and  not  over  three  or  four  years  of  age. 

HENS'  NESTS,  Treatment  of.— These 
should  be  partly  filled  with  wood-ashes, 
pulverized  charcoal,  or  soot.  These  being 
slow  conductors  of  heat,  retain  the 
warmth  longer  than  many  substances, 
and  thus  prevent  the  eggs  from  getting 
chilled  during  the  absence  of  the  hen. 
They  are  also  an  antidote  to  vermin,  and 
keep  the  hen  otherwise  in  good  health. 

HEN  HOUSES.— If  you  wish  a  hen 
house  that  will  keep  your  fowls  safe  from 
their  foes,  winged  or  four-footed,  elevate 
it  on  posts  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet 
above  the  ground,  with  a  hole  under- 
neath through  the  floor,  for  them  to 
enter.  No  animal  will  jump  up  into  it, 
or  owl  or  hawk  find  the  way  into  it. 

HEN  BOOSTS,  To  Destroy  Vermin  in. 
Sprinkle  kerosene  on  the  roosts,  and  the 
vermin  will  suddenly  disappear.  Fumigate 
the  building  with  sulphur,  using  four  or 
five  pounds,  and  the  next  day  the  premises 
will  be  clear. 


POULTRY— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


271 


HENS,  How  to  Hake  Lay  in  Winter. 

Give  a  portion  of  minced  meat,  mixed 
with  their  other  food,  every  day,  or  as 
often  as  convenient,  and  see  that  they 
have  a  plenty  of  gravel,  old  plastering, 
or  powdered  egg-shells.  The  latter  may 
be  mixed  with  their  food.  Without  some 
substance  of  this  kind,  which  cannot  be 
obtained  when  the  ground  is  frozen  or 
covered  with  snow,  there  will  be  nothing 
to  form  the  shell. 

TURKEYS,  To  Rear.— Choose  a  quiet 
hen  for  a  sitter,  and  give  her  a  quiet  place 
for  her  nest  while  sitting.  This  is  im- 
portant. The  usual  number  of  eggs  that 
a  hen  will  cover  is  from  15  to  18;  while 
.sitting  the  hen  should  not  be  disturbed, 
and  should  not  be  taken  from  the  nest 
after  hatching  for  at  least  24  hours,  and 
if  she  appears  contented,  allow  her  to 
stay  longer.  The  young  chicks  gain 
strength  very  fast  by  being  kept  quiet  for 
a  day  or  two  at  first.  It  is  best  to  watch 
the  hatching  process,  and  if  a  chick  is 
not  likely  to  come  out  strong,  the  shell 
may  sometimes  be  broken,  and  the  chick 
saved.  After  the  hen  and  her  brood  is 
taken  from  the  nest,  give  her  a  large, 
airy  coop,  where  the  grass  is  closely 
mown  off,  where  the  chicks  can  bask  in 
the  sun  at  pleasure,  and  a  chance  to  run 
at  pleasure,  and  the  picking  up  of  bugs 
and  insects. 

The  feed  should  be  mostly  curd,  made 
from  sour  milk  heated,  and  the  whey 
drained  off  and  seasoned  with  pepper. 
After  a  few  days,  if  they  are  strong 
enough,  they  should  have  the  range  of 
the  farm  for  a  few  hours  a  day.  They 
should  be  housed  at  night,  and  not  let 
-out  in  the  morning  till  the  dew  is  off  the 
grass.  Then  by  liberal  feeding,  whenever 
they  come  near  their  roosting  quarters, 
they  will  be  healthy  and  grow  very  fast, 
especially  if  grasshoppers  are  plenty,  as 
they  are  some  years  in  most  sections  of 
the  country.  When  it  is  the  time  for  the 
fattening  seasons,  they  should  then  have 
all  the  good  food  they  can  eat,  of  a 
variety  such  as  corn,  buckwheat,  boiled 
potatoes,  chopped  cabbage,  etc.,  and  if 
kept  where  they  can  get  what  they  will 
-eat  when  they  want  it,  they  will  fatten 
very  fast. 

An  experienced  farmer  gives  his  ex- 
perience as  follows :  Let  the  mother  of 
the  new-born  brood  choose  her  own  time 


to  leave  the  nest.  Taking  off  is  always 
bad  policy.  As  soon  as  the  nest  is  left, 
make  a  yard,  twelve  feet  square,  by  set- 
ting boards  edgewise.  Remove  the  turkey 
and  her  brood  into  this  little  pen,  wherein 
they  should  be  kept  for  at  least  six  days, 
after  which  they  may  be  let  out  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  and  permitted  the 
range  of  an  acre;  but  they  must  always 
be  gathered  at  least  an  hour  before  sun- 
down into  the  pens  to  remain  until  the 
dew  is  off  the  next  morning,  and  all  the 
day,  if  there  is  the  least  appearance  of  a 
storm.  The  time  the  mother  leaves  the 
nest,  wash  the  naked  parts  of  her  body 
thoroughly  with  tobacco  juice,  to  kill  the 
inevitable  lice ;  and  at  the  same  time  dust 
thoroughly  the  young  with  some  vermin- 
destroying  powder.  No  one  thing  kills 
as  many  young  turkeys  as  these  parasites. 
As  a  preventive,  sulphur  and  snuff,  mixed 
in  equal  quantities,  and  dusted  on  the 
nest  after  the  turkey  has  been  sitting  two 
weeks,  is  recommended;  but  nothing 
should  prevent  the  Avashing  of  the 
mother,  or  the  dusting  of  the  young,  the 
day  the  mother  leaves  the  nest,  and  two 
days  after  the  young  have  left  the  shell. 
Young  turkeys  require  but  little  food,  but 
they  need  to  be  fed  as  often  as  once  an 
hour  for  the  first  week.  Coarse-ground 
Indian  meal,  mixed  with  sour  milk  curds, 
and  fine-chopped  hard  boiled  eggs,  is  the 
best  feed  for  the  first  month.  After  that, 
the  eggs  may  be  left  out,  the  meal  ground 
a  little  coarser,  and  the  curds,  if  you 
have  them,  used  in  larger  measure  than 
at  the  first.  As  soon  as  they  can  swallow 
whole  grain,  give  them  that,  and  then  all 
trouble  in  this  direction  is  at  an  end. 
Until  they  are  two  months  old,  they  must 
be  driven  to  some  shelter  every  night, 
and  never  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
fields  through  a  long  and  heavy  rain. 
Even  when  one-quarter  grown,  they  will 
die  from  exhaustion,  trying  to  follow  the 
vigorous  and  unreasoning  mother,  if  wet 
with  but  a  very  heavy  dew.  Three  rules, 
then,  must  be  observed,  if  those  who 
attempt  to  raise  turkeys  would  secure 
success :  First — Be  sure  to  free  both  old 
and  young  from  lice  immediately  upon 
the  old  ones  leaving  the  nest.  Second — 
Feed  frequently  at  the  beginning  with 
strengthening  food.  Third — Never  let 
the  young  turkeys  get  wet,  either  with 
dew  or  rain,  until  their  feathers  afford 


272 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


their  bodies,  if  not  complete,  at  least 
partial  protection. 

TURKEYS,  Charcoal  for.— A  recent 
experiment  has  been  tried  in  feeding 
charcoal  for  fattening  turkeys.  Two  lots 
of  four  each  were  treated  alike,  except 
for  one  lot  finely  pulverized  coal  was 
mixed  with  mashed  potatoes  and  meal, 
on  which  they  were  fed,  and  broken 
pieces  of  coal  also  plentifully  supplied. 
The  difference  in  weight  was  one  and  a 
half  pounds  each  in  favor  of  the  fowls 
supplied  with  coal,  and  the  flesh  was 
superior  in  tenderness  and  flavor.  This 
suggestion  is  well  worth  a  fair  trial  from 
those  engaged  in  turkey-raising. 

TURKEY  CHICKS,  Paste  for  Weak.— 
Eggs  boiled  hard,  nettles,  and  parsley,  all 
chopped  up,  and  moistened  with  wine 
and  water. 

TURKEY  CHICKS,  Chill  in.— Give 
ground  malt  and  barley  meal  in  equal 
quantities,  adding  a  little  powdered  cara- 
way or  coriander  seed. 

CHICKENS,  Management  of— After 
emerging  from  the  shell,  the  young  chick- 
en should  not  be  removed  from  under  the 
hen.  They  are  at  first  weakly  and  wet, 
but  in  a  few  hours  they  become  perfectly 
dry,  and  they  should  be  allowed  to  re- 
main under  the  hen  until  their  little  quaint 
heads  peep  from  under  the  feathers. 
Many  persons  imagine  that  the  chickens 
require  feeding  as  soon  as  hatched,  which 
is  an  error.  At  the  time  of  hatching,  the 
remains  of  the  yolk  are  drawn  into  the 
digestive  canal  of  the  chick,  and  this  is 
its  first  food.  This  will  last  them  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours,  and  then 
the  chicks  are  strong  and  active  on  the 
legs,  and  ready  to  eat  with  avidity.  As 
regards  the  first  food  for  the  chicks,  noth- 
ing approaches  in  value  to  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  grated  bread,  yolk  of  hard 
boiled  eggs,  and  oatmeal  slightly  mois- 
tened with  water.  This  is  the  best  food 
for  the  first  two  weeks,  then  gradually 
add  groats,  hemp  seed  and  green  food, 
such  as  cress,  lettuce,  cabbage,  and  leeks 
chopped  fine.  If  the  weather  is  cold  and 
wet,  add  a  little  powdered  pimento  to  the 
food  occasionally,  also  a  little  finely-cut 
mince  meat,  as  a  substitute  for  worms 
and  insects,  fresh  curd  and  hard-boiled 
eggs,  mashed  up  with  the  shells.  Feed 
the  chickens  early  in  the  morning,  and 
often  during  the  day,  giving  but  a  small 


quantity  at  a  time;  the  water  vessels 
should  be  shallow,  and  frequently  refill- 
ed, and  so  arranged  that  the  chickens  can- 
not get  into  them.  Throw  the  food  on 
the  ground  to  the  chickens,  they  will  then 
pick  up  gravel  with  it,  which  is  necessary 
for  the  digestion  of  their  food.  Both 
hen  and  chickens  must  be  carefully  and 
warmly  housed  at  night,  and  never  al- 
lowed out  until  the  dew  is  quite  off  the 
grass. 

Chickens,  Mites,  Remedy  for. — Take 
common  leaf  tobacco,  as  much  as  the 
user  may  think  necessary,  and  make  a 
strong  tea,  letting  it  boil  some  time  so  as 
to  get  all  the  strength  from  the  tobacco  ; 
then  sprinkle  the  tea  all  over  and  about, 
the  place  where  the  mites  are,  and  if  the 
first  application  is  not  sufficient,  use  in  the 
same  manner  a  second  time ;  but  the  first 
time  is  almost  always  effectual. 

CHICKEN  CHOLERA,  Remedy  for. — 

Good  rules  for  success  in  the  management 
of  fowls : 

1.  Good  dry  houses,  well  ventilated,, 
but  avoiding  drafts. 

2.  Keep  your  hen  houses  clean  and 
the  floor  covered  with  ashes. 

3.  Whitewash  inside  monthly  from 
March  1  to  October  1. 

4.  Feed  regularly,  but  never  over-feed; 
cease  feeding  when  the  fowls  cease  to 
run  for  it. 

5.  Scatter  the  food  on  the  ground 
when  the  weather  will  permit. 

6.  Feed  mixed  grain,  or  alternate,  as 
corn  one  day,  oats  next,  wheat  next,  etc 

7.  Allow  adult  fowls  freedom  as  early 
in  the  morning  as  they  desire. 

8.  Keep  hens  with  chicks  in  small 
coops  (well  covered  and  dry),  until  the 
chicks  are  three  weeks  old. 

9.  Feed  chicks  morning,  noon  and 
late  afternoon;  cooked  food  morning, 
and  grain,  as  broken  corn,  wheat,  etc.. 
noon  and  afternoon. 

10.  Mix  ground  black  pepper  with  the 
morning  food  for  chicks  twice  a  week, 
one  tablespoonful  of  pepper  for  every  20 
chicks. 

11.  Grease  the  hen  well  under  the 
wings,  breast,  and  fluff  feathers  as  soon 
as  the  chicks  are  taken  off,  with  ointment 
made  of  lard  and  carbolic  acid;  ten 
drops  of  acid  rto  two  tablespoonsful  of 
lard. 


POULTRY—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


»73 


CHICKENS,  CatB  Catching.— When  a 

cat  is  caught  in  the  act  of  catching  chick- 
ens you  can  cure  her  effectually  by  tying 
one  around  her  neck,  and  making  her 
wear  it  for  two  or  three  days.  She  will 
never  again  touch  a  chicken. 

CHICKEN  CHOLERA,  to  Cure.— The 
following  is  a  good  cure : 

Take  of  Alum 2  ounces. 

Resin 2      '* 

Copperas......... 2      " 

Lac  Sulphur.... 2      " 

Cayenne  Pepper 2      " 

Pulverize,  then  mix  three  table-spoonfulls  of 
the  powder  with  one  quart  corn  meal,  and  damp- 
en for  use. 

This  quantity  is  sufficient  for  twelve 
fowls,  and  may  be  used  either  as  a  pre- 
ventive or  cure.  For  the  first  it  should 
be  given  once  or  twice  a  week. 

DUCKS,  Convulsions. — Give  to  grown- 
up ducks  four  grains  of  pepper,  mixed 
with  fresh  butter. 

DUCKS,  to  Fatten.— Give  them  oats, 
meal  and  barley.  This  feed  puts  on  flesh 
rapidly.  Shut  your  ducks  up  in  a  good 
coop,  with  no  run-way.  They  must  have 
no  exercise,  for  that  gives  health,  not  fat. 
Feed  them  with  bran,  oats,  oat-meal  or 
barley-meal,  cooked;  put  in  a  shallow 
vessel ;  give  gravel  water,  cabbage  leaves 
or  a  sod  of  grass.  Some  feed  Indian 
meal,  and  proceed  with  the  cramming 
process;  but  this  is  unnecessary,  as  young 
ducks  will  eat  all  the  food  put  before 
them,  and  in  that  way  cram  themselves 
without  assistance.  Let  whatever  food 
you  give  them  be  cooked  and  fed  warm. 

EGOS,  SofUShell.— This  is  caused  from 
deficient  supply  of  lime  and  an  excess  of 
soft  and  animal  food.  Give  with  the  feed 
more  plaster,  pounded  oyster  shells,  grav- 
el, rubbish,  etc. 

EGGS,  Brooded,  Cooling  off — An  inqui- 
ry is  made  of  the  German  Poultry  Jour- 
nal whether  eggs  brooded  upon  and  al- 
lowed to  become  cold  can  be  hatched ; 
in  reply  to  which  it  is  stated  that,  from 
extensive  observation,  it  has  been  shown 
that  eggs  which  have  remained  cold  for 
two  days  or  more  may  even  then  be  suc- 
cessfully brooded,  and  that  the  nearer  to 
the  period  of  the  escape  of  the  young,  the 
longer  may  this  cooling  last.  It  is,  how- 
ever, necessary  that  at  least  half  of  the 
brooding  period  be  passed,  as,  if  eggs  are 
left  too  long  in  the  first  half  of  the  pe- 
riod, especially  if  this  is  repeated  many 
r8 


times,  the  embryo  will,  in  almost  every 
instance,  die.  In  the  second  half  of  the 
period  the  chick  is  already  so  far  formed 
that  a  prolonged  cooling  is  not  especially 
injurious  to  it.  It  is  also  established 
that  eggs  thus  cooled  require  a  longer- 
time  than  usual  to  come  to  maturity. 

EGGS,  to  Choose  for  Hatching. — In  our- 
experience  we  have  found  that  we  had 
the  best  success  by  using  eggs  of  a  fair 
average  size,  any  unusually  large  or  small 
ones  being  rejected.  Some  hens  lay  very 
large  eggs  and  others  very  small  ones.  A 
fat  hen  will  in  nearly  all  cases  be  found 
to  lay  small  eggs,  which  will  produce 
small  and  weakly  chickens. 

Absolute  size  in  eggs  is,  therefore,  of 
but  little  importance.  Round  short  eggs 
are  usually  the  best  to  select.  It  is  said 
that  very  large  eggs,  especially  if  much 
pointed  at  the  small  end,  are  sure  to  breed 
birds  with  awkwardness  in  style  of  car- 
riage. Rough-shelled  eggs  should  not. 
be  chosen,  as  they  usually  show  some  de- 
rangement of  the  organs,  and  are  often' 
sterile.  Smooth-shelled  eggs  alone  are- 
proper  for  hatching.  Those  who  have 
been  close  observers  of  the  fact  claim  that 
it  is  a  farce  to  suppose  that  the  sex  of  the 
bird  can  be  determined  by  the  shape  of 
the  egg. 

EGGS,  Sex  of. — We  have  heard  some 
parties  say  that  eggs  containing  the 
germs  of  males  can  be  told  by  having 
wrinkles  on  the  points  or  smaller  ends,, 
while  female  eggs  are  perfectly  smooth  at 
both  ends, 

GUINEA  FOWLS,— The  best  way  to  • 
raise  and  keep  this  fowl  is  to  procure 
some  eggs  of  a  good  stock,  hatch  them 
under  a  small  variety  of  fowl,  such  as 
game  foul  or  bantams ;  when  the  chick 
appears,  fkeep  them  under  cover  wheie 
they  can  have  plenty  of  air  and  dry  grav- 
el; feed  them  frequently — at  least  once 
in  every  three  hours.  Begin  by  giving, 
them  eggs  and  milk  made  into  rather  a. 
dry  custard ;  toward  the  end  of  the  first 
month  add  to  the  food  a  little  oat-meal 
mixed  with  milk,  and  as  they  grow  older  j 
give  them  boiled  vegetables,  small  wheat 
and  potatoes. 

GEESE,  to  Manage. — The  goose  lays 
from  ten  to  twenty  eggs  before  sitting,, 
and  when  she  is  well  fed  and  attended 
to  she  will  lay  and  hatch  three  times  in  a 
year.     She  begins  to^  lay  early  in  March,. 


274 


POULTRY— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


and  even  toward  the  end  of  February. 
The  period  of  laying  may  be  perceived  in 
the  circumstance  that  the  goose  at  that 
time  carries  about  straws  in  its  bill, 
prompted  by  the  development  of  the  ma- 
ternal instinct  to  prepare  a  nest.  When 
this  practice  is  observed  it  will  be  found 
prudent  to  confine  the  bird,  providng  her 
with  a  nest  for  laying  and  hatching  in, 
which  should  be  made  of  straw  lined 
with  hay,  and  so  formed  that  the  eggs 
will  not  readily  fall  out,  especially  when 
the  bird  turns  them.  Fifteen  eggs  will  be 
sufficient  to  place  under  even  a  large  bird. 
The  period  of  incubation  is  a  month,  but 
some  of  the  goslings  may  be  hatched  a 
day  or  two  before  this  time;  it  is  desira- 
ble, however,  that  all  the  young  birds  be 
hatched  about  the  same  time,  and  to  this 
end  as  much  care  as  is  practicable  should 
be  taken  to  have  all  the  eggs  equally 
fresh.  When  the  brood  are  hatched  they 
ought  to  be  turned  out  into  a  sunny 
place,  sheltered  alike  from  cold  winds 
and  bad  weather;  but  it  is  not  only  un- 
necessary, but  prejudicial,  to  feed  them 
for  twelve  hours  or  so.  Their  earliest 
food  ought  to  be  bread  soaked  in  milk, 
curds,  porridge,  boiled  greens,  boiled  po- 
tatoes mixed  with  bran;  and  such  food 
ought  to  be  given  them  at  a  moderate 
temperature,  so  as  to  avoid  the  entrance 
of  heat  or  cold,  and  for  a  couple  of  days 
at  least  after  being  hatched  the  goslings 
ought  not  to  be  allowed  access  to  cold 
water,  which  often  gives  them  cramp. 

As  a  general  rule,  geese  ought  to  be 
confined  as  little  as  possible.  If  they  are 
allowed  to  run  about  the  fields,  ditches 
and  streams  of  water,  they  will  forage  for 
themselves  very  successfully.  Grass  and 
water  are  essential  to  their  comfort  and 
well-being,  such  grass  especially  as  may 
be  found  on  damp  and  swampy  soil,  and 
which,  however  rank  or  coarse  it  may  be, 
is  well  adapted  to  them.  In  harvest  time 
the  stubble  fields  are  an  excellent  pas- 
turage for  them ;  they  can  there  pick  up 
no  small  supply  of  corn,  and  which  would 
otherwise  be  lost,  and  they  obtain  abund- 
ance of  young  grass  and  other  herbage. 
The  advantages  of  a  stubble  field,  how- 
ever, are  not  always  to  be  had,  but 
where  this  occurs  the  kitchen  garden  may 
be  made  available.    In  autumn  the  geese 


may  be  turned  into  it  without  the  danger 
of  their  doing  any  serious  damage;  but 
they  ought  to  be  fed  occasionally  on  boil- 
ed potatoes,  bruised  up  with  bran,  or  the 
result  of  their  foraging  for  themselves 
will  not  be  productive  of  any  advantage. 

Goslings  in  June  and  July  will  fatten 
without  any  food  beyond  what  they  can 
gather  for  themselves  in  the  stubble 
fields ;  but  if  it  be  necessary  to  hasten  the 
process  they  must  be  supplied  with  addi- 
tional nutriment  for  that  purpose,  such  as 
potatoes  and  turnips  bruised  with  meal, 
and  they  should  thus  be  fed  once  a  day. 
There  are  various  methods  of  fattening 
geese,  but  the  simplest  and  best  is  nutri- 
tive food,  and  in  abundance. 

GEESE,  Diseases  of. — "Prevention  is 
better  than  cure;"  so  says  the  proverb. 
Colds  and  fogs  are  extremely  against 
geese ;  therefore,  when  young,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  let  them  out  but  in  fair 
weather,  when  they  can  go  to  their  food 
without  a  leader. 

They  are  particularly  subject  to  two 
diseases;  the  first  a  looseness,  or  diar- 
rhoea, for  which  Main  recommends  hot 
wine,  in  which  the  parings  of  quinces, 
acorns,  or  juniper  berries  are  boiled.  The 
second  is  like  a  giddiness,  which  makes 
them  turn  round  for  some  time;  they 
then  fall  down  and  die,  if  they  are  not  re- 
lieved in  time.  The  remedy  recommend- 
ed by  Main,  is  to  bleed  the  bird  with  a 
pin  or  needle,  piercing  a  very  prominent 
vein  situated  under  the  skin  which  sepa- 
rates the  claws. 

Another  scourge  to  goslings  are  little 
insects  which  get  into  their  ears  and  nos- 
trils, which  fatigue  and  exhaust  them; 
they  then  walk  with  their  wings  hanging 
down,  and  shaking  their  head.  The  re- 
lief proposed  is  to  give  them,  on  their  re- 
turn from  the  fields,  some  corn  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  vessel  filled  with  clear  water; 
in  order  to  eat  it,  they  are  obliged  to 
plunge  their  heads  in  the  water,  which 
compels  the  insects  to  fly  and  leave  their 
prey. 

GEESE,  Glanders,  Roup  and  Gargle 
in. — A  saturated  solution  of  common 
salt;  medium  dose,  half  a  teaspoonful. 
Antimonial  powder,  one  grain,  with 
sopped  bread,  twice  a  day. 


DOGS    AND    THEIR    DISEASES. 


DOGS,  Distemper  in. — If  the  animal 
is  a  watch  dog  (such  are  usually  con- 
fined in  the  daytime),  the  person 
who  is  in  the  daily  habit  of  feeding 
him  will  first  observe  a  loss  of  appetite ; 
the  animal  will  appear  dull  and  lazy; 
shortly  after,  there  is  a  watery  discharge 
from  the  eyes  and  nose,  resembling  that 
which  accompanies  catarrh.  As  the  dfs- 
ease  advances,  general  debility  super- 
venes, accompanied  with  a  weakness  of 
the  hind  extremities.  The  secretions  are 
morbid;  for  example,  some  are  consti- 
pated, and  pass  high-colored  urine;  oth- 
ers are  suddenly  attacked  with  diarrhoea, 
scanty  urine,  and  vomiting.  Fits  are 
not  uncommon  during  the  progress  of 
the  disease. 

If  the  animal  is  supposed  to  have 
eaten  any  improper  food,  we  commence 
the  treatment  by  giving  an  emetic: 

Powdered  Lobelia,  (herb, ) . . I  teaspoonful. 

Warm  Water I  wine-glass. 

Mix,  and  administer  at  a  dose. 

(A  tablespoonful  of  common  salt  and 
water  will  generally  vomit  a  dog.) 

If  this  dose  does  not  provoke  emesis, 
it  should  not  be  repeated,  for  it  may  act 
as  a  relaxant,  and  carry  the  morbid  accu- 
mulations off  by  the  alimentary  canal.  If 
the  bowels  are  constipated,  use  injections 
of  soap-suds.  If  the  symptoms  are 
complicated,  the  following  medicines  must 
be  prepared : 

Powdered  Mandrake ...I  tablespoonful. 

Powdered  Sulphur I  teaspoonful. 

Powdered  Charcoal 2  teaspoonfuls. 

Powdered  Marshmallows .......  I  tablespoonful. 

Mix. 

Divide  the  mass  into  six  parts,  and  ad- 
minister one  in  honey,  night  and  morn- 
ing, for  the  first  day;  after  which,  a  single 
powder,  daily,  will  suffice.  The  diet  to 
consist  of  mush,  together  with  a  drink 
of  thin  arrowroot.  If,  however,  the  ani- 
mal be  in  a  state  of  plethora,  very  little 
food  should  be  given  him. 

If  the  strength  fails,  support  it  with 
beef  tea.     Should  a  diarrhoea  attend  the 


malady,  give  an  occasional  drink  of  hard- 
hack  tea. 

DOGS,  Fits. — Dogs  are  subject  to  epi- 
leptic fits,  which  are  often  attended  with 
convulsions.  They  attack  dogs  of  all 
ages,  and  under  every  variety  of  man- 
agement. Dogs  that  are  apparently 
healthy  are  often  suddenly  attacked.  The 
nervous  system  of  the  dog  is  very  sus- 
ceptible to  external  agents;  hence  what- 
ever raises  any  strong  passion  in  them 
often  produces  fits.  Pointers  and  setters 
have  often  been  known  to  suffer  an  attack 
during  the  excitement  of  the  chase.  Fear 
will  also  produce  fits ;  and  bitches,  while 
suckling,  if  burdened  with  a  number  of 
pups,  and  not  having  a  sufficiency  of  nu- 
triment to  support  the  lacteal  secretion, 
often  die  in  convulsive  fits.  Young 
puppies,  while  teething,  are  subject  to  fits : 
simply  scarifying  their  gums  will  generally 
give  temporary  relief.  Lastly,  fits  may 
be  hereditary,  or  they  may  be  caused  by 
derangement  of  the  stomach.  In  all 
cases  of  fits,  it  is  very  necessary,  in  order 
to  treat  them  with  success,  that  we  en- 
deavor, as  far  as  possible,  to  ascertain  the 
causes,  and  remove  them  as  far  as  lies  in 
our  power:  this  accomplished,  the  cure  is 
much  easier. 

Whenever  the  attack  is  sudden  and 
violent,  and  the  animal  is  in  good  flesh, 
plunge  him  into  a  tub  of  warm  water, 
and  give  an  injection  of  the  same,  to 
which  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  may  be  added. 
It  is  very  difficult,  in  fact  improper,  to 
give  medicine  during  the  fit ;  but  as  soon 
as  it  is  over  give 

Manna ...I  teaspoonful. 

Common  Salt half  a  teaspoonful. 

Add  a  small  quantity  of  water,  and-give  it  at  a 
dose. 

Another. — Make  an  infusion  of  mul- 
lein leaves,  and  give  to  the  amount  of  a 
wine-glass  every  four  hours.  With  a 
view  of  preventing  a  recurrence  of  fits, 
keep  the  animal  on  a  vegetable  diet.  If 
the  bowels  are  constipated,  give  thirty 
grains  of  extract  of  butternut,  or,  if  that 


(275) 


276 


DOGS— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


cannot  be  readily  procured,  substitute  an 
infusion  of  senna  and  manna,  to  which  a 
few  caraways  may  be  added. 

If  •  the  nervous  system  is  deranged, 
which  may  be  known  by  the  irritability 
attending  it,  then  give  a  teaspoonful  of 
the  powdered  nervine  (lady's  slipper). 
The  diet  must  consist  of  boiled  articles, 
and  the  animal  must  be  allowed  to  take 
exercise. 

DOGS,  Worms. — Worms  may  proceed 
from  various  causes ;  but  they  are  seldom 
found  in  healthy  dogs.  One  of  the  prin- 
cipal causes  is  debility  in  the  digestive 
organs. 

Indications  of  Cure. — To  tone  up 
the  stomach  and  other  organs — by  which 
means  the  food  is  prevented  from  running 
into  fermentation — and  administer  vermi- 
fuges.  The  following  are  good  examples: 

Oil  of  Wormseed I  teaspoonful. 

Powdered  Assaloetida 30  grains. 

To  be  given  every  morning,  fasting.  Two 
doses  will  generally  suffice. 

Another — 

Powdered   Mandrake ^  tablespoonful. 

"  Virginia  Snakeroot I  teaspoonful. 

Divide  into  four  doses,  and  give  one  every  night 
in  honey. 

Another — 

Make  an  infusion  of  the  sweet  fern  v  camptonea 
asplenifolia,)  and  give  an  occasional  drink,  fol- 
lowed by  an  injection  of  the  same. 

Another  — 

Powdered  Golden  Seal yz  tablespoonful. 

Common  Brown  Soap 1  ounce. 

Rub  them  well  together  in  a  mortar,  and  form 
the  mass  into  pills  about  the  size  of  a  hazle-nut, 
and  give  one  every  night. 

DOGS,  Mange. — This  disease  is  too  well 
known  to  need  any  description.     The  fol- 
lowing are  deemed  the  best  cures : 
External  Application  for  Mange. 

Powdered  Charcoal yz  tablespoonful. 

"        Sulphur I  ounce. 

Soft  Soap  sufficient  to  form  an  ointment. 

To  be  applied  externally  for  three  suc- 
cessive days;  at  the  end  of  which  time, 
the  animal  is  to  be  washed  with  castile 
soap  and  warm  water,  and  afterwards 
wiped  dry. 

The  internal  remedies  consist  of  equal 
parts  of  sulphur  and  cream  of  tartar,  half 
a  teaspoonful  of  which  may  be  given 
daily,  in  honey. 

When  the  disease  becomes  obstinate, 
and  large,  scabby  eruptions  appear  on  va- 
rious parts  of  the  body,  take 

Pyroligneous  Acid 2  ounces. 

Water I  pint. 

Wash  the  parts  daily,  and  keep  the  animal  on  a 
lifcht  diet. 


DOGS,  Ear,  Internal  Abscess  of  the. — 
In  this  complaint,  the  affeeted  side  is 
generally  turned  downwards,  and  the  do  - 
is  continually  shaking  his  head. 

In  the  early  stages,  foment  the  part 
twice  a  day  with  an  infusion  of  marsh- 
mallows.  As  soon  as  the  abscess  breaks,, 
wash  with  an  infusion  of  raspberry  leaves, 
and  if  a  watery  discharge  continues,  wash 
with  an  infusion  of  white-oak  bark. 

DOGS,  Ear,  Ulceration  ef  the.— Exter- 
nal ulcerations  should  be  washed  twice  a 
day  with 

Pyroligneous  Acid..... .........2  ounces. 

Water 8      " 

Mix.  As  soon  as  the  ulcerations  assume  a 
healthy  appearance  touch  them  with  Turlington's 
balsam  or  tincture  of  gum  catechu. 

DOGS,  Bowels,  Inflammation  of  the. — 

Whenever  inflammation  of  the  bowels 
makes  its  appearance  it  is  a  sure  sign  that 
there  is  a  loss  of  equilibrium  in  the  circu- 
lation ;  and  this  disturbance  may  arise 
from  a  collapse  of  the  external  surface,  or 
from  irritation  produced  by  hardened  ex- 
crement on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
intestines.  An  attack  is  recognized  by 
acute  pain  in  the  abdominal  region.  The 
dog  gives  signs,  of  suffering  when  moved, 
and  the  bowels  are  generally  constipated. 
Endeavor  to  equalize  the  circulation  by 
putting  the  animal  into  a  warm  bath,, 
where  he  should  remain  about  five  min- 
utes. When  taken  out,  the  surface  must 
be  rubbed  dry.  Then  give  the  following 
injection : 

Linseed  Oil 4  ounces. 

Warm  Water .1  gill. 

Mix. 

To  allay  the  irritation  01  the  bowels, 
give  the  following : 

Powdered  Pleurisy  Root I  teaspoonful. 

"        Marshmallow  Root I  tablespoonful. 

Mix  and  divide  into  three  parts;  one  to  be 
given  every  four  hours. 

Should  vomiting  be  a  predominant 
symptom,  a  small  quantity  of  saleratus, 
dissolved  in  spearmint  tea,  may  be  given. 

Should  not  this  treatment  give  relief,, 
make  a  fomentation  of  hops  and  apply  it 
to  the  belly ;:  and  give  half  an  ounce  of 
manna.  The  only  articles  of  food  and 
drink  should  consist  of  barley  gruel  and 
mush..  If,  however,  the  dog  betrays  great, 
heat,  thirst,  panting  and  restlessness,  a 
small  quantity  of  cream  tartar  may  be 
added  to  the  barley  gruel.  The  bath  and! 
clysters  may  be  repeated,  if  necessary. 


DOGS—CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


277 


DOGS,  Asthma  in. — Dogs  that  are  shut 
up  in  damp  cellars,  and  deprived  of  pure 
air  and  excercise,  are  frequently  attacked 
with  asthma.  Old  dogs  are  more  liable 
to  asthma  than  young  ones. 

Treatment.  —  Endeavor  to  ascertain 
the  cause,  and  remove  it.  Let  the  ani- 
mal take  exercise  in  the  open  air.  The 
diet  to  consist  of  cooked  vegetables;  a 
small  quantity  of  boiled  meat  may  be 
allowed;  raw  meat  should  not  be  given. 

Powdered  bloodroot. 1  teaspoonfuul. 

"         lobelia " 

"        marshmallOws I  ** 

"        licorice I  " 

Mix.  Divide  into  twelve  parts,  and  give  one 
night  and  morning.  If  they  produce  retching,  re- 
duce the  quantity  of  lobelia.  The  object  is  not  to 
vomit,  but  to  induce  a  state  of  nausea  or  relaxation. 

DOGS,  Piles  in.  —  Piles  are  generally 
brought  on  by  confinement,  over-feeding, 
etc.,  and  show  themselves  by  a  red,  sore, 
and  protruded  rectum.  Dogs  subject  to 
constipation  are  most  likely  to  be  at- 
tacked. 

Treatment.  —  Give  the  animal  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  sulphur  for  two  or  three 
mornings,  and  wash  the  parts  with  an  in- 
fusion of  white  oak  bark.  If  they  are 
very  painful,  wash  two  or  three  times  a 
day  with  an  infusion  of  hops,  and  keep 
the  animal  on  a  light  diet. 

DOGS,  Dropsy  in. — Dropsy  is  generally 
preceded  by  loss  of  appetite,  cough,  dim- 
inution of  natural  discharge  of  urine,  and 
costiveness.  The  abdomen  shortly  after- 
ward begins  to  enlarge. 

Treatment.  —  It  is  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  evacuate  the  fluid  by  puncturing 
the  abdomen ;  but  this  will  seldom  avail 
much,,  unless  the  general  health  is  im- 
proved, and  the  suppressed  secretions 
restored.  The  following  is  the  best  rem- 
edy we  know  of: 

Powdered  flagroot %  ounce. 

"  male  fern }£       " 

Scraped  horseradish .....I  teaspoonful. 

Mix.  Divide  into  eight  parts,  and  give  one 
night  and  morning.  Good  nutritious  diet  must 
be  allowed. 

DOGS,  Sore  Throat  in.  —  A  strong  de- 
coction of  mullein  leaves  applied  to  a  sore 
throat  will  seldom  fail  in  curing  it. 

DOGS,  Sore  Ears  in. — A  dog's  ears  may 
become  sore  and  scabby  from  being  torn 
or  otherwise  injured.  In  such  cases  they 
should  be  anointed  with  marshmallow 
ointment.  , 

DOGS,  Sore  Feet  in.  —  If  the  feet  be- 


come sore  from  any  disease  between  the 
claws,  apply  a  poultice  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  marshmallows  and  charcoal ;  after 
which  the  following  wash  will  complete 
the  cure : 

Pyroligneous  acid 1  ounce. 

Water ...6       " 

Mix,  and  wash  with  a  sponge  twice  a  day. 

DOGS,  Wounds  in.  —  Turlington's  Bal- 
sam is  the  best  application  for  wounds. 
Should  a  dog  be  bitten  by  one  that  is 
mad,  give  him  a  teaspoonful  of  lobelia  in 
warm  water,  and  bind  some  of  the  same 
article  on  the  wound. 

DOGS,  Sprains  in. — For  sprains  of  any 
part  of  the  muscular  structure,  use  one  of 
the  following  prescriptions : 

Oil  of  wormwood I  ounce. 

Tincture  of  lobelia 2       " 

Infusion  of  hops I    quart. 

Mix.     Bathe  the  part  twice  a  day. 

Another — 

Wormwood I  handful. 

Thoroughwort .. .... ......I         " 

New  England  rum I  quart. 

Set  them  in  a  warm  place  for  a  few  hours,  then 
bathe  the  part  with  the  liquid,  and  bind  some  of 
the  herb  on  the  part  if  practicable. 

DOGS,  Scalds  in.  —  If  a  dog  be  acci- 
dentally scalded,  apply,  with  as  little  de- 
lay as  possible, 

Lime  water equal  parts. 

Linseed  oil..........  .... " 

DOGS,  Ophthalmia  in.  —  Ophthalmii  is 
supposed  to  be  contagious;  yet  a  mild 
form  may  result  from  external  injury,  as 
blows,  bruises,  or  extraneous  bodies  in- 
troduced under  the  eyelid.  The  eye  is 
such  a  delicate  and  tender  organ  that  the 
smallest  particle  of  any  foreign  body 
lodging  on  its  surface  will  cause  great 
pain  and  swelling. 

Treatment. — Take  a  teaspoonful  of 
finely-pulverized  marshmallow  root,  add 
sufficient  hot  water  to  make  a  thin  muci- 
lage, and  with  this  wash  the  eye  fre- 
cpiently.  Keep  the  animal  in  a  dark 
place  on  a  light  diet ;  and  if  the  eyes  are 
very  red  and  tender,  give  a  pill  composed 
of  twenty-nine  grains  extract  of  butternut 
and  ten  grains  cream  of  tartar. 

If  a  purulent  discharge  sets  in,  bathe 
the  eye  with  infusion  of  camomile  or  red 
rose  leaves,  and  give  the  following : 

Powdered  pleurisy  root equal  parts. 

"         bloodroot " 

"        sulphur " 

Dose,  half  a  tablespoonful  daily.  To  be  given 
in  honey.  When  the  eyelids  adhere  together, 
wash  with  warm  milk. 


278 


DOGS— DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


DOGS,  Weak  Eyes  in.  —  It  often  hap- 
pens that  after  an  acute  attack  the  eyes 
are  left  in  a  weak  state,  when  there  is  a 
copious  secretion  of  fluid  continually  run- 
ning from  them.  In  such  cases  the  eyes 
may  be  washed,  night  and  morning,  with 
pure  cold  water,  and  the  general  health 
must  be  improved.  For  the  latter  pur- 
pose, the  following  preparation  is  recom- 
mended :   • 

Manna ...I  ounce. 

Powdered  gentian ....I    teaspoonful. 

"         mandrake %  "t 

Rub  them  together  in  a  mortar,  and  give  a  pill, 
about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  every  night.  If  the 
manna  is  dry,  a  little  honey  will  be  necessary  to 
amalgamate  the  mass. 

DOGS,  Fleas  and  Vermin  in.  —  Eleas 
and  vermin  are  very  troublesome  to  dogs; 
yet  they  may  easily  be  got  rid  of  by 
bathing  the  dog  with  an  infusion  of  lobelia 
for  two  successive  mornings,  and  after- 
ward washing  with  water  and  castile 
soap. 

DOGS,  Hydrophobia  in.  —  Whenever 
one  is  bitten  by  another,  and  the  latter  is 
supposed  to  labor  under  this  dreadful 
malady,  immediate  steps  should  be  taken 
to  arrest  it;  for  a  dog  once  bitten  by 
another,  whatever  may  be  the  stage  or 
intensity  of  the  disease,  is  never  safe. 
The  disease  may  appear  in  a  few  days ; 
in  some  instances  it  is  prolonged  for  eight 
months. 

Symptoms.  —  Mr.  Lawson  tells  us  that 
"  the  first  symptom  appears  to  be  a  slight 
failure  of  the  appetite,  and  a  disposition 
to  quarrel  with  other  dogs.  A  total  loss 
.of  appetite  generally  succeeds.  A  mad 
dog  will  not  cry  out  on  being  struck,  or 
show  any  sign  of  fear  on  being  threatened. 
In  the  height  of  the  disorder,  he  will  bite 
all  other  dogs,  animals  or  men.     When 


not  provoked,  he  usually  attacks  only  such 
as  come  in  his  way;  but,  having  no  fear, 
it  is  very  dangerous  to  strike  or  provoke 
him.  The  eyes  of  mad  dogs  do  not  look 
red  or  fierce,  but  dull,  and  have  a  pecu- 
liar appearance  not  easy  to  describe.  Mad 
dogs  seldom  bark,  but  occasionally  utter 
a  most  dismal  and  plaintive  howl,  ex- 
pressive of  extreme  distress,  and  which 
they  who  have  once  heard  can  never  for- 
get. They  do  not  froth  at  the  mouth, 
but  their  lips  and  tongue  appear  dry  and 
foul,  or  slimy.  They  cannot  swallow 
water."  Mr.  Lawson,  and,  indeed,  many 
veterinary  practitioners,  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  all  remedies  are  fal- 
lacious. 

Treatment.  —  Let  the  suspected  dog 
be  confined  by  himself,  so  that  he  cannot 
do  injury.  Then  take  two  ounces  of 
lobelia,  and  once  ounce  of  sulphur,  place 
them  in  a  common  wash  tub,  and  add 
several  gallons  of  boiling  water.  As  soon 
as  it  is  sufficiently  cool,  plunge  the  dog 
into  it,  and  let  him  remain  in  it  several 
minutes.  Then  give  an  infusion  of  either 
of  the  following  articles  :  Yellow  broom, 
plantain,  or  Greek  valerian,  one  ounce  of 
herb  to  a  pint  of  water.  An  occasional 
teaspoonful  of  the  powdered  plantain  may 
be  allowed  with  the  food,  which  must  be 
entirely  vegetable.  If  the  dog  has  been 
bitten,  wash  the  part  with  a  strong  infu- 
sion of  lobelia,  and  bind  some  of  the  herb 
on  the  part.  The  treatment  should  be 
continued  for  several  days,  or  until  the 
animal  recovers,  and  all  danger  is  past. 

DOGS,  Bladder,  Inflammation  of  the. 
— See  Dogs  Inflammation  of  the 
Bowels. 

DOGS,  Mad.  —  See  Dogs,  Hydro- 
phobia IN. 


Curing,  Storing  and  Preserving. 


APPLES,  to  Keep — The  following  is  a 
good  plan :  The  apples  should  be  placed 
in  glazed  earthen  vessels,  each  containing 
about  a  gallon,  and  surrounding  the  fruit 
with  paper.  The  vessels  being  perfect 
cylinders,  about  a  foot  each  in  height, 
stand  very  conveniently  upon  each  other, 
and  thus  present  the  means  of  preserving 
a  large  quantity  of  fruit  in  a  very  small 
room.  If  the  space  between  the  top  of 
one  vessel  and  the  base  of  another  be 
filled  with  cement,  composed  of  two 
parts  of  the  curd  of  skimmed  milk  and 
one  of  lime,  by  which  the  air  will  be  ex- 
cluded, the  latter  kind  of  apples  will  be 
preserved  with  little  change  in  their  ap- 
pearance from  October  to  March.  A 
dry  and  cold  place  in  which  there  is  little 
change  of  temperature  is  the  best. 

APPLES,  to  Dry.— The  most  general 
method  adopted  in  drying  apples  is,  after 
they  are  pared,  to  cut  them  in  slices,  and 
spread  them  on  cloths,  tables  or  boards, 
and  then  dry  them  out-doors.  In  clear 
and  dry  weather  this  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
expeditious  and  best  way ;  but  in  cloudy 
and  stormy  weather  this  way  is  attended 
with  much  inconvenience,  and  sometimes 
loss,  in  consequence  of  the  apples  rotting 
before  they  dry.  To  some  extent  they 
may  be  dried  in  this  way  in  the  house, 
though  this  is  attended  with  much  incon- 
venience. The  best  method  that  we  have 
ever  used  to  dry  apples  is  to  use  frames. 
These  combine  the  most  advantages  with 
the  least  inconvenience  of  any  way,  and 
can  be  used  with  equal  advantage  either 
in  drying  in  the  house  or  out  in  the  sun. 
In  pleasant  weather,  the  frames  can  be  set 
out-doors  against  the  side  of  the  building, 
or  any  other  support,  and  at  night,  or  in 
cloudy  and  stormy  days,  they  can  be 
brought  into  the  house,  and  set  against 
the  side  of  the  room  near  the  stove  or 
fire-place.     Frames  are  made  in  the  fol- 


lowing manner:  Two  strips  of  board,  7 
feet  long,  2  or  2*4  inches  wide — two 
strips  3  feet  long,  i*4  inches  wide,  the 
whole  2^  °f  an  incn  thick — nail  the  snort 
strips  across  the  ends  of  the  long  ones, 
and  it  makes  a  frame  7  by  3  feet,  which 
is  a  convenient  size  for  all  purposes.  On 
one  of  the  long  strips  nails  are  driven  3 
inches  apart,  extending  from  the  top  to 
the  bottom.  After  the  apples  are  pared 
they  are  quartered  and  cored,  and  with  a 
needle  and  twine,  or  stout  thread  strung 
into  lengths  long  enough  to  reach  twice 
across  the  frame ;  the  ends  of  the  twine 
aie  then  tied  together,  and  the  strings 
hung  on  the  nails  across  the  frame.  The 
apples  will  soon  dry  so  that  the  strings  can 
be  doubled  on  the  nails,  and  fresh  ones 
put  on  or  the  whole  of  them  removed, 
and  others  put  in  their  place.  As  fast  as- 
the  apples  become  sufficiently  dry,  they 
can  be  taken  from  the  strings,  and  the 
same  strings  used  to  dry  more  on.  If 
large  apples  are  used  to  dry,  they  can  be 
cut  in  smaller  pieces.  Pears  and  quinces, 
and  other  fruits  that  can  be  strung,  may 
be  dried  in  this  way. 

APPLES,  to  Pack  in  Barrels. — When 
the  farmers  find  out  that  the  manner  of 
packing  apples  in  barrels  greatly  influ- 
ences the  price  of  the  same,  they  will 
take  more  care  than  they  usually  do.  A 
neatly  packed  barrel  will  bring  from  one 
to  two  dollars  more  than  one  that  the  ap- 
ples are  thrown  in  without  any  effort  to 
make  a  good  show.  When  you  begin  to 
pack  the  barrel  turn  it  upside  down,  the 
head  resting  on  the  ground  or  floor,  then 
take  the  bottom  out,  leaving  the  head  in. 
Then  choose  about  a  peck  of  your  pret- 
tiest and  finest  apples :  wipe  them  clean, 
being  certain  that  there  are  no  spots  on 
them,  or  in  any  other  manner  disfigured ; 
then  place  them  in  the  barrel  with  their 
stems  down,  first  placing  them  around  the 


(279) 


28o 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


rim  of  the  barrel,  entirely  round  the  same, 
after  which  make  another  ring,  until  the 
whole  is  covered.  Then  throw  in  your 
apples,  and  when  your  barrel  is  full, 
press  them  down  and  put  in  the  bottom, 
after  which  turn  them  head  upwards. 
When  the  barrel  is  opened  from  the  top, 
your  apples  will  be  found  in  good  con- 
dition, even  and  nicely  packed. 

APPLE  BUTTER.— Select  two  bushels 
of  sour  apples,  and  peel,  core  and  quar- 
ter them.  Take  a  barrel  of  good,  sweet 
apple  cider,  and  boil  it  in  a  copper  kettle 
until  all  the  impurities  have  risen  to  the 
surface.  After  this  is  done,  and  the  im- 
purities skimmed  off,  take  out  two-thirds 
of  the  cider.  Then  put  in  the  apples, 
and  as  the  quantity  boils  down  put  in  the 
rest  of  the  cider.  After  putting  in  the 
apples  the  butter  must  be  stirred  without 
interruption  until  it  is  taken  off.  It  will 
take  about  five  hours  boiling  after  the  ap- 
ples are  put  into  the  cider.  It  should  be 
boiled  until  the  whole  mass  becomes 
smooth  and  of  the  same  consistency,  and 
•of  a  dark  brown  color.  Spice  with  ground 
•cloves  and  cinnamon  to  taste.  The  but- 
ter can  then  be  taken  off  and  put  into 
vessels  for  use.  Earthen  crocks  are  best 
for  this  purpose.  Tie  the  vessels  over 
with  heavy  paper  and  set  them  away  in  a 
•dry  place.  The  butter  will  keep  a  year 
if  wanted. 

BEANS,  To  Keep  Fresh  for  Winter.— 
Procure  a  wide-mouthed  stone  jar,  lay  on 
the  bottom  of  it  some  freshly-pulled 
French  beans,  and  over  them  put  a  layer 
of  salt;  fill  the  jar  up  in  this  manner  with 
alternate  layers  of  beans  and  salt.  The 
beans  need  not  all  be  put  in  at  the  same 
time,  but  they  are  better  if  the  salt  be 
put  on  while  they  are  quite  fresh.  They 
will  keep  good  all  through  the  winter. 
When  going  to  use  them,  steep  for  some 
hours  in  fresh  cold  water. 

BEANS,  String,  Dried.— Dried  string 
beans  are  very  excellent  in  winter.  Cut 
the  beans  up  in  the  usual  lengths,  dry 
them,  put  them  in  a  bag.  In  winter, 
soak  them  and  cook  them  in  the  usual 
way. 

BEEF,  Pickled.— Rub  each  piece  of 
beef  very  lightly  with  salt;  let  them  lie 
singly  on  a  tray  or  board  for  twenty-four 
hours,  then  wipe  them  very  dry.  Pack 
them  closely  in  a  tub,  taking  care  that  it 
is  perfectly  sweet  and  clean.     Have  the 


pickle  ready,  made  thus :  Boil  four  gal- 
lons of  soft  water  with  ten  pounds  of 
coarse  salt,  four  ounces  of  saltpetre,  and 
two  pounds  of  coarse  brown  sugar ;  let  it 
boil  fifteen  minutes,  and  skim  it  while 
boiling  very  clean.  When  perfectly  cold 
pour  it  on  the  beef,  laying  a  weight  on 
the  top  to  keep  the  meat  under  the  pickle. 
This  quantity  is  sufficient  for  ioo  pounds 
of  beef  if  closely  packed. 

BUTTER,  To  Preserve. —  i.  The  best 
method  to  preserve  butter  from  the  air  is 
to  fill  the  pot  to  within  an  inch  of  the 
top,  and  to  lay  on  it  common  coarse- 
grained salt,  to  the  depth  of  one-half  an 
inch  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  then 
to  cover  the  pot  up  with  any  flat  arti- 
cle that  may  be  convenient.  The  salt 
by  long  keeping  will  run  to  brine,  and 
form  a  layer  on  the  top  of  the  butter, 
which  will  effectually  keep  out  the  air, 
and  may  at  any  time  be  very  easily  re- 
moved by  turning  the  pot  on  one  side. 

2.  Fresh  butter,  sixteen  pounds ;  salt, 
one  pound. 

3.  Fresh  butter,  eighteen  pounds ;  salt, 
one  pound ;  saltpetre,  one  and  one-fourth 
ounces ;  honey  or  fine  brown  sugar,  two 
ounces. 

APPLE  BUTTER,  Pennsylvania,  to 
Make. — Let  three  bushels  of  fair  sweet 
apples  be  pared,  quartered,  and  the  cores 
removed.  Meanwhile  let  two  barrels  of 
new  cider  be  boiled  down  to  one-half. 
When  this  is  done,  commit  the  prepared 
apples  to  the  cider,  and  let  the  boiling  go 
on  briskly  and  systematically,  stirring  the 
contents  without  cessation,  that  they  do 
not  become  attached  to  the  side  of  the 
kettle  and  be  burned.  Let  the  stirring  go 
on  till  the  amalgamated  cider  and  ap- 
ples become  as  thick  as  hasty-pudding, 
then  throw  in  pulverized  allspice,  when 
it  may  be  considered  as  finished,  and 
committed  to  pots  for  future  use. 

BUTTER,  Packing  and  Preserving. — 
Packing  butter  that  is  gathered  up  at 
country  stores  is  a  nice  operation,  and 
needs  to  be  carefully  performed.  As  it 
is  of  all  shades  of  color,  from  white  to 
pale  yellow  generally,  a  coloring  may 
be  prepared  by  melting  some  of  the  but- 
ter and  dissolving  in  it  the  prepared  anr 
natto,  which  may  be  procured  at  any 
drug  store.  This  should  be  kept  for  use 
as  it  is  wanted.  To  use  it,  take  a  quan- 
tity of  the   butter  to  be  colored  in  the 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       281 


mixing-bowl,  cut  it  into  gashes  with  the 
butter  ladle  (don't  touch  it  with  the 
hands),  place  a  small  portion  of  the  col- 
oring preparation  in  each  of  these  gashes, 
and  mix  until  the  color  is  evenly  spread 
and  no  streaks  are  to  be  seen.  Then 
gash  it  once  more  with  the  ladle,  sprin- 
kle one  ounce  of  salt  to  the  pound  of 
butter,  and  leave  it  twenty-four  hours. 
Then  pour  off  any  water  collected  on  it, 
and  pack  it  in  a  new  oak  tub  that  has 
been  soaked  with  brine  for  a  day  and 
night.  Water  should  never  be  used  for 
working  butter  at  any  time. 

BIRDS,  To  Preserve.— Birds  may  be 
preserved  in  a  fresh  state  for  some  time 
by  removing  the  intestines,  wiping  the 
inside  out  quite  dry  with  a  towel,  and 
then  flouring  them.  A  piece  of  blotting 
paper,  on  which  one.  or  two  drops  of 
creosote  have  been  placed,  is  now  to  be 
put  inside  them,  and  a  similarly  prepared 
piece  of  paper  tied  around  them.  They 
should  then  be  hung  up  in  a  cool  dry 
place,  and  will  be  found  to  keep  much 
longer  than  without  undergoing  this  pro- 
cess. 

CABBAGE,  To  Keep.— Gather  them  be- 
fore the  severe  fall  frosts.  Let  the  coarse 
outside  leaves  remain  on  them.  Fix  a 
strong  string  around  the  stalk,  and  sus- 
pend the  cabbage  from  the  timbers  of  the 
ceiling,  heads  downward.  The  cellar 
should  be  cool  and  dry.  This  will  pre- 
serve them  with  a  certainty. 

Another  good  method  is  to  cut  the  cab- 
bage from  the  stump,  pack  close  in  a 
cask,  taking  care  to  fill  up  all  the  va- 
cancies with  dry  chaff,  or  bran,  and  keep 
in  a  dry  cellar. 

CAULIFLOWER,  To  Keep.- -They  can 
be  kept  in  a  cellar  by  covering  the  roots 
and  stalks  with  earth,  till  February.  Or 
they  may  be  placed  in  a  trench  in  the 
garden,  roots  down,  and  covered  with 
earth,  up  close  to  the  heads ;  and  then 
cover  with  hay,  or  straw,  four  or  five 
inches  thick,  placing  just  enough  soil  on 
the  straw  to  keep  it  in  its  position.  This 
method  does  well  in  the  latitude  of  New 
York;  but  in  colder  climates  a  thicker 
covering  would  be  required. 

CELERY,  To  Keep.— This  may  be  kept 
in  good  condition  through  the  winter  in  a 
cool,  dry  cellar,  by  having  it  set  in  earth. 
When  a  small  quantity  only  is  wanted, 
take   a  box   and  stand    the    celery    up 


in  it,  placing  a  little  earth  about  the 
roots.  The  farmers  who  raise  quantities 
of  it  often  keep  it  in  their  old  hot-beds, 
standing  it  up,  and  protecting  it  from 
frost.  There  is  no  vegetable  more  rel- 
ished than  this,  and  every  person  who 
has  a  garden  should  raise  enough  for  his 
own  use,  if  no  more. 

CIDER,  How  to  Keep  Sweet. — Use  on- 
ly sound  apples.  Make  the  cider  when 
the  weather  is  almost  cold  enough  to 
freeze  the  apples.  Expose  the  cider 
during  freezing  weather,  and  stir  it  till 
the  whole  of  it  is  reduced  as  near  the 
freezing  point  as  possible  without  freez- 
ing. Then  barrel  it,  bung  up  tight,  and 
place  it  in  a  cellar  kept  nearly  down  to 
the  freezing  point.  As  long  as  you  can 
keep  it  cold  enough  it  will  not  ferment, 
and  as  long  as  it  does  not  ferment  it  will 
remain  sweet. 

CHERRIES,  Dried.— Take  the  stems 
and  stones  from  ripe  cherries ;  spread 
them  on  flat  dishes,  and  dry  them  in  the 
hot  sun  or  warm  oven ;  pour  whatever 
juice  may  have  run  from  them,  a  little  at 
a  time,  over  them ;  stir  them  about,  that 
they  may  dry  evenly.  When  they  are 
perfectly  dry,  line  boxes  or  jars  with 
white  paper,  and  pack  them  close  in  lay- 
ers ;  strew  a  little  brown  sugar,  and  fold 
the  paper  over,  and  keep  them  in  a  dry 
place ;  or  put  them  in  muslin  bags,  and 
hang  them  in  an  airy  place. 

EGGS,  Storing.— Wright's  illustrated 
Book  of  Poultry  says  that  a  systematic 
trial  for  two  seasons  has  shown  that,  for 
purposes  of  long  keeping  for  eating  or 
breeding,  eggs  should  be  packed  with 
the  large  end  downward,  instead  of  plac- 
ing them  on  the  small  end,  as  is  common- 
ly done.  The  longer  the  eggs  are  kept 
the  greater  difference  will  be  found  in  the 
results  of  the  two  methods.  Experiment 
has  proved  that  eggs  placed  as  recom- 
mended may  be  set  and  successfully 
hatched,  with  remarkable  uniformity,  at 
ages  which  with  the  usual  method  of  stor- 
ing would  render  success  almost  hopeless. 
The  practical  philosophy  of  the  case  is 
alleged  to  consist  in  delaying  the  spread 
of  the  air-bubble  and  its  detachment 
from  the  membranous  lining  of  the  egg, 
thus  retarding  alterations  destructive  to 
vitality. 

EGGS,  to  Dry. — The  eggs  are  beaten  to 
uniform  consistency,  and  spread  out  in 


2«2 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


thin  cakes  on  batter  plates.  This  dries 
them  into  a  paste,  which  is  to  be  packed 
in  close  cans  and  sealed.  When  required 
for  use,  the  paste  can  be  dissolved  in 
water  and  beaten  to  a  foam  like  fresh 
eggs.  It  is  said  that  eggs  can  be  pre- 
served for  years  in  this  way,  and  retain 
their  flavor. 

EGGS,  Pickled.— The  jar  to  be  of  mod- 
erate size — wide-mouthed  earthen  jar, 
sufficient  to  hold  one  dozen  eggs ;  let  the 
latter  be  boiled  quite  hard;  when  fully 
done,  place  the  same,  after  taking  them 
up,  into  a  pan  of  cold  water.  Remove 
the  shells  from  them  and  deposit  them 
carefully  in  the  jar.  Have  on  the  fire  a 
quart  or  more  of  good  white  vinegar,  into 
which  put  one  ounce  of  raw  ginger,  two 
or  three  blades  of  sweet  mace,  one  ounce 
of  allspice,  half  an  ounce  of  whole  black 
pepper  and  salt,  half  an  ounce  of  mus- 
tard seed,  with  four  cloves  of  garlic. 
When  it  has  simmered  down,  take  it  up 
and  pour  the  contents  into  the  jar,  taking 
care  to  observe  that  the  eggs  are  wholly 
covered.  When  quite  cold,  stopper  it 
down  for  use.  It  will  be  ready  after  a 
month.  When  cut  into  quarters,  they 
serve  as  a  garnish,  and  afford  a  nice  relish 
to  cold  meat  of  any  kind. 

EGGS,  to  Keep. — i.  Parties  in  the  egg 
business  in  a  large  way  build  brick  vats 
made  water-tight,  in  which  is  lime-water, 
which  is  made  by  putting  lime  in  water, 
and  when  it  is  slacked  and  settled  to  the 
bottom,  drawing  off  the  liquor.  Into  this 
liquor  the  eggs  are  placed  and  kept  be- 
neath the  surface.  They  are  kept  as  cool 
as  possible.  These  are  the  limed  eggs 
with  which  the  markets  are  supplied  dur- 
ing winter. 

2.  Another  mode  of  keeping  eggs,  tested 
by  the  Agricultural  Department,  is  as  fol- 
lows: Rub  the  eggs  with  flaxseed  (lin- 
seed) oil,  and  place  them,  small  end 
downwards,  in  sand.  Eggs  so  prepared 
were  found  at  the  end  of  six  months  to 
have  the  same  taste  and  smell  of  perfect- 
ly fresh  eggs,  and  to  have  lost  in  weight 
only  three  per  cent.  Greasing  eggs  with 
lard  or  tallow  has  not  been  successful  in 
preserving  them,  except  for  short  pe- 
riods. 

3.  Take  a  thin  board  of  any  convenient 
length  and  width  and  pierce  it  full  of 
holes  (each  one  and  a  half  inches  in  di- 
ameter^ as  you  can.     A  board  two  feet 


and  six  inches  in  length  and  one  foot 
wide,  has  five  dozen  holes  in  it,  say 
twelve  rows  of  five  each.  Then  take  four 
strips  two  inches  broad,  and  nail  them  to- 
gether edgewise  into  a  rectangular  frame 
of  the  same  size  as  your  other  board. 
Nail  this  board  upon  a  frame,  and  the 
work  is  done,  unless  you  choose  to  nail  a 
heading  around  the  top.  Put  your  eggs 
in  this  board  as  they  come  from  the  poul- 
try house,  the  small  ends  down,  and  they 
will  keep  good  for  six  months,  if  you 
take  the  following  precautions :  Take  care 
that  the  eggs  do  not  get  wet,  either  in 
the  nest  or  afterwards.  Keep  them  in  a 
cool  room  in  summer,  and  out  of  the 
reach  of  frost  in  winter.  If  two  boards 
be  kept,  one  can  be  filling  while  the  other 
is  emptying. 

4.  Eggs  can  easily  be  kept  from  Octo- 
ber to  March  in  the  following  manner: 
A  piece  of  lime,  as  large  as  a  quart  dip- 
per, is  put  in  five  gallons  of  water,  and 
salt  added  until  an  egg  will  float.  This 
is  strained  and  put  into  a  clean  keg,  into 
Avhich  a  loose  head  is  made  to  fit  easily ; 
a  knob  is  fitted  to  the  head  for  a  handle. 
The  eggs  are  put,  as  they  are  gathered,, 
into  the  liquid,  and  the  loose  head  placed 
on  them  to  keep  them  below  .  the  surface. 
The  keg  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place 
in  the  cellar.  The  liquor  will  not  freeze 
except  at  a  lower  temperature  than  freez- 
ing point.  Eggs  thus  preserved  will  sell 
readily  as  limed  eggs  until  fresh  eggs 
come,  and  are  almost  as  good  as  fresh 
ones. 

5.  Take  one  quart  of  unslacked  lime> 
pour  to  it  water  enough  to  make  it  the 
consistency  of  whitewash,  add  one  tea- 
spoon of  cream  tartar:  let  this  be  in  a 
wooden  or  stone  vessel,  and  put  the  eggs 
into  it. 

6.  Hang  them  by  hooks  in  strong  cab- 
bage-nets, and  every  day  hook  them  on  a 
fresh  mesh,  so  as  thereby  to  turn  the 
eggs. 

7.  Apply  with  a  brush  a  solution  of 
gum  arabic  to  the  shells,  or  immerse  the 
eggs  therein,  let  them  dry,  and  afterwards 
pack  them  in  dry  charcoal  dust.  This 
prevents  their  being  affected  by  altera- 
tions of  temperature. 

8.  Mix  together  in  a  tub,  or  vessel,  one 
bushel  Winchester  measure  of  quick-lime, 
thirty-two  ounces  of  salt,  eight  ounces  of 
cream  of  tartar,  with  as  much  water  as 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       28? 


will  reduce  the  composition  to  a  sufficient 
consistence  to  float  an  egg.  Then  put 
and  keep  the  eggs  therein,  which  will 
preserve  them  perfectly  sound  for  two 
years  at  least. 

9.  Eggs  can  be  preserved  by  keeping 
them  at  a  temperature  of  forty  degrees  or 
less  in  a  refrigerator.  Eggs  have  been 
tested  when  kept  in  this  manner  for  two 
years,  and  found  to  be  perfectly  good. 

10.  Dissolve  three  or  four  ounces  of 
beeswax  in  seven  ounces  of  warm  olive 
oil;  put  in  this  the  tip  of  your  finger  and 
anoint  the  egg  all  over.  Keep  the  eggs 
in  a  cool  place,  and  they  will  keep  fresh 
for  five  years. 

FRUIT,  Canning.  —  The  principle 
should  be  understood,  in  order  to  work  in- 
telligently. The  fruit  is  preserved  by 
placing  it  in  a  vessel  from  which  the  exter- 
nal air  is  entirely  excluded.  This  is  ef- 
fected by  surrounding  the  fruit  by  liquid, 
and  by  the  use  of  heat  to  rarefy  and  expel 
the  air  that  may  be  entangled  in  the  fruit 
or  lodged  in  its  pores.  The  preservation 
does  not  depend  upon  sugar,  though 
enough  of  this  is  used  in  the  liquid  which 
covers  the  fruit  to  make  it  palatable.  The 
heat  answers  another  purpose ;  it  destroys 
the  ferment  which  fruits  naturally  contain, 
and  as  long  as  they  are  kept  from  con- 
tact with  the  external  air  they  do  not  de- 
compose. 

The  vessels  in  which  fruits  are  pre- 
served are  tin,  glass  and  earthenware. 
Tin  is  used  at  the  factories  where  large 
quantities  are  put  up  for  commerce,  but  is 
seldom  used  in  families,  as  more  skill  in 
soldering  is  required  than  most  persons 
possess.  Besides,  the  tins  are  not  gener- 
ally safe  to  use  more  than  once.  Glass  is 
the  preferable  material,  as  it  is  readily 
cleaned  and  allows  the  interior  to  be  fre- 
quently inspected.  Any  kind  of  bottle 
or  jar  that  has  a  mouth  wide  enough  to 
admit  the  fruit  and  that  can  be  securely 
stopped,  positively  air-tight — which  is 
much  closer  than  water-tight — will  an- 
swer. Jars  of  various  patterns  and 
patents  are  made  for  the  purpese, 
and  are  sold  at  the  crockery  and 
grocery  stores.  These  have  wide  mouths, 
and  a  glass  or  metallic  cap  which  is  made 
to  fit  very  tightly  by  an  India-rubber  ring 
between  the  metal  and  the  glass.  The 
devices  for  these  caps  are  numerous,  and 
much  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  inventing 


them.  We  have  used  several  patterns 
without  much  difference  in  success,  but 
have  found  there  was  some  difference  in 
the  facility  with  which  the  jars  could  be 
opend  and  closed.  The  best  are  those  in 
which  atmospheric  pressure  helps  the 
sealing,  and  where  the  sole  dependence  is 
not  upon  screws  or  clamps.  To  test  a 
jar,  light  a  slip  of  paper  and  hold  it  with- 
in it.  The  heat  of  the  flame  will  expand 
the  air  and  drive  out  a  portion  of  it.  Now 
put  on  the  cap ;  when  the  jar  becomes 
cool  the  air  within  will  contract,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  external  air  should  hold 
the  cover  on  so  firmly  that  it  cannot  be 
pulled  off  without  first  letting  in  air  by 
pressing  aside  the  rubber  or  by  such  oth- 
er means  as  is  provided  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  jar.  When  regular  fruit  jars 
are  not  used,  good  corks  and  cement 
must  be  provided. 

Cement  is  made  by  melting  1  ^  ounce 
of  tallow  with  1  pound  of  rosin.  The 
stiffness  of  the  cement  may  be  governed 
by  the  use  of  more  or  less  tallow.  After 
the  jar  is  corked,  tie  a  piece  of  stout 
drilling  over  the  mouth.  Dip  the  cloth 
on  the  mouth  of  the  jar  into  the  melted 
cement,  rub  the  cement  on  the  cloth  with 
a  stick  to  break  up  the  bubbles,  and  leave 
a  close  covering. 

The  Process.  Everything  should  be 
in  readiness,  the  jars  clean,  the  covers  well 
fitted,  the  fruit  picked  over  or  otherwise 
prepared,  and  cement  and  corks,  if  these 
are  used,  at  hand.  The  bottles  or  jars, 
are  to  receive  a  very  hot  liquid,  and  they 
must  be  gradually  wanned  beforehand, 
by  placing  warm  water  in  them,  to  which 
boiling  water  is  gradually  added.  Com- 
mence by  making  a  syrup  in  the  propor- 
tion of  a  pound  of  white*  sugar  to  a  pint 
of  water,  using  less  sugar  if  this  quantity 
will  make  the  fruit  too  sweet.  When  the 
syrup  boils,  add  as  much  fruit  as  it  will 
cover,  let  the  fruit  heat  in  the  syrup 
gradually,  and  when  it  comes  to  a  boil 
ladle  it  into  the  jars  or  bottles  which 
have  been  warmed  as  above  directed. 
Put  in  as  much  fruit  as  possible,  and  then 
add  the  syrup  to  fill  up  the  interstices 
among  the  fruit ;  then  put  on  the  cover 
or  insert  the  stopper  as  soon  as  possible. 
Have  a  cloth  at  hand  dampened  in  hot 
water  to  wipe  the  necks  of  the  jars. 
When  one  lot  has  been  bottled,  proceed 
with  more,  adding  more  sugar  and  water 


284 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


if  more  syrup  is  required.  Juicy  fruits 
will  diminish  the  syrup  much  less  than 
others.  When  the  bottles  are  cold,  put 
them  away  in  a  cool,  dry,  and  dark  place. 
Do  not  tamper  with  the  covers  in  any 
way.  The  bottles  should  be  inspected 
every  day  for  a  week  or  so,  in  order  to 
discover  if  any  are  imperfect.  If  fermen- 
tation has  commenced,  bubbles  will  be 
seen  in  the  syrup,  and  the  covers  will  be 
loosened.  If  taken  at  once,  the  contents 
may  be  saved  by  thoroughly  reheating. 
Another  way  is  to  prepare  a  syrup  and 
allow  it  to  cool.  Place  the  fruit  in  the 
bottles,  cover  with  the  syrup  and  then  set 
the  bottles  nearly  up  to  their  rims  in  a 
boiler  of  cold  water.  Some  wooden  slats 
should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler  to  keep  the  bottles  from  contact 
with  it.  The  water  in  the  boiler  is  then 
heated  and  kept  boiling  until  the  fruit  in 
the  bottles  is  thoroughly  heated  through, 
when  the  covers  are  put  on,  and  the 
bottles  allowed  to  cool.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  better 
preserved  in  this  way  than  by  the  other. 

What  May  Be  Preserved. — All  the 
fruits  that  are  used  in  their  fresh  state  or 
for  pies,  etc.,  and  Rhubarb,  or  Pie-plant, 
and  tomatoes.  Green  peas,  and  corn, 
cannot  be  readily  preserved  in  families, 
as  they  require  special  apparatus.  Straw- 
berries— hard-fleshed  sour  varieties,  such 
as  the  Wilson,  are  better  than  the  more 
delicate  kinds. 

Currants  need  more  sugar  than  the 
foregoing.  Blackberries  and  huckleberries 
are  both  very  satisfactorily  preserved, 
and  make  capital  pies.  Cherries  and 
plums  need  only  picking  over.  Peaches 
need  peeling  and  quartering.  The  skin 
may  be  removed  from  ripe  peaches  by 
scalding  them  in  water  or  weak  lye  for  a 
few  seconds,  and  then  transferring  them  to 
cold  water.  Some  obtain  a  strong  peach 
flavor  by  boiling  a  few  peach  meats  in 
the  syrup.  We  have  had  peaches  keep 
three  years,  and  were  then  better  than 
those  sold  at  the  stores.  Pears  are  pared 
and  halved,  or  quartered,  and  the  core 
removed.  The  best,  high-flavored  and 
melting  varieties  only  should  be  used. 
Coarse  baking  pears  are  unsatisfactory. 
Apples — very  few  put  up  these.  Try 
some  high-flavored  ones,  and  you  will  be 
pleased  with  them.  Quinces — there  is 
a   great  contrast  between   quinces    pre- 


served in  this  way  and  those  done  up  in 
the  old  way  of  pound  for  pound.  They 
do  not  become  hard,  and  they  remain  of 
a  fine  light  color.  Tomatoes  require 
cooking  longer  than  the  fruits  proper. 
Any  intelligent  person  who  understands 
the  principle  upon  which  fruit  is  preserved 
in  this  way,  will  soon  find  the  mechanical 
part  easy  of  execution  and  the  result^ 
satisfactory. 

FRUIT,  Dried,  to  Protect  from  Worms. 
It  is  said  that  dried  fruit  put  away  with  a 
little  bark  sassafras  (say  a  large  handful 
to  the  bushel)  will  save  for  years,  unmo- 
lested by  those  troublesome  little  insects, 
which  so  often  destroy  hundreds  of 
bushels  in  a  single  season.  The  remedy 
is  cheap  and  simple,  but  we  venture  to 
say  a  good  one. 

FRUIT,  Canned,  Keeping.— The  pres- 
ervation of  canned  fruits  depends  very 
much  on  the  place  where  they  are  stored. 
If  put  in  a  cellar,  unless  it  is  exception- 
ally dry,  they  will  gather  mold  and  lose 
all  the  fine,  fresh  flavor  it  is  so  desirable 
to  retain.  If  kept  in  too  warm  a  spot, 
they  will  ferment  and  burst  the  cans,  and 
in  that  case,  even  if  the  fruit  has  not 
been  spilled  over  the  shelves,  it  will  have 
been  made  so  sour  that  no  re-scalding, 
etc.,  can  make  it  good.  Severe  cold 
does  not  injure  it  unless  the  weather  is 
below  zero. 

One  stinging  cold  morning  we  entered 
our  milk-room  to  find  long  rows  of  grena- 
diers in  red  coats,  standing  triumphantly 
amid  the  fragments  of  numerous  defeated 
bottles.  The  tomatoes  being  preserved 
entirely  without  sugar  or  spice,  were 
frozen  to  a  solid  red  ice,  but  the  fruits 
put  up  with  a  small  quantity  of  sugar 
were  only  slightly  frozen,  and  as  we  im- 
mediately immersed  the  jars  in  cold 
water  until  the  frost  was  extracted,  they 
did  not  burst.  The  tomatoes  were  saved 
by  an  immediate  re-bottling. 

A  doubled-walled  closet  in  a  fireless 
room  on  the  second  floor  is  one  of  the 
best  places  for  storing  canned  fruits  in 
the  winter ;  and  in  summer  a  cool  milk- 
room  will  be  found  safe. 

GOOSEBERRIES,  Dried. — To  seven 
pounds  of  red  gooseberries  add  a  pound 
and  a  half  of  powdered  sugar,  which 
must  be  stewed  over  them  in  the  preserv- 
ing-pan ;  let  them  remain  at  a  good  heat 
over  a  slow  fire  till  they  begin  to  break ; 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       285 


then  remove  them.  Repeat  this  process 
for  two  or  three  days;  then  take  the 
gooseberries  from  the  syrup,  and  spread 
them  out  on  sieves  near  the  fire  to  dry. 
This  syrup  may  be  used  for  other  pres- 
erves. When  the  gooseberries  are  quite 
dry,  store  them  in  tin  boxes  or  layers  of 
paper. 

GOOSEBERRIES,  Red,  to  Keep.— Pick 
gooseberries  when  fully  ripe,  and  for  each 
quart  take  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  sugar 
and  a  gill  of  water ;  boil  together  until 
quite  a  syrup ;  then  put  in  the  fruit,  and 
continue  to  boil  gently  for  fifteen  min- 
utes; then  put  them  into  small  stone 
jars ;  when  cold,  cover  them  close ;  keep 
them  for  making  tarts  or  pies. 

GRAPES,  To  Keep.— 1.  They  must 
not  be  too  ripe.  Take  off  any  imperfect 
grapes  from  the  bunches.  On  the  bottom 
of  a  keg  put  a  layer  of  bran  that  has 
been  well  dried  in  an  oven,  or  in  the  sun. 
On  the  bran  put  a  layer  of  grapes,  with 
bran  between  the  bunches  so  that  they 
may  not  be  in  contact.  Proceed  in  the 
same  way  with  alternate  layers  of  grapes 
and  bran,  till  the  keg  is  lull ;  then  close 
the  keg  so  that  no  air  can  enter.  2.  In 
a  box  first  lay  a  paper,  then  a  layer  of 
grapes,  selecting  the  best  bunches  and 
removing  all  imperfect  grapes,  then  an- 
other paper,  then  more  grapes,  and  so 
until  the  box  is  full ;  then  cover  all  with 
several  folds  of  paper  or  cloth.  Nail  on 
the  lid,  and  set  in  a  cool  room  where  it 
will  not  freeze.  We  use  small  boxes,  so 
as  not  to  disturb  more  than  we  want  to 
use  in  a  week  or  so.  Give  each  bunch 
plenty  of  room  so  they  will  not  crowd, 
and  do  not  use  newspapers.  Some  seal 
the  stems  with  sealing  wax  and  wrap 
each  bunch  by  itself,  but  we  get  along 
without  that  trouble.  The  grapes  should 
be  looked  to  several  times  during  the 
winter.  Should  any  mold  or  decay,  they 
should  be  removed  and  the  good  ones 
again  repacked.  By  this  means  we  have 
had,  with  our  pitcher  of  cider  and  basket 
of  apples,  our  plate  of  grapes  daily, 
besides  distributing  some  among  our 
friends  and  the  sick  of  the  neighborhood. 
3.  {Chinese  Method.)  It  consists  in  cutting 
a  circular  piece  out  of  a  ripe  pumpkin  or 
gourd,  making  an  aperture  large  enough 
to  admit  the  hand.  The  interior  is  then 
completely  cleaned  out,  the  ripe  grapes 
are  placed  inside,  and  the  cover  replaced 


and  pressed  in  firmly.  The  pumpkins 
are  then  kept  in  a  cool  place — and  the 
grapes  will  be  found  to  retain  their  fresh- 
ness for  a  very  long  time.  We  are  told 
that  a  very  careful  selection  must  be 
made  of  the  pumpkin,  the  common  field 
pumpkin,  however,  being  well  adapted 
for  the  purpose  in  question. 

HAMS,  to  Cure.  —  The  committee  on 
bacon  hams  of  the  Second  Annual  Exhi- 
bition of  the  Frederick  (Maryland)  County 
Agricultural  Society  awarded  the  first  pre- 
mium to  Mrs.  George  M.  Potts,  and  the 
second  to  W.  H.  Lease,  Esq.,  and  ob- 
served "  that  the  hams  were  remarkable 
for  their  excellent  flavor,  and  were  at  the 
same  time  juicy  and  tender."  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  recipes : 

Mrs.  Potts'  Recipe. — To  each  green; 
ham  of  eighteen  pounds,  one  dessert- 
spoonful of  saltpetre;  one-fourth  pound 
of  brown  sugar  applied  to  the  fleshy  side 
of  the  ham  and  about  the  hock;  cover 
the  fleshy  side  with  fine  salt  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  pack  away  in  tubs ;  to  remain 
from  three  to  six  weeks,  according  to 
size.  Before  smoking  rub  off  any  salt 
that  may  remain  on  the  ham,  and  cover 
well  with  ground  pepper,  particularly 
about  the  bone  and  hock.  Hang  up  and 
drain  for  two  days;  smoke  with  green 
wood  for  eight  weeks,  or  until  the  rind 
assumes  a  light  chestnut  color.  The 
pepper  is  an  effectual  preventive  of  the 
fly.  I  never  bag  hams.  This  recipe  took 
the  first  premium. 

Mr.  Lease's  Recipe.  —  When  the- 
hams  were  cool  he  salted  them  down  in  a 
tight  cask,  putting  a  bushel  of  salt,  well 
mixed  with  six  ounces  of  saltpetre,  to 
about  one  thousand  pounds  of  pork;  after 
it  had  been  salted  down  four  or  five  days, . 
he  made  a  strong  brine,  sufficient  to  float  an 
egg,  and  cured  the  meat  with  it,  and  then 
let  it  remain  five  weeks  longer ;  then  hung 
it  up,  dusting  the  fresh  sides  with  black 
pepper;  then  smoked  with  green  wood. 

Another. — After  cutting  out  the  pork, . 
rub  the  skin-side  with  about  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  saltpetre,  well  rubbed  in.  Rub 
the  pieces  all  over  with  salt,  leaving  them 
well  covered  on  the  fleshy  side.  Then 
lay  the  hams  in  large,  tight  troughs,  skin- 
side  down.  Continue  this  process  until 
it  is  all  salted  down.  Let  them  remain 
in  the  troughs  without  touching  or  troub- 
ling them  for  tour,  or  five  weeks,  accord- 


286 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


ing  to  the  size  of  the  hog,  no  matter  how 
warm  or  changeable  the  weather  is.  Then 
take  them  out  of  the  trough,  and  string 
tli em  on  white-oak  splits ;  wash  all  the 
salt  off  with  the  brine,  if  sufficient ;  if  not, 
with  water;  then  rub  them  well  and 
thoroughly  with  wood  ashes.  Let  them 
hang  up  and  remain  twenty-four  hours  or 
two  or  three  days  before  you  make  the 
(smoke  under  them,  which  must  be  made 
of  green  chips,  and  not  chunks.  Make 
the  smoke  under  them  every  day,  and 
smoke  them  five  or  six  weeks.  After  the 
smoke  stops,  let  the  hams  remain  hang- 
ing all  the  time.  Shoulders  cure  in  the 
same  manner.  Always  kill  your  hogs  in 
the  morning,  and  let  them  remain  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  before  cut- 
ting them  up. 

HAMS  (Smoked),  to  Keep. — Make  sacks 
of  coarse  cotton  cloth,  large  enough  to 
hold  one  ham,  and  fill  in  with  chopped 
hay  all  around  about  two  inches  thick. 
The  hay  prevents  the  grease  from  coming 
in  contact  with  the  cloth,  and  keeps  all 
insects  from  the  meat.  Hang  in  the 
smokehouse,  or  other  dry,  cool  place,  and 
they  will  keep  a  long  time. 

HERBS,  to  Dry. —They  should  be 
gathered  in  a  dry  season,  cleansed  from 
discolored  and  rotten  leaves,  screened 
from  earth  or  dust,  placed  on  handles 
covered  with  blotting  paper,  and  exposed 
to  the  sun  or  the  heat  of  a  stove,  in  a  dry, 
airy  place.  The  quicker  they  are  dried 
the  better,  as  they  have  less  time  to  fer- 
ment or  grow  mouldy ;  hence  they  should 
be  spread  thin,  and  frequently  turned; 
when  dried  they  should  be  shaken  in  a 
large  meshed  sieve  to  get  rid  of  the  eggs 
of  any  insects.  Aromatic  herbs  ought  to 
be  dried  quickly  with  a  moderate  heat 
that  their  odor  may  not  be  lost.  Crucif- 
erous plants  should  not  be  dried,  as  in 
that  case  they  lose  much  of  their  antiscor- 
butic qualities.  Some  persons  have  pro- 
posed to  dry  herbs  in  a  water  bath,  but 
this  occasions  them,  as  it  were,  to  be  half 
boiled  in  their  own  water. 

HONEY,  to  Keep. — After  the  honey  is 
passed  from  the  comb,  strain  it  through  a 
sieve,  so  as  to  get  out  all  the  wax;  gently 
boil  it,  and  skim  off  the  whitish  foam 
which  rises  to  the  surface,  and  then  the 
honey  will  become  perfectly  clear.  The 
vessel  for  boiling  should  be  earthen,  brass, 


or  tin.  The  honey  should  be  put  in  jars 
when  cool,  and  tightly  covered. 

To  keep  honey  in  the  comb,  select 
combs  free  from  pollen,  pack  them  edge- 
wise in  jars  or  cans,  and  pour  in  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  the  boiled  and  strained 
honey  (as  above)  to  cover  the  combs. 
The  jars  or  cans  should  be  tightly  tied 
over  with  thick  cloth  or  leather.  These 
processes  have  been  in  use  for  twenty 
years  with  unvarying  success. 

HONEY,  Artificial,  to  Make.— To  ten 
pounds  of  good  brown  sugar  add  four 
pounds  of  water,  gradually  bring  it  to  a 
boil,  skimming  it  well.  When  it  has  be- 
come cooled,  add  two  pounds  of  bees' 
honey  and  eight  drops  of  peppermint.  A 
better  article  can  be  made  with  white 
sugar  instead  of  common,  with  one  pound 
less  of  water  and  one  pound  more  of 
honey.  To  twenty  pounds  of  coffee- 
sugar  add  six  pounds  of  water,  four  ounces 
cream  of  tartar,  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
vinegar  (strong),  the  white  of  two  eggs, 
well  beaten,  and  one  pound  of  bees' 
honey,  Lubin's  extract  of  honeysuckle, 
twenty  drops.  Place  the  water  and  sugar 
in  a  kettle,  and  put  it  over  a  fire ;  when 
lukewarm  add  the  cream  of  tartar,  stir- 
ring it  at  the  time ;  then  add  the  egg,  and 
when  the  sugar  is  melted,  put  in  the 
honey  and  stir  it  well  until  it  comes  to  a 
boil;  then  take  it  off,  let  it  stand  five 
minutes,  then  strain,  adding  the  extract 
last.  Let  it  stand  over  night,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use. 

HORSE-RADISH,  to  Keep.  —  Grate  a 
sufficient  quantity  during  the  season, 
while  it  is  green,  put  it  in  bottles,  fill  up 
with  strong  vinegar,  cork  them  tight,  and 
set  them  in  a  cool  place. 

LARD,  to  Keep  from  Molding.  —  It  is 
not  likely  to  mold  if  properly  tried  and 
kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place ;  earthen  crocks 
or  pans  well  tinned  are  good  to  put  lard 
in  for  keeping.  Lard  made  from  intesti- 
nal fat  will  not  keep  so  long  as  leaf  fat. 
It  should  be  soaked  two  or  three  days  in 
salted  water,  changed  each  day. 

LARD,  to  Keep  Sweet. — Even  during 
the  warmest  weather  lard  can  be  kept 
sweet  by  the  following  plan :  When  ren- 
dering (melting)  it,  throw  into  each  kettle 
a  handful  of  fresh  slippery  elm  bark.  No 
salt  must  be  added  to  it  at  any  time. 
The  jars  in  which  the  lard  is  to  be  kept 
must  be  thoroughly  cleansed. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       287 


LARD,  to  Bleach.  — Lard  may  be 
bleached  by  applying  a  mixture  of  bichro- 
mate of  potassa  and  muriatic  acid,  in 
minute  proportions,  to  the  fat. 

LARD,  to  Try  Out—This  should  be 
done  in  the  open  air.  Set  a  large  kettle 
over  the  fire,  in  some  sheltered  place,  on 
a  still  day.  It  will  cook  much  quicker  in 
large  quantities.  Put  into  the  kettle, 
while  the  lard  is  cold,  a  little  saleratus,  say 
one  tablespoonful  to  every  twenty  pounds ; 
stir  almost  constantly  when  nearly  done 
till  the  scraps  are  brown  and  crisp,  or  un- 
til the  steam  ceases  to  rise ;  then  there  is 
no  danger  of  its  moulding;  strain  out 
into  pans,  and  the  first  will  be  ready  to 
empty  into  crocks  when  the  last  is 
strained. 

LARD,  Making.— Cut  the  fat  up  into 
pieces  about  two  inches  square;  fill  a 
vessel  holding  about  three  gallons  with 
the  pieces ;  put  in  a  pint  of  boiled  lye, 
made  from  oak  and  hickory  ashes,  and 
strained  before  using;  boil  gently  over  a 
slow  fire,  until  the  cracklings  have  turned 
brown ;  strain  and  set  aside  to  cool.  By 
the  above  process  you  will  get  more  lard, 
a  better  article,  and  whiter  than  by  any 
other  process. 

MEAT,  to  Keep  Fresh  in  Winter.— In 
Minnesota,  where  winter  thaws  are  not 
much  to  be  feared,  it  is  quite  common  to 
hang  up  a  porker  or  a  leg  of  venison  or 
beef,  and  cut  from  it  as  it  hangs,  week 
after  week.  It  seems  to  us  that  meat  so 
kept  must  greatly  deteriorate  in  flavor. 
We  like  best  to  cut  the  beef  or  veni- 
son into  good  pieces  for  cooking  in  vari- 
ous ways,  and  pack  them  down  in  snow. 
Of  course  they  feeze,  but  thawing  a  piece 
brought  in  to  cook  is  a  simple  matter. 
Put  frozen  poultry  or  meat  in  cold  water, 
and  all  the  frost  will  shortly  leave  it.  A 
coating  of  ice  will  be  found  on  the  out- 
side, which  will  easily  cleave  oft*. 

MEAT,  to  Protect  from  Fly.— An  ef- 
fectual way  of  excluding  the  fly  is  by 
using  a  wire  meat-safe,  or  by  covering 
the  joints  with  a  long  loose  gauze,  or 
some  thin  cloth,  and  hanging  them  from 
the  ceiling  of  a  dry  room.  Pepper  and 
ginger  should  be  sprinkled  on  the  parts 
likely  to  be  attacked  by  the  fly,  but 
should  be  washed  off  before  the  joint  is 
put  to  the  fire. 

MEAT,  to  Cure. — To  one  gallon  of 
water  add  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  salt, 


half  a  pound  of  sugar,  half  an  ounce  ot 
saltpetre,  half  an  ounce  of  potash.  In 
this  ratio  the  pickle  to  be  increased  to 
any  quantity  desired.  Let  these  be  boiled 
together  until  all  the  dirt  from  the  sugar 
rises  to  top  and  is  skimmed  off.  Then 
throw  it  into  a  tub  to  cool,  and  when  cold 
pour  it  over  your  beef  or  pork,  to  remain 
the  usual  time,  say  four  or  five  weeks. 
The  meat  must  be  well  covered  with 
pickle,  and  should  not  be  put  down  for  at 
least  two  days  after  killing,  during  which 
time  it  should  be  slightly  sprinkled  with 
powdered  saltpetre,  which  removes  all 
the  surface  blood,  etc.,  leaving  the  meat 
fresh  and  clean.  Some  omit  boiling  the 
pickle,  and  find  it  to  answer  well ;  though 
the  operation  of  boiling  purifies  the  pickle 
by  throwing  off  the  dirt  always  to  be 
found  in  salt  and  sugar.  If  this  recipe 
is  properly  tried  it  will  never  be  aban- 
doned. There  is  none  that  surpasses  it, 
if  so  good. 

MEAT,  Preserving  in  Cans. — A  new 
method  of  preserving  meat  in  tin  cans, 
which  is  favorably  commented  upon,  is 
that  of  Mr.  R.  Jones,  of  London.  In 
this  process  the  meat  is  first  packed  in 
its  raw  state  into  tins  of  any  desired  size. 
The  lids  are  then  soldered  down,  the  top 
of  each  lid  having  a  small  tin  tube  in- 
serted into  it,  which  communicates  with 
the  interior  of  the  tin.  These  tubes  are 
next  inserted  into  the  exhauster,  which  is 
a  receptacle  connected  with  a  machine 
designated  a  "Torricellian  vacuum,"  an  ap- 
paratus in  which  the  air  is  exhausted  by 
the  action  of  water.  The  tins  are  then 
placed  in  the  cooking-bath,  and  at  the 
proper  juncture  the  vacuum  is  created  and 
the  meat  most  thoroughly  cooked,  at  a 
temperature  varying  from  180  to  228  de- 
grees. At  this  stage  another  feature  of 
the  invention  comes  into  play.  The  vac- 
uum having  been  created,  a  supply  of 
gravy  is  turned  on  from  a  receptacle,  and 
the  tins  filled  with  a  nutritious  fluid.  The 
feed-pipes  of  the  tins  are  then  nipped  and 
the  cases  heremetically  sealed.  By  thus 
filling  the  tins  with  the  gravy  the  difficul- 
ty of  collapse,  which  has  always  hitherto 
prevented  large  tins  from  being  used,  is 
obviated,  while  the  whole  space  of  the 
package  is  utilized.  Testimonials,  from 
captains  of  ships  and  others  who  have 
used  it,  are  furnished  by  the  inventor,  cer- 
tifying to   the   excellent   quality  of  the 


288 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


meat.  By  this  improved  processs  over- 
cooking the  meat  is  prevented,  and  as 
now  prepared,  it  would  seem  to  merit 
general  approbation. 
MEAT,  Pickle. — Moist  sugar,  2  pounds; 
bay  or  common  salt,  4  pounds ;  saltpetre, 
y2  pound;  fresh  ground  allspice,  2 
ounces;  water,  6  to  8  quarts.  Dissolve. 
Used  to  pickle  meat,  to  which  it  imparts 
a  fine  red  color  and  a  superior  flavor. 

MILK,  to  Keep. — Milk  may  be  pre- 
served in  stout,  well-corked  and  wired 
bottles  by  heating  them  to  the  boiling 
point  in  a  water-bath,  by  which  the  small 
quantity  of  inclosed  air  becomes  decom- 
posed. Milk,  or  green  gooseberries,  or 
peas,  thus  treated,  will  keep  for  two  years. 
Some  persons  add  a  few  grains  of  calcin- 
ed magnesia  to  each  bottle  of  milk  be- 
fore corking  it. 

MEATS,  Mince— Three  pounds  of 
raisins,  stoned;  three  pounds  of  currants; 
three  pounds  of  beef  suet,  chopped  fine ; 
one  pound  of  bread  crumbs ;  thre-quar- 
,  ters  of  a  pound  of  mixed  candied  peel ; 
one  and  a  half  pounds  of  fillet  of  beef, 
previously  cooked.  Salt,  sugar,  spices 
and  ginger  to  taste.  Each  ingredient  to 
be  chopped  up  separately,  and  very  fine. 
Mix  all  well  together,  and  take  especial 
care  that  the  beef  is  well  mixed  with  the 
other  ingredients.  Moisten  with  a  bottle 
of  brandy  and  stir  occasionally. 

Another. — Haifa  pound  of  candied 
peel,  cut  in  delicate  slices,  then  chopped; 
two  wineglassfuls  of  brandy.  Mix  well 
together  with  a  wooden  spoon,  and  put 
the  mince  meat,  well  pressed  down,  into 
a  covered  jar,  tied  over  very  well.  The 
mince  meat  should  be  made  some  days 
before  it  is  wanted,  and  when  about  to 
be  used  a  little  more  brandy  should  be 
stirred  into  it. 

Another. —  Quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
fine  salt ;  half  an  ounce  of  mixed  spice ; 
three  pounds  of  moist  sugar ;  three  pounds 
of  well  cleaned  currants  f  two  pounds  of 
stoned  raisins,  chopped;  two  and  a  half 
pounds  of  beef  suet,  finely  chopped ;  the 
thinnest  peel  of  two  lemons  and  their 
juice;  two  pounds  of  apples,  baked  to  a 
pulp,  and  weighed  when  cold. 

ONIONS,  to  Keep.— Gather  in  fall  and 
remove  the  tops;  then  spread  upon  a 
barn  floor  or  in  any  open  shed,  and  allow 
them  to  remain  there  until  thoroughly 
dry.     Put  into  barrels  or  small  bins  or 


boxes,  and  place  in  a  cool  place,  and  at 
the  approach  of  cold  weather  cover  with 
straw  or  chaff,  if  there  is  danger  of  very 
severe  freezing. 

Onions  are  often  injured  in  winter  by 
keeping  them  in  too  warm  a  place.  They 
will  seldom  be  injured  by  frost  if  kept  in 
the  dark,  and  in  tight  barrels  or  boxes, 
where  not  subjected  to  frequent  changes 
of  temperature.  It  is  the  alternate  freez- 
ings and  thawings  that  destroy  them,  and 
if  placed  in  a  position  where  they  will  re- 
main frozen  all  winter,  and  then  thawed 
out  slowly  and  in  a  dark  place,  no  con- 
siderable injury  would  result  from  this  ap- 
parently harsh  treatment.  Onions  should 
always  be  stored  in  the  coolest  part  of  the 
cellar,  or  put  in  chaff  and  set  in  the  barn 
or  some  out-house. 

PABSNIPS,  To  Keep.  — The  almost 
universal  practice  among  farmers  is  to 
allow  their  parsnips  to  remain  in  the 
ground  through  winter,  just  where  they 
were  grown.  We  believe  the  quality  of 
this  root  is  improved  by  being  frozen,  or 
at  least  kept  cool,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
to  leave  them  in  the  open  garden  during 
winter,  where,  if  the  ground  remain  frozeny 
they  cannot  be  got  at  until  it  thaws  in 
spring,  and  then  used  in  a  very  few  weeks 
or  not  at  all.  If  the  roots  are  dug  up  late 
in  the  fall,  leaving  all  the  tops  on,  then 
carefully  heeled  in  thickly  together  in 
rows,  after  which  cover  with  a  little  coarse 
litter,  they  can  be  reached  whenever 
wanted  during  winter. 

PEACHES,  To  Dry.  —  Never  pare 
peaches  to  dry.  Let  them  get  mellow 
enough  to  be  in  good  eating  condition  t 
put  them  in  boiling  water  for  a  moment 
or  two,  and  the  skins  will  come  off  like  a 
charm.  Let  them  be  in  the  water  long 
enough,  but  no  longer.  The  gain  is  at 
least  sixfold — saving  of  time  in  removing 
the  skin,  great  saving  of  the  peach,  the 
part  of  the  peach  saved  is  the  best  part, 
less  time  to  stone  the  peaches,  less  time 
to  dry  them,  and  better  when  dried.  A 
whole  bushel  can  be  done  in  a  boiler  at 
once,  and  the  water  turned  off. 

PEACHES,  To  Can— Pare  and  halve 
your  peaches.  Pack  them  as  closely  as 
possible  in  the  can  without  any  sugar. 
When  the  can  is  full,  pour  in  sufficient 
pure  cold  water  to  fill  all  the  interstices 
between  the  peaches,  and  reach  the  brim 
of  the  can.     Let  stand  long  enough  for 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       289 


the  water  to  soak  into  all  the  crevices — 
say  six  hours  —  then  pour  in  water  to  re- 
place what  has  sunk  away.  Seal  up  the 
can,  and  all  is  done.  Canned  in  this  way, 
peaches  retain  all  their  freshness  and 
flavor. 

There  will  not  be  enough  water  in  them 
to  render  them  insipid.  If  preferred,  a 
cold  syrup  could  be  used  instead  of  pure 
water,  but  the  peaches  taste  more  natural 
without  any  sweet. 

PEAS,  Green,  to  Preserve.— When  full 
grown,  but  not  old,  pick  and  shell  the 
peas.  Lay  them  on  dishes  or  tins  in  a 
cool  oven,  or  before  a  bright  fire;  do  not 
heap  the  peas  on  the  dishes,  but  merely 
cover  them  with  peas,  stir  them  frequent- 
ly, and  let  them  dry  very  gradually. 
When  hard,  let  them  cool,  then  pack  them 
in  stone  jars,  cover  close,  and  keep  them 
in  a  very  dry  place.  When  required  for 
use,  soak  them  for  some  hours  in  cold 
water,  till  they  look  plump  before  boiling; 
they  are  excellent  for  soup. 

PICCALILLI,  Indian  Method.  —  This 
consists  of  all  kinds  of  pickles  mixed  and 
put  into  one  large  jar — sliced  cucumbers, 
button  onions,  cauliflowers,  broken  in 
pieces.  Salt  them,  or  put  them  in  a  large 
hair  sieve  in  the  sun  to  dry  for  three  days, 
then  scald  them  in  vinegar  a  few  minutes ; 
when  cold  put  them  together.  Cut  a 
large  white  cabbage  in  quarters,  with  the 
outside  leaves  taken  off  and  cut  fine;  salt 
it,  and  put  in  the  sun  to  dry  three  or  four 
days ;  then  scald  it  in  vinegar,  the  same 
as  cauliflower ;  carrots,  three  parts,  boiled 
in  vinegar  and  a  little  bay  salt.  French 
beans,  radish,  pods,  and  nasturtiums,  all 
go  through  the  same  process  as  capsicums, 
etc.  To  1  gallon  of  vinegar  put  4  ounces 
of  ginger  bruised,  2  ounces  of  whole  white 
pepper,  2  ounces  of  allspice,  ^  ounce 
chillies  bruised,  4  ounces  of  turmeric,  1 
pound  of  the  best  mustard,  yz  pound  of 
shallots,  1  ounce  of  garlic,  and  yi  pound 
oi  bay  salt.  The  vinegar,  spice,  and 
other  ingredients,  except  the  mustard, 
must  boil  half  an  hour;  then  strain  it  into 
a  oan,  put  the  mustard  into  a  large  basin, 
with  a  little  vinegar ;  mix  it  quite  fine  and 
free  from  lumps,  then  add  more.  When 
well  mixed  put  it  into  the  vinegar  just 
strained  off,  and  when  quite  cold  put  the 
pickles  into  a  large  pan,  and  the  liquor 
over  them;  stir  them  repeatedly,  so  as 
to  mix  them  all.     Finally,  put  them  into 

*9 


a  jar,  and  tie  them  over  first  with  a  blad- 
der, and  afterwards  with  leather.  The 
capsicums  want  no  preparation. 

POTATOES,  Storing. — Potatoes  should 
not  be  exposed  to  the  sun  and  light  any 
more  than  is  necessary  to  dry  them  after 
digging  them  from  the  hill.  Every  ten 
minutes  of  such  exposure,  especially  in 
the  sun,  injures  their  edible  qualities.  The 
flesh  is  thus  rendered  soft,  yellowish  or 
greenish,  and  injured  in  flavor.  Dig  them 
when  dry,  and  put  them  in  a  dark  cellar 
immediately  and  keep  them  there  till 
wanted  for  use,  and  there  would  not  be  so 
much  fault  found  about  bad  quality.  This 
is  also  a  hint  to  those  grocers  and  market- 
men  who  keep  their  potatoes  in  barrels  in 
the  sun — that  is,  if  they  wish  to  furnish 
their  customers  with  a  good  article. 

POTATOES,  To  keep  from  sprouting. 
— To  keep  potatoes  intended  for  the  use 
of  the  table  from  sprouting  until  new  pota- 
toes grow,  take  boiling  water,  pour  into  a 
tub,  turn  in  as  many  potatoes  as  the  water 
will  cover,  then  pour  off  all  the  water, 
handle  the  potatoes  carefully,  laying  up  in 
a  dry  place  on  boards,  only  one  layer 
deep,  and  see  if  you  do  not  have  good 
potatoes  the  year  round,  without  hard 
strings  and  watery  ends  caused  by  growing. 

PUMPKINS,  Drying.  —  Take  the  ripe 
pumpkins,  pare,  cut  into  small  pieces, 
stew  soft,  mash  and  strain  through  a  col- 
ander, as  if  for  making  pies.  Spread  this 
pulp  on  plates  in  layers  not  quite  an  inch 
thick ;  dry  it  down  in  the  stove  oven,  kept 
at  so  low  a  temperature  as  not  to  scorch 
it.  In  about  a  day  it  will  become  dry  and 
crisp.  The  sheets  thus  made  can  be 
stowed  away  in  a  dry  place,  and  they  are 
always  ready  for  use  for  pies  or  sauce. 
Soak  the  pieces  over  night  in  a  little  milk,, 
and  they  will  return  to  nice  pulp,  as  deli- 
cious as  the  fresh  pumpkin.  The  quick, 
drying  after  cooking  prevents  any  portioa 
from  slightly  souring,  as  is  always  the  case 
when  the  uncooked  pieces  are  dried ;  the 
flavor  is  much  better  preserved,  and  the 
after  cooking  is  saved. 

RAIN-WATER,  To  Keep  Sweet.— -The 
best  way  to  keep  rain-water  sweet  in  a 
cistern,  is  to  first  collect  it  in  a  tank,  and 
filter  it  into  the  cistern  below  the  surface. 
This  will  remove  the  organic  matters, 
and  prevent  fermentation.  Care  should 
also  be  taken  to  prevent  surface  drainage, 
into  it. 


290 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


ROSEBUDS,  To  Preserve.— A  method 
employed  in  Germany  to  keep  rosebuds 
iresh  into  the  winter,  consists  in  first 
covering  the  end  of  the  recently  cut  stem 
with  wax,  and  then  placing  each  one  in  a 
closed  paper  cap  or  cone,  so  that  the 
leaves  do  not  touch  the  paper.  The  cap 
is  then  coated  with  glue,  to  exclude  air, 
■dust,  and  moisture,  and  when  dry  it  is 
.stood  up  in  a  cool  place.  When  wanted 
for  use,  the  bud  is  taken  out  of  the  cap 
.  and  placed  in  water,  after  cutting  of  the 
end,  when  the  rose  will  bloom  in  a  few 
hours. 

SWEET  POTATOES,  To  Keep.— Sweet 
potatoes  can  be  kept  by  placing  them  in 
bulk  in  a  bin  or  box  (the  more  the  better) 
without  drying,  and  maintaining  for  them 
a  uniform  temperature  of  450  to  500.  Put- 
ting something  between,  among,  or  around 
them  may  serve  to  keep  them  at  the  pro- 
per temperature,  but  it  is  of  no  value 
whatever  aside  from  this ;  and  if  it  should 
retain  dampness,  -it  will  be  a  positive  in- 
jury. After  the  sweat  takes  place,  say  in 
three  or  four  weeks,  scatter  over  them  a 
light  covering  of  dry  loam  or  sand.  In 
this  way  it  is  easy  to  keep  sweet  potatoes 
for  table  use  or  for  seed,  as  well  as  "the 
inferior  and  less  nourishing  Irish  potato." 
Another  way  is  to  pack  in  barrels,  and  pour 
in  kiln-dried  sand  until  the  intervals  are 
full ;  or  boxes  of  uniform  size,  piled  up  on 
the  side  of  a  room  where  the  temperature 
never  falls  to  the  freezing  point,  which  is 
a  condition  of  first  importance.  This 
wall  of  boxes  may  be  papered  over,  and 
left  undisturbed  till  spring,  when  the  pota- 
toes will  command  the  highest  prices. 

SWEET  POTATOES,  In  Bulk.— A 
sweet  potato  grower  in  Sonthern  Illinois 
states  that  sweet  potatoes  will  keep  in 
bulk.  He  has  kept  seven  hundred 
Ibushels  in  one  pile.  The  potatoes  should 
Ibe  dug  before  the  vines  are  injured  by 
frost,  sunned  until  dry,  and  then  placed 
in  a  cellar  on  a  clay  floor,  putting  fine  hay 
or  flax  straw  between  the  potatoes  and 
the  wall,  and  covering  with  the  same 
material.  The  deeper  and  larger  the  pile 
the  better.  The  hay  or  straw  should  be 
covered  with  clay,  a  thickness  of  one  or 
two  inches  being  sufficient  for  the  climate 
of  that  region.  At  the  top  should  be  left 
one  or  more  air-holes,  according  to  the 
;size  of  the  pile,  for  the  escape  of  steam. 


In  damp  warm  weather  open  a  window 
or  door  in  the  day-time. 

SOAP,  HARD,  To  Make.— After  the  raw 
soda  or  barilla  is  ground  or  pounded,  it  is 
placed  in  a  vat  in  alternate  layers  with 
unslacked  lime,  the  bottom  layer  being 
lime.  Water  is  allowed  to  infiltrate 
through  those  layers,  and  the  lye  is  se- 
cured as  it  trickles  through  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vat.  The  lime  absorbs 
the  carbonic  acid  of  the  soda,  making  the 
lye  caustic  or  fit  for  the  soap-kettle ;  and 
the  quantity  of  lime  applied  must  be  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  in  the  soda.  To  every  twenty 
pounds  of  tallow  add  one  gallon  of  weak 
lye,  and  boil  until  the  lye  is  spent.  The 
mass  must  then  cool  for  one  hour,  the 
spent  lye  drawn  off,  and  another  gallon  of 
strong  lye  added;  the  mixture  again 
boiled  until  the  second  dose  of  lye  is 
spent,  and  the  same  process  must  be  re- 
peated for  several  days,  until  the  mixture, 
if  properly  managed,  is  converted  into 
white  tallow  soap,  which  should  be  al- 
lowed to  cool  gradually  and  settle,  when 
it  is  poured  into  molds,  and  when  solid  it 
is  cut  into  the  bars  which  are  found  in  our 
markets.  Twenty  pounds  of  tallow  ought 
to  make  30  pounds  of  first-quality  hard 
soap,  allowing  three  pounds  of  soda-ash 
for  every  20  pounds  of  tallow.  The  bal- 
ance of  the  weight  is  made  up  by  the 
large  quantity  of  water  which  enters  into 
combination  with  the  grease  and  alkali  in 
the  course  of  saponification. 

When  yellow  or  resin  soap  is  required, 
the  hard  soap  has  to  be  made  in  the  usual 
manner,  and  at  the  last  charge  of  lye,  or 
when  the  soapy  mass  ceases  to  absorb 
any  more  lye,  one-third  the  weight  of 
pounded  resin  is  introduced,  the  mixture 
constantly  stirred,  and  the  boil  kept  up 
vigorouly  until  the  resin  has  become  in- 
corporated with  the  soap.  The  whole 
must  stand  until  it  settles,  and  the  soap 
then  dipped  out.  Resin  soap,  when  well 
made,  should  be  a  fine,  bright  color. 

SOAP,  SOFT,  To  Make.^The  principal 
difference  between  hard  and  soft  soaps  is, 
that  three  parts  of  fat  afford,  in  general, 
fully  five  parts  of  hard  soda-soap;  but 
three  parts  of  fat  or  oil  will  afford  six  or 
seven  parts  of  potash-soap  of  a  moderate 
consistence.  From  its  cheapness,  strength, 
and  superior  solubility,  potash-soap  is  pre- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       291 


ferred  for  many  purposes,  particularly  for 
the  scouring  of  woolens. 

The  lyes  prepared  for  making  soft  soaps 
should  be  made  very  strong,  and  of  two 
densities,  as  the  process  of  making  potash 
cr  soft  soap  differs  materially  from  that  of 
making  soda  or  hard  soap.  A  portion  of 
the  oil  or  fat  being  placed  in  the  boiling- 
pan  and  heated  to  near  the  boiling-point 
of  water,  a  certain  portion  of  the  weaker 
lye  is  introduced  and  the  fire  kept  up  so 
as  to  bring  the  mixture  to  the  boiling- 
point  ;  then  some  more  oil  and  lye  are 
introduced  alternately,  until  the  pan  is 
filled.  The  boiling  is  continued  gently, 
strong  lye  being  added  until  the  saponifi- 
cation is  complete.  The  fire  should  then 
be  removed,  and  some  good  soap,  pre- 
viously made,  added  while  cooling  down, 
to  prevent  any  change  by  evaporation. 
One  pound  of  oil  requires  about  one-third 
of  a  pound  of  American  potash,  and  will 
make  one  and  three-quarters  to  two 
pounds  of  well-boiled  soap,  containing 
about  40  per  cent,  of  water.  Sixty  pounds 
of  lard  will  make  100  pounds  of  first-class 
soft-soap  by  using  one  and  a  half  cans  of 
concentrated  lye,  which  is  made  from  salt, 
and  is  really  a  soda-lye. 

BOOTS,  To  Keep— These  are  pre- 
served in  different  ways,  according  to  the 
object  in  view.  Tuberous  roots,  as  those 
of  the  dahlia,  paeonia,  tuberose,  etc.,  in- 
tended to  be  planted  in  the  succeeding 
spring,  are  preserved  through  the  winter 
in  dry  earth,  in  a  temperature  rather  un- 
der than  above  what  is  natural  to  them. 
So  may  the  bulbous  roots  of  commerce, 
as  hyacinths,  tulips,  onions,  etc.,  but  for 
convenience,  these  are  kept  either  loose, 
in  cool  dry  shelves  or  lofts,  or  the  finer 
sorts  in  papers,  till  the  season  of  planting. 

Roots  of  all  kinds  may  be  preserved  in 
an  ice  house  till  the  return  of  the  natural 
crop. 

After  stuffing  the  vacuities  with  straw, 
and  covering  the  surface  of  the  ice  with 
the  same  material,  place  on  it  case  boxes, 
casks,  baskets,  etc.,  and  fill  them  with  tur- 
nips, carrots,  beet-roots,  and  in  particular 
potatoes.  By  the  cold  of  the  place  veg- 
etation is  so  much  suspended  that  all 
these  articles  may  be  thus  kept  fresh  and 
uninjured  till  they  give  place  to  another 
crop  in  its  natural  season. 

SAUERKRAUT,  To  Make.— In  the 
first  place,  let  your  "stand,"  holding  from 


half  a  barrel  to  a  barrel,  be  thoroughly 
scalded  out;  the  cutter,  the  tub  and  the 
stamper  also  well  scalded.  Take  off  all 
the  outer  leaves  of  the  cabbages,  halve 
them,  remove  the  heart  and  proceed  with 
the  cutting.  Lay  some  clean  leaves  at 
the  bottom  of  the  stand,  sprinkle  with  a 
handful  of  salt,  fill  in  half  a  bushel  of  cut 
cabbage,  stamp  gently  until  the  juice  just 
makes  its  appearance,  then  add  another 
handful  of  salt,  and  so  on  until  the  stand 
is  full.  Cover  over  with  cabbage  leaves, 
place  on  top  a  clean  board  fitting  the 
space  pretty  well,  and  on  top  of  that  a 
stone  weighing  twelve  or  fifteen  pounds. 
Stand  away  in  a  cool  place,  and  when 
hard  freezing  comes  on  remove  to  the 
cellar.  It  will  be  ready  for  use  in  from 
four  to  six  weeks.  The  cabbage  should 
be  cut  tolerably  coarse.  The  Savoy  vari- 
ety makes  the  best  article,  but  it  is  only 
half  as  productive  as  the  Drumhead  and 
Flat  Dutch. 

SAUSAGE,  Making  and  Keeping. — 1. 
To  make  family  sausage,  the  trimmings 
and  other  lean  and  fat  portions  of  pork 
are  used,  taking  care  that  there  is  about 
twice  as  much  lean  as  fat ;  some  consider 
it  an  improvement  to  add  about  one-sixth 
of  the  weight  of  lean  beef.  As  to  sea- 
soning, that  is  a  matter  of  taste.  The 
majority  of  people  use  salt,  pepper,  and 
sage  only,  some  use  only  salt  and  pep- 
per, while  others,  in  addition  to  the  above, 
put  in  thyme,  mace,  cloves  and  other 
spices.  There  is  something  repulsive 
about  the  intestines  or  "skins"  used  for 
stuffing  sausage,  and  the  majority  pre- 
serve the  meat  in  bulk.  In  cold  weather 
it  will  keep  for  a  long  lime,  but  if  it  is 
desired  to  preserve  it  beyond  cold  weath- 
er it  needs  some  care.  We  have  found 
that  muslin  bags,  made  of  a  size  to  hold 
a  roll  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches  in 
diameter,  keep  the  meat  very  satisfactori- 
ly. These  bags,  when  filled  with  sausage 
meat,  are  dipped  into  melted  lard,  and 
hung  up  in  a  dry,  cool  place.  For  sea- 
soning, we  use  to  one  hundred  pounds  of 
meat  forty  ounces  salt,  and  from  eight  to 
ten  ounces  each  pepper  and  salt. 

2.  Take  two-thirds  ham  and  one-third 
fat  pork;  season  well  with  nine  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  pepper,  and  the  same  of  salt,  three 
of  powdered  sage,  and  one  of  thyme  or 
summer  savory  to  every  pound  of  meat — 
not     heaping    teaspoonfuls,    remember; 


292 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


warm  the  meat  enough  so  that  you  can 
mix  it  well  with  the  hands;  then  pack  in 
jars.  When  needed  make  up  in  small 
cakes  and  fry  with  a  little  butter,  or  sim- 
ply alone.  But  they  must  not  be  covered 
alone,  or  they  will  fall  to  pieces.  Some 
like  a  little  cinnamon  added.  Keep 
where  it  is  cool  but  not  damp. 

SUET,  To  Keep.— Suet  may  be  kept  a 
year,  thus :  Choose  the  firmest  and  most 
free  from  skin  or  veins,  remove  all  traces 
of  these,  put  the  suet  in  the  saucepan 
at  some  distance  from  the  fire,  and  let  it 
melt  gradually ;  when  melted,  pour  it  into 
a  pan  of  cold  spring  water ;  when  hard, 
wipe  it  dry,  fold  it  in  white  paper,  put  it 
in  a  linen  bag,  and  keep  it  in  a  cool,  dry 
place;  when  used,  it  must  be  scraped, 
and  it  will  make  an  excellent  crust  with 
or  without  butter. 

TOMATOES,  Canning.— The  most  thor- 
ough and  reliable  mode  of  canning  to- 
matoes is  as  follows:  They  are  just  suffi- 
ciently steamed,  not  cooked,  to  scald  or 
loosen  the  skin,  and  are  then  poured  up- 
on tables  and  the  skin  removed,  care  be- 
ing taken  to  preserve  the  tomato  in  as 
solid  a  state  as  possible.  After  being 
peeled,  they  are  placed  in  large  pans, 
with  false  bottoms  perforated  with  holes, 
so  as  to  strain  off  the  liquid  that  ema- 
nates from  them.  From  these  pans  they 
are  carefully  placed  by  hand  into  the 
cans,  which  are  filled  as  solidly  as  possi- 
ble— in  other  words,  all  are  put  in  that 
the  cans  will  hold.  They  are  then  put 
through  the  usual  process  and  hermeti- 
cally sealed.  The  cans,  when  opened 
for  use,  present  the  tomato  not  only  like 
the  natural  vegetable  in  taste  and  color, 
but  also  in  appearance;  and  moreover, 
when  thus  sealed,  they  are  warranted  to 
keep  in  any  climate,  and  when  opened, 
will  taste  as  naturally  as  when  just 
plucked  from  the  vine. 

TALLOW,  To  Clarify.— Dissolve  one 
pound  of  alum  in  one  quart  of  water, 
add  to  this  100  pounds  of  tallow  in  a 
jacket  kettle  (a  kettle  set  in  a  larger  one, 
and  the  intervening  space  filled  with  wa- 
ter; this  prevents  burning  the  tallow.) 
Boil  three-quarters  of  an  hour  and  skim. 
Then  add  one  pound  of  salt  dissolved 
in  a  quart  of  water.  Boil  and  skim. 
When  well  clarified  the  tallow  should  be 
nearly  the  color  of  water. 

TALLOW,  To  Harden.— We  have  used 


the  following  mixture  with  success :  To- 
one  pound  of  tallow  take  one-fourth  of 
a  pound  common  rosin;  melt  them  to- 
gether, and  mold  them  the  usual  way. 
This  will  give  a  candle  of  superior  light- 
ing power,  and  as.  hard  as  a  wax  can- 
dle ;  a  vast  improvement  upon  the  com- 
mon tallow  candle,  in  all  respects  except, 
color. 

TOMATO  CATSUP.  — Take  perfectly- 
ripe  tomatoes  y2  bushel ;  wash  them  clean 
and  break  to  pieces ;  then  put  over  the: 
fire  and  let  them  come  to  a  boil,  and 
remove  from  the  fire;  when  they  are 
sufficiently  cool  to  allow  your  hands  in 
them,  rub  through  a  wire  sieve;  and  to 
what  goes  through,  add  salt  2  tea-cups ;. 
allspice  and  cloves,  of  each,  ground,  1 
tea-cup;  best  vinegar  1  quart.  Put  on 
to  the  fire  again  and  cook  one  hour,, 
stirring  with  great  care  to  avoid  burning.. 
Bottle  and  seal  for  use.  If  too  thick 
when  used,  put  in  a  little  vinegar.  If 
they  were  very  juicy  they  may  need  boil- 
ing over  an  hour. 

VEGETABLES,  Keeping.— Sink  a  bar- 
rel two-thirds  of  its  depth  into  the 
ground  (a  box  or  cask  will  answer  a 
better  purpose);  heap  the  earth  around 
the  part  projecting  out  of  the  ground, 
with  a  slope  on  all  sides ;  place  the  vege- 
tables that  you  desire  to  keep  in  the: 
vessel ;  cover  the  top  with  a  water  tight 
cover;  and  when  winter  sets  in,  throw  an 
armful  of  straw,  hay,  or  something  of 
that  sort,  on  the  barrel.  If  the  bottom  is 
out  of  the  cask  or  barrel,  it  will  be  better. 
Cabbages,  celery,  and  other  vegetables,, 
will  keep  in  this  way  as  fresh  as  when 
taken  from  the  ground.  The  celery  should 
stand  nearly  perpendicular,  celery  and 
earth  alternating.  Freedom  from  frost,, 
ease  of  access,  and  especially  freshness, 
and  freedom  from  rot,  are  the  advantages 
claimed. 

YEAST,  To  Keep.  —  Ordinary  beer 
yeast  may  be  kept  fresh  and  fit  for  use  for 
several  months;  by  placing  it  in  a  close 
canvas  bag,  and  gently  squeezing  out  the 
moisture  in  a  screw  press,  the  remaining 
matter  becomes  as  stiff  as  clay,  in  which 
state  it  must  be  preserved  in  close  vessels. 

YEAST  CAKES,  or  Preserved  Yeast. 
Put  a  large  handful  of  hops  into  two 
quarts  of  boiling  water.  Boil  three  large 
potatoes  until  they  are  tender.  Mash 
them  and  add  them  to  two  pounds  of 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      293 


flour.  Pour  the  boiling  hot  water  over 
the  flour  through  a  sieve  or  colander,  and 
beat  it  until  it  is  quite  smooth.  While  it 
is  warm,  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  salt, 
and  half  a  teacupful  of  sugar.  Before  it 
is  quite  cold,  stir  in  a  pint  or  more  of 
good  yeast.  After  the  yeast  has  become 
quite  light,  stir  in  as  much  Indian  meal  as 
it  will  take,  roll  it  out  in  cakes,  and  place 
.them  on  a  cloth  in  a  dry  place,  taking 
care  to  turn  them  every  day.  At  the  end 
of  a  week  or  ten  days  they  may  be  put 
into  a  bag,  and  should  be  kept  in  a  dry 
place.  When  used,  take  one  of  these 
cakes,  soak  it  in  some  milk- warm  water, 
mash  it  smooth,  and  use  it  as  any  other 
kind  of  yeast. 

VINEGAR,  Cider.— 1.  The  most  profit- 
able return  from  such  apples  as  are  made 
into  cider  is  the  further  transformation  of 
the  juice  into  vinegar.  To  do  this,  the 
barrels  should  be  completely  filled,  so 
that  all  impurities  that  "working" — fer- 
menting— throws  off  will  be  ejected 
through  the  bung-hole.  This  process 
should  be  completed  before  the  barrel  is 
put  in  the  cellar,  and  when  this  is  done, 
the  purified  juice  should  be  drawn  out 
of  the  original  cask  and  put  into  others 
where  there  is  a  small  amount  of  old 
-vinegar,  which  will  amazingly  hasten  the 
desired  result.  If  no  vinegar  can  be 
obtained  to  "start"  the  cider,  it  must 
remain  in  a  dry  cellar  six  months,  and 
perhaps .  a  year  (the  longer  the  better), 
before  it  will  be  fit  for  the  table. 

2.  Save  all  your  apple  parings  and  slice 
in  with  them  all  waste  apples  and  other 
fruits ;  keep  them  in  a  cool  place  till  you 
get  a  pailful,  then  turn  a  large  plate  over 
them,  on  which  a  light  weight  should  be 
placed,  and  pour  on  boiling  water  till  it 
oomes  to  the  top.  After  they  have  stood 
two  or  three  days  pour  off  the  liquid, 
which  will  be  as  good  cider  as  much  that 
is  offered  for  sale;  strain  and  pour  it  into 
a  cask  or  some  other  convenient  vessel 
;( anything  that  can  be  closely  covered  will 
do),  and  drop  in  a  piece  of  "  mother,"  or 
vinegar  plant,  procured  of  some  one  that 
has  good  vinegar.  If  set  in  a  warm 
place,  the  vinegar  will  be  fit  for  use  in 
three  or  four  weeks,  when  it  can  be  drawn 
off  for  use,  and  the  cask  filled  with  cider 
made  from  time  to  time  by  this  process. 
The  parings  should  be  pressed  compactly 
into  a  tub  or  pail,  and  only  water  enough 


poured  over  to  come  to  their  surface, 
otherwise  the  cider  would  be  so  weak  as 
to  require  the  addition  of  molasses.  By 
having  two  casks,  one  to  contain  the 
vinegar  already  made,  and  the  other  to 
fill  into  from  time  to  time,  one  never  need 
be  without  good  vinegar.  The  rinsings 
of  preserve  kettles,  sweetmeat  jars,  and 
from  honey,  also  stale  beer  and  old  cider, 
should  all  be  saved  for  the  vinegar  cask; 
only  caution  should  be  used  that  there  be 
sufficient  sweetness  or  body  to  whatever 
is  poured  in,  or  the  vinegar  may  die  from 
lack  of  strength. 

3.  A  barrel  or  a  cask  of  new  sweet 
cider,  buried  so  as  to  be  well  covered 
with  fresh  earth,  will  turn  to  sharp,  clear, 
delicious  vinegar  in  three  or  four  weeks, 
as  good  as  ever  sought  affinity  with  cab- 
bage, pickles,  or  table  sauce,  and  better 
than  is  possible  to  make  by  any  other 
process. 

PICKLES,  Observations  on.  —  The 
strongest  vinegar  must  be  used  for  pick- 
ling ;  it  must  not  be  boiled,  or  the  strength 
of  the  vinegar  and  spices  will  be  evapo- 
rated. By  parboiling  the  pickles  in  brine 
they  will  be  ready  in  much  less  time  than 
they  are  when  done  in  the  Usual  maimer, 
of  soaking  them  in  cold  salt  water  for  six 
or  eight  days.  When  taken  out  of  the 
hot  brine,  let  them  get  cold  and  quite  dry< 
before  you  put  them  into  the  pickle. 

To  assist  the  preservation  of  pickles,  a 
portion  of  salt  is  added,  and  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  to  give  flavor,  long  pepper, 
black  pepper,  allspice,  ginger,  cloves, 
mace,  eschalots,  mustard,  horse-radish 
and  capsicum. 

The  following  is  the  best  method  of 
preparing  the  pickle,  as  cheap  as  any,  and 
requires  less  care  than  any  other  way: 
Bruise  in  a  mortar  four  ounces  of  the 
above  spices,  put  them  into  a  stone  jar 
with  a  quart  of"  the  strongest  vinegar,  stop 
the  jar  closely  with  a  bung,  cover  that 
with  a  bladder  soaked  with  pickle,  set  it 
on  a  trivet  by  the  side  of  the  fire  for  three 
days,  well  shaking  it  up  at  least  three 
times  in  the  day ;  the  pickle  should  be  at 
least  three  inches  above  the  pickles.  The 
jar  being  well  closed,  and  the  infusion 
being  made  with  a  mild  heat,  there  is  no 
loss  by  evaporation. 

To  enable  the  articles  pickled  more 
easily  and  speedily  to  imbibe  the  flavor  of 
the   pickle  they  are  immersed  in,  previ- 


?94 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


ously  to  pouring  it  on  them,  run  a  larding- 
pin  through  them  in  several  places. 

Pickles  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place 
in  unglazed  earthenware  or  glass  jars, 
which  are  preferable,  as  you  can,  without 
opening  them,  observe  whether  they  want 
filling  up ;  they  must  be  carefully  stopped 
with  well-fitted  bungs,  and  tied  over  as 
closely  as  possible  with  a  bladder  wetted 
with  the  pickle;  and  if  to  be  preserved  a 
long  time  after  that  is  dry,  it  must  be 
dipped  in  bottle  cement. 

When  the  pickles  are  well  used,  boil  up 
the  liquor  with  a  little  fresh  spice. 

To  walnut  liquor  may  be  added  a  few 
anchovies  and  eschalots ;  let  it  stand  till 
it  is  quite  clear,  and  bottle  it ;  thus  you 
may  furnish  your  table  with  an  excellent 
savory-keeping  sauce  for  hashes,  made 
dishes,  fish,  etc.,  at  very  small  cost. 

Jars  should  not  be  more  than  three 
parts  filled  with  the  articles  pickled,  which 
should  be  covered  with  pickle  at  least  two 
inches  above  their  surface;  the  liquor 
wastes,  and  all  of  the  articles  pickled  that 
are  not  covered  are  soon  spoiled. 

When  they  have  been  done  about  a 
week,  open  the  jars  and  fill  them  up  with 
pickle. 

Tie  a  wooden  spoon,  full  of  holes, 
round  each  jar,  to  take  them  out  with. 

If  you  wish  to  have  gherkins,  etc.,  very 
green,  this  may  be  easily  accomplished  by 
keeping  them  in  vinegar,  sufficiently  hot, 
till  they  become  so. 

If  you  wish  cauliflowers,  onions,  etc., 
to  be  white,  use  distilled  vinegar  for  them. 

To  entirely  prevent  the  mischief  arising 
from  the  action  of  the  acid  upon  the 
metallic  utensils  usually  employed  to  pre- 
pare pickles,  the  whole  of  the  process  is 
directed  to  be  performed  in  unglazed  stone 
jars. 

BEETS,  Pickled.  —  Boil  your  beets  till 
tender,  but  not  quite  soft.  To  four  large 
beets,  boil  three  eggs  hard  and  remove 
the  shells ;  when  the  beets  are  done,  take 
off  the  skin  by  laying  them  for  a  few  min- 
utes in  cold  water,  and  then  stripping  it 
off;  slice  them  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
put  the  eggs  at  the  bottom,  and  then  put 
in  the  beets  with  a  little  salt.  Pour  on 
cold  vinegar  enough  to  cover  them.  The 
eggs  imbibe  the  color  of  the  beets  and 
look  beautiful  on  the  table. 

BEET-ROOT,  Pickled.  —  Simmer  the 
roots  till  three  parts  done  (from  one  and 


a  half  to  two  and  a  half  hours) ;  then  take 
them  out,  peel,  and  cut  them  in  thin 
slices.  Put  them  into  a  jar,  and  pour  on 
sufficient  cold  spiced  vinegar  to  cover 
them. 

CABBAGE,  Pickled.  —  Choose  a  fine, 
close  cabbage  for  the  purpose  of  pickling, 
cut  it  as  thin  as  possible,  and  throw  some 
salt  upon  it.  Let  it  remain  for  three  days, 
when  it  will  have  turned  a  rich  purple ; 
drain  from  it  the  salt,  and  put  it  into  a  pan 
with  some  strong  vinegar,  a  few  blades  of 
mace,  and  some  white  pepper-corns.  Give 
it  a  scald,  and  when  cold,  put  it  into  the 
jars,  and  tie  it  up  close. 

CUCUMBERS,  Pickled— Make  a  brine 
by  putting  one  pint  of  rock  salt  into  a  pail 
of  boiling  water,  and  pour  it  over  the  cu- 
cumbers ;  cover  tight  to  keep  in  the  steam, 
and  let  them  remain  all  night  and  part  of 
a  day;  make  a  second  brine  as  above, 
and  let  them  remain  in  it  the  same  length 
of  time ;  then  scald  and  skim  the  brine, 
as  it  will  answer  for  the  third  time,  and 
let  them  remain  in  it  as  above ;  then  rinse 
and  wipe  them  dry,  and  add  boiling  hot 
vinegar ;  throw  in  a  lump  of  alum  as  large 
as  an  oil-nut  to  every  pail  of  pickles,  and 
you  will  have  a  fine,  hard  and  green 
pickle ;  add  spices  if  you  like,  and  keep 
the  pickles  under  the  vinegar.  A  brick 
on  the  top  of  the  cover,  which  keeps  the 
pickles  under,  has  a  tendency  to  collect 
the  scum  to  itself,  which  may  arise. 

CHERRIES,  Pickled.— Take  the  largest 
and  ripest  red  cherries,  remove  the  stems, 
have  ready  a  large  glass  jar,  fill  it  two- 
thirds  full  with  cherries,  and  fill  up  to  the 
top  with  the  best  vinegar;  keep  it  well 
covered,  and  no  boiling  or  spice  is  nec- 
essary, as  the  cherry  flavor  will  be  retained, 
and  the  cherries  will  not  shrivel. 

CHOPPED  PICKLES.— What  we  call 
chopped  pickle  goes  also  under  the  name 
of  chow-chow,  picklette,  higdum,  etc.  It 
is  liked  by  most  persons,  is  readily  made, 
and  admits  of  the  use  of  a  number  of  arti- 
cles. There  is  no  particular  rule  for 
making  it,  and  the  basis  may  be  of  what- 
ever pickle-making  material  is  most  abun- 
dant. We  have  just  put  up  our  winter 
stock,  and  this  time  made  it  as  follows : 
Green  tomatoes  furnished  the  largest 
share ;  then  there  were  nearly  ripe  cucum- 
bers with  the  seeds  removed,  cabbage, 
onions,  and  green  peppers.  These  were 
chopped    in    a    chopping-machine,   and 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       295- 


mixed,  sprinkled  freely  with  salt,  and  al- 
lowed to  stand  until  the  next  day.  The 
abundant  juice  was  then  thoroughly 
drained  off,  and  enough  spiced  vinegar 
prepared  to  cover  the  material.  No  rule 
can  be  given  for  the  spice,  which  may  be 
according  to  taste.  Whole  pepper,  cloves, 
mustard-seed,  broken  cinnamon,  or  what- 
ever spice  is  fancied,  may  be  boiled  in 
the  vinegar.  We  prefer  it  with  the  addi- 
tion of  sugar.  Some  mix  up  mustard  and 
add  to  the  pickle  when  cold,  and  others 
boil  turmeric  in  the  vinegar  to  give  it  a 
uniform  yellow  color.  It  is  a  pickle  that 
can  be  made  according  to  fancy  rather 
than  according  to  rule.  In  winter,  cab- 
bage, celery,  and  onions,  treated  in  the 
same  way  make  a  very  fine  pickle.  As 
with  other  pickles,  the  vinegar  should  be 
poured  off  and  boiled,  at  intervals  of  a 
few  days,  two  or  three  times  before  it  is 
put  away  for  the  winter. 

CAULIFLOWER  AND  BROCCOLI.  — 
These  should  be  sliced,  and  salted  for  two 
or  three  days,  then  drained,  and  spread 
upon  a  dry  cloth  before  the  fire  for  twenty- 
four  hours ;  then  put  into  a  jar  and  cov- 
ered with  spiced  vinegar.  Dr.  Kitchener 
says,  that  if  vegetables  are  put  into  cold 
salt  and  water  (a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
salt  to  a  quart  of  water),  and  gradually 
heated  to  boiling,  it  answers  the  same 
purpose  as  letting  them  lie  some  days  in 
salt. 

CRAB-APPLE,  Sweet,  Pickled.— Boil 
the  fruit  in  clear  water  until  it  becomes  a 
little  soft;  then  drain  them  on  a  large 
dish  ;  then  to  every  pound  of  fruit  add 
one  of  sugar,  and  boil  hard  until  they  are 
preserved. 

To  make  the  pickles,  take  one-half 
syrup  and  one-half  vinegar ;  fill  the  jar 
with  the  preserves,  and  pour  on  the  syrup 
and  vinegar ;  add  spices  to  suit  the  taste. 

GHERKINS,  Pickled.— Steep  them  in 
strong  brine  for  a  week,  then  pour  it  off, 
heat  it  to  a  boiling  point,  and  again  pour 
it  on  the  gherkins ;  in  twenty-four  hours 
drain  the  fruit  on  a  sieve,  put  it  into  wide- 
mouthed  bottles  or  jars,  fill  them  up  with 
strong  pickling  vinegar,  boiling  hot,  bung 
down  immediately,  and  tie  over  with  a 
bladder.  When  cold,  dip  the  corks  into 
melted  bottle  wax.  Spice  is  usually  added 
to  the  bottles,  or  else  steeped  in  the 
vinegar. 

In  a  similar  way  are  pickled :  onions, 


mushrooms,  cucumbers,  walnuts,  sam- 
phires, green  gooseberries,  cauliflowers,, 
melons,  barberries,  peaches,  lemons,  to- 
matoes, beans,  radish  pods,  codlins,  red 
cabbage  (without  salt  and  with  cold  vine- 
gar), beet-root  (without  salt),  garlic,  peas,, 
etc.,  etc.;  observing  that  the  softer  and 
more  delicate  articles  do  not  require  so 
long  soaking  in  brine  as  the  harder  and 
coarser  kinds,  and  may  be  often  advanta- 
geously pickled  by  simply  pouring  very 
strong  pickling  vinegar  over  them,  with- 
out applying  heat. 

GREEN-GINGER,    Pickled.  —  Clean 
and  slice  the  ginger ;  sprinkle  with  salt ; 
let  it  remain  a  few  hours ;  then  put  it  into- 
a  jar  or  bottle,  and  pour  boiling  vinegar 
over  it ;  cork  it  up  when  cool. 

LIMES,  Pickled.  —  They  should  be 
small,  and  with  thin  rinds.  Rub  them 
with  pieces  of  flannel,  then  slit  them  half 
down  in  four  quarters,  but  not  through  to 
the  pulp;  fill  the  slits  with  salt,  hard 
pressed  in ;  set  them  upright  in  a  pan  for 
four  or  five  days  until  the  salt  melts ;  turn 
them  three  times  a  day  in  their  own  liquor 
until  tender;  make  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  pickle  to  cover  them,  of  vinegar,  the 
brine  of  the  lemons,  pepper  and  ginger ;. 
boil  and  skim  it,  and  when  cold  put  it  to 
the  lemons,  with  two  ounces  of  mustard- 
seed,  and  two  cloves  of  garlic  to  every 
six  lemons.  In  boiling  the  brine  care- 
should  be  taken  to  use  a  well-tinned  cop- 
per saucepan  only,  otherwise  it  will  be 
discolored. 

MIXED  PICCALILLI,  Pickled.  — To 
each  gallon  of  strong  vinegar  put  four 
ounces  of  curry  powder,  four  ounces  of 
good  flour  mustard,  three  ounces  of 
bruised  ginger,  two  ounces  of  turmeric, 
eight  ounces  of  skinned  shallots,  and  two 
ounces  of  garlic  (the  last  two  slightly 
baked  in  a  Dutch  oven),  one-fourth  pound 
of  salt  and  two  drachms  of  cayenne  pep- 
per. Digest  these  near  the  fire,  as  directed 
above  for  spiced  vinegar.  Put  into  a  jar, 
gherkins,  sliced  cucumbers,  sliced  onions, 
button  onions,  cauliflower,  celery,  broc- 
coli, French  beans,  nasturtiums,  capsi- 
cums, large  cucumbers,  and  small  lemons. 
All,  except  the  capsicums,  to  be  parboiled 
in  salt  water,  drained,  and  dried  on  a  cloth 
before  the  fire.  Pour  on  them  the  above 
pickle. 

MUSHROOMS,  Pickled.— To  preserve 
the  flavor,  buttons  must  be  rubbed  with  a. 


-296 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


piece  of  flannel  and  salt,  and  from  the 
larger  ones  take  out  the  red  inside,  for 
when  they  are  black  they  will  not  do, 
l>eing  too  old.  Throw  a  little  salt  over, 
and  put  them  into  a  stewpan  with  some 
mace  and  white  pepper;  as  the  liquor 
■comes  out,  shake  them  well,  and  simmer 
them  over  a  gentle  fire  till  all  of  it  is  dried 
into  them  again ;  then  put  as  much  vin- 
egar into  the  pan  as  will  cover  them; 
make  it  warm,  and  then  put  all  into  glass 
jars  or  bottles,  and  tie  down  with  a  blad- 
der. They  will  keep  two  years,  and  are 
delicious. 

MINCED  PICKLES.— One  large  white 
cabbage,  beans,  green  tomatoes,  gherkins 
and  green  pepper  (the  veins  to  be  cut 
out),  without  regard  to  quantity ;  chop 
them  up  finely,  and  place  in  separate  ves- 
sels; salt  them,  and  let  them  stand 
twenty-four  hours ;  squeeze  them  through 
a  sieve,  mix  all  together,  and  flavor  with 
mustard-seed,  spice,  cloves,  black  pepper 
and  horse-radish ;  pour  on  scalding  vin- 
egar ;  cut  up  two  large  onions  and  throw 
in,  and  let  them  stand  twenty-four  hours ; 
then  pour  off  the  vinegar,  and  fill  up  with 
«:old. 

ONIONS,  Pickled.  —  Scald  one  gallon 
•of  small  onions  in  salt  water  of  the 
-strength  to  bear  an  egg.  Only  just  let 
them  boil,  strain  them  off,  and  peel  them 
after  they  are  scalded,  place  them  in  a  jar, 
and  cover  them  with  the  best  cold  vin- 
egar. The  next  day  pour  the  vinegar  off, 
add  two  ounces  of  bruised  ginger,  one 
ounce  of  white  pepper,  two  ounces  of 
flour  of  mustard-seed,  half  an  ounce  chil- 
lies ;  boil  them  twenty  minutes,  turn  all 
together,  boiling  hot,  to  the  onions ;  let 
them  remain  ten  days,  turn  the  vinegar 
out  again,  boil  as  before,  turn  them  hot 
on  the  onions  again.  They  will  be  ready 
for  use  as  soon  as  quite  cold. 

PEACH  PICKLES.— Take  any  quantity 
of  fine  peaches  just  before  they  are  ripe, 
stick  into  each  five  or  six  cloves ;  make  a 
syrup  of  three  pints  of  vinegar  and  three 
pounds  of  peaches ;  add  cinnamon  if  you 
like.  Bring  the  syrup  to  a  boil,  and  pour 
hot  over  them ;  repeat  the  process  for 
three  days,  or  until  they  are  shrunk  on  the 
pit.  After  the  last  scald  they  should  be 
well  covered  and  put  away  in  a  very  cool 
cellar  until  cold  weather  sets  in.  They 
will  be  ready  to  use,  however,  in  a  few 
days  after  they  are  pickled. 


PICKLES,  to  Color  Green.— A  beautiful 
green  color,  entirely  destitute  of  any  poi- 
sonous qualities,  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving five  grains  saffron  in  one-fourth 
ounce  distilled  water,  and  in  another  ves- 
sel dissolving  four  grains  indigo  carmine 
in  one-half  ounce  distilled  water.  After 
shaking  each  up  thoroughly  they  are  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours,  and 
on  being  mixed  together  at  the  expiration 
of  that  time,  a  fine  green  solution  is 
obtained,  capable  of  coloring  five  pounds 
of  sugar. 

PEPPERS,  Pickled.— Soak  fresh,  hard 
peppers  in  salt  and  water  for  nine  days  in 
a  warm  place,  changing  the  brine  every 
day ;  then  put  them  into  cold  vinegar.  If 
the  pickles  are  not  required  very  hot,  take 
out  the  seeds  from  the  greater  portion  of 
the  peppers. 

PLUMS,  Sweet,  Pickled.— Take  seven 
pounds  of  fruit,  put  them  in  a  jar  with 
three  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar,  one 
quart  best  vinegar,  two  ounces  stick  cin- 
namon, two  ounces  cloves;  the  whole 
boiled  together  and  thrown  over  the  fruit 
three  days. 

ROOTS,  Pickled.  —  Roots,  such  as  car- 
rots, salsify  and  beet-root,  may  be  pickled 
by  being  sliced,  or  cut  into  small  pieces, 
and  slightly  boiled  in  vinegar  without 
destroying  their  crispness,  and  adding  the 
common  spices ;  with  beet-root,  put  but- 
ton onions,  or  cut  some  Spanish  onions  in 
slices,  lay  them  alternately  in  a  jar;  boil 
one  quart  of  vinegar  with  one  ounce  ot 
mixed  pepper,  half  an  ounce  of  ginger, 
and  some  salt,  and  pour  it  cold  over  the 
beet-root  and  onions. 

PICKLES,  Sweet.  —  For  pickling  all 
kinds  of  fruit  to  keep  good  the  year  round, 
the  following  rule  is  safe :  To  three  pounds 
of  sugar  add  one  pint  of  good  vinegar, 
spices  to  your  taste;  boil  it  together, 
then  let  it  cool ;  fill  the  jars  with  clean 
and  sound  fruit,  such  as  peaches,  pears, 
plums,  cherries  and  grapes  (each  kind  in 
a  separate  jar);  then,  when  the  vinegar  is 
cool,  put  it  on  the  fruit ;  let  it  stand  all 
night,  then  turn  off  the  liquor,  and  boil  it 
down  a  little ;  then  let  it  cool,  and  pour  it 
in  the  jars ;  cover  them  nicely,  and  put 
them  in  a  cool  place.  If,  in  time,  you 
discover  a  white  scum  on  the  top,  skim  it 
off,  turn  off  the  vinegar,  add  a  little  sugar, 
and  boil  it;    when  cool,  pour  it  on  the 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       297 


fruit  again,  and  you  will  have  a  delightful 
pickle. 

For  peach  mangoes,  these  are  excellent. 
Take  sound,  ripe,  free-stone  peaches; 
wipe  off  the  fur ;  split  them  open ;  take 
out  the  pits ;  have  ready  some  fine  chopped 
tomatoes,  cabbage,  horse-radish,  and  mus- 
tard-seed ;  fill  the  vacancy  in  the  peach ; 
then  place  them  together,  and  tie  them 
with  a  string ;  fill  your  jars  with  prepared 
vinegar. 

TOMATOES,  Pickled.— Always  use  those 
which  are  thoroughly  ripe.  The  small, 
round  ones  are  decidedly  the  best.  Do 
not  prick  them,  as  most  recipe-books  di- 
rect. Let  them  lie  in  strong  brine  three 
or  four  days,  then  put  them  down  in  layers 
in  your  jars,  mixing  with  them  small  onions 
and  pieces  of  horse-radish ;  then  pour  on 
l:he  vinegar  (cold),.which  should  be  first 
spiced  as  for  peppers ;  let  there  be  a  spice 
'bag  to  throw  into  every  pot.  Cover 
vthem  carefully,  and  set  them  by  in  the 
cellar  for  a  full  month  before  using. 

TOMATOES,  Green,  Pickled.— To  one 
peck  of  tomatoes  add  a  handful  of  salt, 
and  enough  water  to  cover  them.  Let 
them  remain  in  this  twenty-four  hours. 
Put  them  in  a  kettle  (porcelain  lined  is 
the  best),  fill  up  with  vinegar,  and  set 
upon  the  stove  until  the  vinegar  begins 
to  boil,  and  then  set  away  to  cool.  When 
cold,  set  the  kettle  again  upon  the  stove, 
and  bring  it  to  the  boiling  point.  Then 
skim  the  tomatoes,  and  put  them  into  a 
jar;  fill  up  with  some  new,  cold  vinegar, 
and  flavor  with  mustard-seed,  allspice, 
cloves,  etc. 

The  same  vinegar  first  used  will  do  to 
scald  more  tomatoes  in. 

PRESERVING,  Hints  on.— A  very 
common  discovery  made  by  those  who 
preserve  fruits,  etc.,  is,  that  the  preserve 
either  ferments,  grows  mouldy  or  becomes 
candied. 

These  three  effects  arise  from  three  sep- 
arate causes.  The  first  from  insufficient 
boiling;  the  second  from  being  kept  in  a 
damp  place,  assisted  in  some  degree  by 
the  first  cause ;  and  the  third  from  being 
too  quick  and  too  long  boiling. 

Preserves  of  all  kinds  should  be  kept 
entirely  secluded  from  the  air,  and  in  a 
dry  place.  In  ranging  them  on  the 
shelves  of  a  store-closet,  they  should  not 
be  suffered  to  come  in  contacc  with  the 
wall.     Moisture  in  winter  and  spring  ex- 


udes from  some  of  the  driest  walls,  and 
preserves  invariably  imbibe  it,  both  in 
dampness  and  taste.  It  is  necessary  oc- 
casionally to  look  at  them,  and  if  they 
have  have  been  attacked  by  mould  boil 
them  up  gently  again.  To  prevent  all 
risks  it  is  always  as  well  to  lay  a  brandy 
paper  over  the  fruit  before  tying  down. 
This  may  be  renewed  in  the  spring. 

Fruit  jellies  are  made  in  the  ratio  of  a 
quart  of  fruit  to  two  pounds  of  sugar. 
They  must  not  be  boiled  quick,  nor  very 
long.  Practice,  and  a  general  discretion, 
will  be  found  the  best  guide  to  regulate 
the  exact  time,  which  must  necessarily 
be  affected,  more  or  less  by  local  causes. 

PRESERVE  FRUITS,  without  Self- 
Sealing  Cans. — Prepare  a  cement  of  one 
ounce  resin,  one  ounce  gum  shellac,  and 
a  cubic  inch  of  beeswax ;  put  them  in  a 
tin  cup  and  melt  slowly;  too  high  or  too 
quick  heat  may  cause  it  to  scorch. 

Place  the  jars  where  they  will  become 
warm  while  the  fruit  is  cooking.  If  they 
are  gradually  heated  there  is  no  danger  ot 
breaking. 

As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  thoroughly  heat- 
ed, and  while  boiling  hot,  fill  the  jars  full, 
letting  the  juice  cover  the  fruit  entirely. 
Have  ready  some  circular  pieces  of  stout, 
thick  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  and  spread 
over  with  cement  a  piece  sufficient  to 
cover  the  mouth  and  rim  of  the  jar. 
Wipe  the  rim  perfectly  dry,  and  apply  the 
cloth  while  warm,  putting  the  cement  side 
down,  bring  the  cover  over  the  rim,  and 
secure  it  firmly  with  a  string ;  then  spread 
a  coating  of  cement  over  the  upper  sur- 
face. As  the  contents  of  the  jar  cool,  the 
pressure  of  the  air  will  depress  the  cover, 
and  give  positive  proof  that  all  is  safe. 

PRESERVE,  Small  Fruits  without 
Cooking.— Strawberries,  raspberries,  black- 
berries, cherries  and  peaches  can  be  pre- 
served in  this  manner:  Lay  the  ripe  fruit 
in  broad  dishes,  and  sprinkle  over  it  the 
same  quantity  of  sugar  used  in  cooking 
it.  Set  it  in  the  sun,  or  a  moderately 
heated  oven,  until  the  juice  forms  a  thick 
syrup  with  the  sugar.  Pack  the  fruit  in 
tumblers,  and  pour  the  syrup  over  it. 
Paste  writing  paper  over  the  glasses,  and 
set  them  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Peaches 
must  be  pared  and  split,  and  cherries 
stoned.  Preserved  in  this  manner,  the 
fruit  retains  much  more  of  its  natural  fla- 
vor and  healthfulness  than  when  cooked. 


298 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


PRESERVE,  Fruits  without  Sugar  or 
Vinegar. — Pick  the  fruit  from  the  stalks ; 
put  them  into  the  bottles.  Put  one 
drachm  of  alum  into  four  gallons  of  boil- 
ing water ;  let  it  stand  till  it  is  cold ;  then 
fill  the  bottles  with  this  liquor,  bung  them 
tight,  put  them  into  a  copper  of  cold 
water,  and  heat  to  176  °;  and  then  tie 
them  over  with  bladder  and  seal  them. 

FRUITS,  Preserved,  by  Syrup  without 
Heat. — Many  fruits  when  preserved  by 
boiling  lose  much  of  their  peculiar  and 
delicate  flavor,  as  for  instance  pineapples; 
and  this  inconvenience  may,  in  some 
instances,  be  remedied  by  preserving  them 
without  heat.  Cut  the  fruit  in  slices, 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  thick;  strew 
powdered  loaf-sugar  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
thick  in  the  bottom  of  a  jar,  and  put  the 
slices  on  it.  Put  more  sugar  on  this,  and 
then  another  layer  of  the  slices,  and  so 
on,  till  the  jar  is  full.  Place  the  jar  with 
the  fruit  up  to  the  neck  in  boiling  water, 
and  .lr^ep  it  there  till  the  sugar  is  com- 
pletely dissolved,  which  may  take  half  an 
hour,  removing  the  scum  as  it  rises. 
Lastly,  tie  a  wet  bladder  over  the  mouth 
of  the  jar,  or  cork  and  wax  it. 

APPLES,  Preserved. — Pare  and  core 
and  cut  them  in  halves  or  quarters ;  take 
as  many  pounds  of  the  best  brown  sugar; 
put  a  tea-cup  of  water  to  each  pound. 
When  it  is  dissolved  set  it  over  the  fire; 
and  when  boiling  hot  put  in  the  fruit  and 
let  it  boil  gently  until  it  is  clear  and  the 
syrup  thick ;  take  the  fruit  with  a  skim- 
mer on  to  flat  dishes ;  spread  it  to  cool ; 
then  put  it  in  pots  or  jars  and  pour  the 
jelly  over.  Lemons  boiled  tender  in 
water  and  sliced  thin  may  be  boiled  with 
the  apples. 

APPLES,  Crab,  Preserved.  —  Take 
off  the  stem  and  core  them  with  a  sharp 
knife  without  cutting  them  open ;  weigh 
a  pound  of  white  sugar  for  each  pound 
of  apples ;  put  a  tea-cup  of  water  to  each 
pound  of  sugar,  and  then  put  it  over  a 
slow  fire.  When  the  sugar  is  dissolved 
and  hot,  put  the  apples  in;  let  them  boil 
gently  until  they  are  clear,  then  skim 
them,  cut  and  spread  them  on  flat  dishes. 
Boil  the  syrup  until  it  is  thick;  put  the 
syrup  in  whatever  they  are  to  be  kept, 
and  when  the  syrup  is  cold  and  settled, 
pour  it  carefully  over  the  fruit.  Slices  of 
lemon  boiled  with  the  fruit  is  to  some  an 
improvement ;  one  lemon  is  sufficient  for 


several  pounds  of  fruit.  Crab  apples  may 
be  preserved  whole  with  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  of  stem  on ;  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  fruit. 

APRICOTS,  Preserved,  Whole.— Take 
the  largest  and  cleanest  apricots  to  be 
got;  pick  out  the  stones  with  a  silver 
skewer,  or  slit  them  down  the  sides  with 
a  silver  knife;  take  nearly  their  weight  in 
good  lump  sugar;  dip  each  lump  in 
water  and  put  over  the  fire;  let  it  just 
boil;  skim,  and  put  by  till  cold;  then 
pour  it  over  the  fruit  in  the  preserving- 
pan,  warm  very  gently  and  only  allow 
them  to  simmer;  then  put  them  by  till 
next  day,  and  warm  them  again,  continu- 
ing this  till  they  look  clear;  then  take 
the  fruit  from  the  syrup.  The  latter  must 
now  be  well  boiled  and  skimmed,  and 
when  cold  poured  over  the  fruit. 

CITRON  MELON,  Preserved.— Pare, 
core  and  cut  into  slices  some  fine  citron 
melons.  Weigh  them.  To  six  pounds 
of  melon  allow  six  pounds  of  refined 
sugar,  the  juice  and  grated  rind  of  four 
large  lemons,  and  a  quarter  pound  of 
root  ginger.  Boil  the  slices  of  melon 
half  an  hour  or  more,  till  they  look  quite 
clear  and  are  so  tender  that  a  broom 
straw  will  pierce  them.  Then  drain 
them,  lay  them  in  a  pan  of  cold  water,, 
cover  them,  and  let  them  stand  all  night. 
In  the  morning  tie  the  root  ginger  in  a 
thin  muslin  cloth,  and  boil  it  in  three 
pints  of  clear  water  till  the  water  is  high- 
ly flavored;  take  out  the  bag  of  ginger 
and  pour  the  water  over  the  pieces  of  su- 
gar, which  is  previously  broken  and  put 
in  a  preserving  kettle.  When  the  sugar 
is  melted,  set  it  over  the  fire,  put  in  the 
grated  peel  of  the  lemons  and  boil  and 
skim  it  till  no  more  scum  rises.  Then 
put  in  the  sliced  citrons  and  the  juice  of 
the  lemons ;  boil  them  in  the  syrup  till  all 
the  slices  are  quite  transparent,  and  so 
soft  that  a  straw  will  go  through  thenv 
but  do  not  break  them.  When  done  put 
.the  slices,  still  warm,  into  jars,  and  gently 
pour  over  the  syrup.  This  will  be  found 
delicious. 

CUCUMBERS,  Preserved,  To  Imitate 
Ginger. — Take  small  cucumbers,  with  the 
flowers  and  stalks  on  them,  and  some 
large  ones  gathered  dry;  put  them  in  a 
stone  jar  with  salt  and  water  enough  to 
cover  them ;  then  put  cabbage  leaves  on 
the  top  to  cover  them  close,  and  set  them 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       299 


in  the  chimney  corner  for  a  fortnight,  un- 
til they  are  turned  yellow ;  then  drain  the 
water  away  and  throw  away  the  cabbage 
leaves,  which  will  smell  very  strong,  al- 
most to  putrefaction;  split  the  large  ones, 
take  out  the  seed,  put  them  in  an  earthen 
pipkin  over  the  fire  with  weak  salt  and 
water;  cover  them  close,  and  let  them 
green  gently  for  ten  hours,  when  they 
will  look  a  little  green,  and  are  very 
clean ;  take  them  off  the  fire  and  drain 
them,  and  put  them  into  cold  water,  shitt- 
ing them  twice  a  day  for  two  days ;  then 
drain  them  and  dry  them  in  a  fine  cloth. 
Have  ready  a  thin  syrup  with  a  good 
deal  of  whole  ginger  boiled  in  it,  and 
some  lemon  peel ;  when  it  is  cold  put  it 
on  the  cucumber.  Boil  up  the  syrup  ev- 
ery day  for  a  fortnight,  and  when  it  is 
cold  pour  it  on  as  before.  Tie  them 
down  with  a  bladder,  and  a  leather  and 
paper  under  it,  and  keep  them  in  a  cool, 
dry  place.  A  pint  of  water  to  a  pound 
of  sugar  is  a  good  proportion  for  the 
syrup. 

ORANGES,  Seville,  Preserve  Whole.— 
Cut  a  hole  at  the  stem  end  of  the  oranges 
the  size  of  a  half  dime,  take  out  all  the 
pulp,  put  the  oranges  into  cold  water  for 
two  days,  changing  it  twice  a  day ;  boil 
them  rather  more  than  an  hour,  but  do 
not  cover  them,  as  it  will  spoil  the  color ; 
have  ready  a  good  syrup,  into  which  put 
the  oranges,  and  boil  them  till  they  look 
clear ;  then  take  out  the  seeds,  skins,  etc., 
from  the  pulp  first  taken  out  of  the 
oranges,  and  add  to  it  one  of  the 
whole  oranges  previously  boiled,  with  an 
equal  weight  of  sugar  to  it  and  the  pulp ; 
boil  this  together  till  it  looks  clear  over  a 
slow  fire,  and,  when  cold,  fill  the  oranges 
with  this  marmalade,  and  put  on  the 
tops;  cover  them  with  syrup,  and  put 
brandy  paper  on  the  top  of  the  jar.  It  is 
better  to  take  out  the  inside  at  first,  to 
preserve  the  fine  flavor  of  the  juice  and 
pulp,  which  would  be  injured  by  boiling 
in  the  water. 

GRAPES,  Preserved  in  Bunches. — Take 
out  the  stones  from  the  grapes  with  a  pin, 
breaking  them  as  little  as  possible ;  boil 
some  clarified  sugar  nearly  to  candy 
height ;  then  put  in  sufficient  grapes  to 
cover  the  bottom  of  the  preserving-pan, 
without  laying  them  on  each  other,  and 
boil  for  five  minutes,  merely  to  extract  all 
the  juice;  lay  them  in  an  earthen  pan, 


and  pour  the  syrup  over  them;  cover 
with  paper,  and  the  next  day  boil  the 
syrup,  skimming  it  well  for  five  minutes ; 
put  in  the  grapes,  let  them  boil  a  minute 
or  two ;  put  them  in  pots,  and  pour  the 
syrup  over  them,  after  which  tie  down. 

GINGER,  Preserved,  Imitation  of. — 
Boil,  as  if  for  the  table,  small,  tender, 
white  carrots;  scrape  them  until  free  from 
all  spots,  and  take  out  the  hearts.  Steep 
them  in  spring  water,  changing  it  every 
day,  until  all  vegetable  flavor  has  left 
them.  To  every  pound  of  carrots  so 
prepared  add  one  quart  of  water,  two 
pounds  of  loaf  sugar,  two  ounces  of 
whole  ginger,  and  a  rind  of  lemon  shred 
fine.  Boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  every 
day,  until  the  carrots  clear,  and  when 
nearly  done,  add  red  pepper  to  taste. 
This  will  be  found  a  good  imitation  of 
West  Indian  preserved  ginger, 

MELON,  Preserved  Like  Ginger.— 
When  the  melon  is  nearly  ripe,  pare  it 
thin,  and  cut  it  into  pieces  about  the  size 
of  ginger ;  cover  it  with  salt  water,  chang- 
ing every  day  for  three  days;  then  put 
in  clear  spring  water,  changing  it  twice 
a  day  for  three  days.  Then  make  a  thin 
syrup,  and  boil  it  together  with  the  mel- 
on once  every  day  for  three  days ;  next 
make  a  thick  syrup,  adding  the  rind  of 
one  or  more  lemons,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  melon,  cut  into  narrow  strips, 
and  the  juice  squeezed  in ;  then  add  some 
best  white  ginger,  with  the  outside  cut 
off,  so  as  to  make  the  syrup  strong  of 
the  ginger.  This  should  be  boiled,  and 
when  cold  put  to  the  melon. 

CURRANTS,  Preseryed.— Take  ripe 
currants,  free  from  stems;  weigh  them, 
and  take  the  same  weight  of  sugar;  put 
a  tea-cup  of  sugar  to  each  pound  of  it ; 
boil  the  syrup  until  it  is  hot  and  clear; 
then  turn  it  over  the  fruit ;  let  it  remain 
one  night ;  then  set  it  over  the  fire  and 
boil  gently,  until  they  are  cooked  and 
clear;  take  them  into  the  jars  or  pots 
with  a  skimmer;  boil  the  syrup  until  rich, 
and  thick;  then  pour  it  over  the  fruit. 
Currants  may  be  preserved  with  ten, 
pounds  of  fruit  to  seven  of  sugar.  Take 
the  stems  from  seven  pounds  of  the  cur- 
rants, and  crush  and  press  the  juice  from 
the  remaining  three  pounds;  put  them 
into  the  hot  syrup  and  boil  until  thick 
and  rich ;  put  it  in  pots  or  jars,  and  the 
next  day  secure  as  directed. 


3°° 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


CHERRIES,  Preserved.  — Take  fine 
large  cherries,  not  very  ripe ;  take  off  the 
stems  and  take  out  the  stones;  save 
whatever  juice  runs  from  them ;  take  an 
•equal  weight  of  white  sugar;  make  the 
syrup  of  a  tea-cup  of  water  for  each 
pound ;  set  it  over  the  fire  until  it  is  dis- 
solved and  boiling  hot ;  then  put  in  the 
juice  and  cherries;  boil  them  gently  until 
clear  throughout;  take  them  from  the 
syrup  with  a  skimmer  and  spread  them 
•on  flat  dishes  to  cool;  let  the  syrup  boil 
until  it  is  rich  and  quite  thick ;  set  it  to 
<;ool  and  settle;  take  the  fruit  into  jars  or 
pots  and  pour  the  syrup  carefully  over; 
let  them  remain  open  until  the  next  day; 
then  cover  as  directed.  Sweet  cherries 
are  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  pint  of 
red  currant  juice  and  a  half  pound  of 
sugar  to  it,  for  four  or  five  pounds  of  cher- 
ries. 

DAMSONS,  Preserved.— Put  a  quart  of 
damsons  into  a  jar  with  a  pound  of  sugar 
strewed  between  them;  set  the  jar  in  a 
warm  oven,  or  put  it  into  a  kettle  of  cold 
water  and  set  it  over  the  fire  for  an  hour, 
then  take  it  out,  set  to  become  cold, 
drain  the  juice  off,  boil  it  until  it  is  thick, 
then  pour  it  over  the  plums ;  when  cold, 
cover  as  directed  for  preserves. 

DEWBERRIES,  Preserved.— Pick  your 
berries  early  in  the  morning,  weigh  them, 
then  spread  them  on  dishes,  sprinkle  them 
with  sugar  in  the  due  proportion  assigned 
them  (pound  for  pound).  When  the 
juice  settles  from  them  in  the  dishes,  pour 
it  off,  and  with  it  moisten  the  remainder 
of  the  sugar;  simmer  this  over  a  slow 
fire,  and,  while  simmering,  drop  in  a  por- 
tion of  the  berries;  let  them  become  clear, 
and  return  them  to  the  dishes  to  cool 
while  the  remainder  takes  their  place  in  the 
kettle.  When  all  are  clear,  and  the  syrup 
boiled  down  to  a  rich  consistency,  pour  it 
over  them,  and  when  cool  enough,  trans- 
fer them  to  glass  jars. 

GREENGAGES,  Preserved.  —  Select 
well-grown  greengages,  but  not  the  least 
ripe ;  prick  them  with  a  fork  to  the  stone, 
and  as  soon  as  pricked,  put  them  in  water 
in  a  preserving-pan.  When  they  are  all 
done,  put  them  over  a  slow  fire  to  simmer 
very  gently,  so  as  to  make  them  tender 
without  breaking ;  try  them  with  a  fork, 
and  when  tender  to  the  stone,  put  them  in 
•cold  water,  and  as  some  will  get  soft  before 
others  they  must  be  watched  carefully ; 


let  them  lie  in  water  a  day  and  a  night ; 
strain  then,  and  when  well  drained  put 
them  in  an  earthen  pan  and  pour  over 
them  some  boiling  hot  clarified  sugar  suf- 
ficient to  cover  them ;  put  a  paper  over 
them;  the  next  day  pour  off  the  syrup 
and  boil  it;  if  three  quarts  or  therea- 
bouts, boil  for  ten  minutes,  then  pour  it 
over  the  fruit  and  again  lay  the  paper 
over  them.  Boil  the  syrup  every  other 
day  in  the  same  manner,  until  it  is  about 
the  consistence  of  cream  (in  five  or  six 
boilings).  If  the  syrup  shrinks,  so  as 
not  to  keep  the  fruit  well  covered,  add  a 
fresh  supply.  While  boiling  the  syrup 
the  third  time,  put  the  greengages  in,  and 
let  them  simmer  gently  for  a  short  time, 
Which  will  bring  them  green;  and  the 
last  time  of  boiling  the  syrup,  let  them 
simmer  a  little  in  it. 

GOOSEBERRIES,  Preserved.— Take  full 
grown  gooseberries  before  they  are  ripe, 
pick  them  and  put  them  in  wide-mouthed 
bottles;  cork  them  gently  with  new,  soft 
corks,  and  put  them  in  an  oven  from 
which  the  bread  has  been  drawn;  let 
them  stand  till  they  have  shrunk  nearly  a 
quarter,  then  take  them  out  and  beat  the 
corks  in  tight;  cut  them  off  level  with  the 
bottle  and  resin  them  down  close.  Keep 
in  a  dry  place. 

GRAPES,  Preserved,  in  Vinegar,— 
Grapes  are  preserved  in  vinegar  by  the 
Persians  after  the  following  fashion :  The 
grapes  are  gathered  when  half  ripe,  and 
put  into  bottles  half  filled  with  vinegar, 
which  so  macerates  them  that  they  lose 
their  hardness,  and  yet  do  not  become 
too  soft.  The  grapes  have  a  sweet  acid 
taste,  which  is  not  unpalatable,  and  es- 
pecially refreshing  during  the  great  heats. 

HUCKLEBERRIES,  Preserved.  —  The 
huckleberries  may  be  easily  kept  for  win- 
ter use  by  putting  them  in  bottles  or  cans, 
without  adding  anything  to  them  and 
without  cooking.  The  mouths  of  the 
cans  should  be  tightly  closed,  and  the 
cans  should  be  buried  mouth  downward, 
in  a  box  of  sand.  When  taken  out  of  the 
sand  for  use  in  the  winter  the  color  of  the 
berries  is  slightly  changed,  but  the  shape 
and  flavor  are  preserved  in  perfection. 
They  make  excellent  pies. 

GREEN  GINGER,  Preserved.— Scrape 
and  clean  your  green  ginger  well ;  to  each 
pound  of  green  ginger  put  a  pint  and  a 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       30! 


half  of  water;  boil  it  down  one-third; 
skim  carefully  while  boiling,  then  strain  off 
the  liquid ;  add  a  pound  of  sugar-candy, 
and  boil  the  ginger  in  it  until  quite  ten- 
der. 

MUSHROOMS,  To  Preserve.  —  The 
small  open  mushrooms  suit  best.  Trim 
and  rub  them  clean,  and  put  into  a  stew 
pan  a  quart  of  the  mushrooms,  three 
ounces  of  butter,  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
salt,  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  Cayenne 
pepper  and  mace  mixed ;  stew  until  the 
mushrooms  are  tender;  take  them  care- 
fully out  and  drain  them  on  a  sloping 
dish.  When  cold,  press  into  small  pots, 
and  pour  clarified  butter  over  them.  Put 
writing  paper  over  the  butter,  and  on  that 
pour  melted  suet,  which  will  exclude  the 
air  and  preserve  them  for  many  weeks,  if 
kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place. 

MOCK  GINGER,  Preserved.— Cut  off 
the  stalks  of  lettuce  just  going  to  seed, 
and  peel  off  the  strings,  cut  them  in 
pieces  two  or  three  inches  long,  and 
throw  them  into  water;  after  washing 
them,  put  them  into  sugar  and  water, 
mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of 
sugar  to  five  pints  of  water,  add  to  this 
quantity  two  large  spoonfuls  of  pounded 
ginger.  Boil  the  whole  together  for 
twenty  minutes,  and  set  it  by  for  two 
days.  Then  boil  it  again  for  half  an  hour, 
and  renew  this  five  or  six  times  in  the 
same  syrup.  Then  drain  the  stalks  upon 
a  sieve,  and  wipe  them  dry ;  have  ready 
a  thick  syrup  boiled,  and  make  strong 
with  whole  ginger.  Pour  it  upon  the 
stalks  boiling  hot,  boil  them  in  it  twice  or 
thrice,  or  until  they  look  clear,  and  taste 
like  the  West  India  ginger. 

ORANGE-PEEL,  Preserved.  —  Clean 
carefully ;  cut  in  thin  strips ;  stew  in  water 
until  the  bitterness  is  extracted ;  drain  off 
the  water,  and  stew  again  for  half  an  hour 
in  a  syrup  of  sugar  and  water,  allowing  a 
half-pint  of  water  and  a  pound  of  sugar  to 
each  pound  of  peel.  Put  it  aside  in  jars, 
and  keep  it  in  a  cool  place.  If  desired, 
a  little  cinnamon  and  ginger  may  be 
stewed  with  the  peel,  but  it  is  more  deli- 
cate cooked  simply  with  sugar.  Lemon- 
peel  may  be  prepared  in  the  same  man- 
ner, either  alone  or  mixed  with  orange- 
peel.  These  form  pleasant  "  relishes  " 
eaten  with  cake  or  bread,  or  if  chopped 
finely  when  prepared,  they  form  excellent 
flavoring  for  puddings  and  pies. 


PEARS,  Preserved. — Take  six  pounds 
of  pears  to  four  pounds  of  sugar,  boil  the 
parings  in  as  much  water  as  will  cover 
them,  strain  it  through  the  colander,  lay 
some  pears  in  the  bottom  of  your  kettle,, 
put  in  some  sugar,  and  so  on,  alternately;, 
then  pour  the  liquor  off  the  pear-skins 
over,  boil  them  until  they  begin  to  look 
transparent,  then  take  them  out,  let  the 
juice  cool,  and  clarify  it ;  put  the  pears  in 
again,  and  add  some  ginger,  prepared  as 
in  the  above  recipe;  boil  till  done;  let 
the  liquor  boil  after  taking  them  out,  until 
it  is  reduced  to  a  syrup. 

PINE-APPLE,  Preserved.  —  Choose 
ripe  but  sound  ones,  and  cut  them  in  slices 
about  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  cut  off  the 
rind.  Weigh  the  slices,  and  to  every  two 
pounds  of  fruit  put  one  pound  and  three- 
quarters  of  sifted  white  sugar.  Boil  them 
together  in  a  preserving-pan  for  thirty 
minutes,  and  if  the  slices  are  tender,  take 
them  out  carefully  with  a  wooden  spoon, 
and  place  them  on  a  wooden  dish ;  boil 
the  syrup  for  a  short  time  longer,  and  then 
pour  it  over  the  slices  of  pine-apple.  This, 
process  must  be  repeated  for  three  succes- 
sive days,  after  which  the  preserves  may 
be  put  into  jars  and  covered. 

PURPLE-PLTJMS,  Preserved.  —  Make 
a  syrup  of  clean  brown  sugar ;  clarify  it  as 
directed  in  these  recipes ;  when  perfectly 
clear  and  boiling  hot,  pour  it  over  the 
plums,  having  picked  out  all  unsound 
ones  and  stems ;  let  them  remain  in  the- 
syrup  two  days,  then  drain  it  off;  make 
it  boiling  hot,  skim  it,  and  pour  it  over 
again;  let  them  remain  another  day  or 
two,  then  put  them  in  a  preserving-kettle 
over  the  fire,  and  simmer  gently  until  the 
syrup  is  reduced,  and  thick  or  rich.  One 
pound  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  plums. 
Small  damsons  are  very  fine,  preserved  as 
cherries  or  any  other  ripe  fruit;  clarify 
the  syrup,  and  when  boiling  hot  put  in 
the  plums ;  let  them  boil  very  gently  until 
they  are  cooked,  and  the  syrup  rich.  Put 
them  in  pots  or  jars;  the  next  day  secure 
as  directed. 

PEACHES,  Preserved.— Take  the  peach- 
es when  ripe,  pare  them,  and  if  you  desire 
to  preserve  them  whole,  throw  them  into 
cold  water  as  you  pare  them,  so  as  to 
prevent  them  losing  color.  When  you 
have  everything  ready,  place  the  peaches 
in  a  can,  adding  as  much  sugar  to  each, 
layer  as  will  make  them  palatable.     Then, 


302 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


set  the  can  in  a  vessel  containing  hot 
water,  and  allow  it  to  remain  in  boiling 
water  until  the  fruit  becomes  heated 
through.  This  will  require,  if  a  quart  can 
be  used,  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes. 
When  heated  sufficiently,  seal  at  once  by 
heating  the  cover  and  pressing  it  at  once 
firmly  into  place,  and  allowing  a  weight 
sufficient  to  keep  down  the  cover  to  re- 
main upon  it  until  the  cement  hardens. 
The  proper  temperature  of  the  lid  is  easily 
and  conveniently  ascertained  by  putting 
a  piece  of  resin,  about  the  size  of  a  small 
pea,  on  the  cover  when  it  is  put  on  the 
stove;  as  soon  as  the  resin  melts,  the 
cover  is  ready  to  put  in  place.  This  pre- 
caution is- necessary,  as  the  solder  with 
which  the  parts  of  the  lid  are  joined  to- 
gether easily  melts.  It  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  to  use  sugar  in  this  process,  but 
as  it  assists  in  the  preservation  of  the 
fruit,  they  can  be  sealed  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  if  not  used.  As  sugar  is 
used  to  render  the  fruits  palatable,  there 
can  be  no  objection  to  using  it  when  pre- 
paring the  fruit  for  family  use,  as  it  will, 
in  any  case,  be  necessary,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  sugar  should  not  be  used 
before  the  can  is  sealed. 

If  soft  peaches  are  preferred,  they 
should  be  cut  up  as  if  intended  to  be  eaten 
with  cream,  and  must  not  be  placed  in 
water.  When  ready,  they  should  be  put 
in  cans  and  heated  as  described  above. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  heat  them  in  the 
can,  but  a  larger  quantity  may  be  more  con- 
veniently heated  together  and  put  into 
the  cans  or  jars  while  hot  and  sealed. 
A  flat  stewpan,  lined  with  porcelain,  will 
be  found  well  adapted  to  this  purpose. 
It  must  not,  of  course,  be  placed  directly 
over  the  fire,  but  in  a  vessel  of  water 
which  is  set  directly  on  the  fire.  By  this 
means  soft  peaches  may  readily  and  cer- 
tainly be  preserved  for  winter  use  in  such 
condition  as  scarcely  to  differ  at  all  from 
the  fresh  peach.  A  most  delicious  des- 
sert may  thus  be  secured  much  more 
readily  and  at  less  expense,  and  much 
more  palatable  than  the  ordinary  pre- 
serve. This  method  of  preserving  fresh 
peaches  has  been  fully  tested  and  may 
be  relied  npon. 

QUINCES,  Preserved,  Whole  or  Half.— 
Into  two  quarts  of  boiling  water,  put  a 
quantity  of  the  fairest  golden  pippins, 
in  slices  not  very  thin,  and  not  pared, 


but  wiped  clean.  Boil  them  very  quickly, 
close  covered,  till  the  water  becomes 
a  thick  jelly ;  then  scald  the  quinces.  To 
every  pint  of  pippin  jelly,  put  one  pound 
of  the  finest  sugar;  boil  it  and  skim  it 
clear.  Put  those  quinces  that  are  to 
be  done  whole  into  the  syrup  at  once, 
and  let  it  boil  very  fast ;  and  those  that 
are  to  be  in  halves  by  themselves ;  skim 
it,  and  when  the  fruit  is  clear,  put  some 
of  the  syrup  into  a  glass  to  try  whether  it 
jellies  before  taking  it  off  the  fire.  The 
quantity  of  quinces  is  to  be  one  pound  of 
sugar  and  one  pound  of  jelly,  already 
boiled  with  the  sugar. 

RHUBARB,"  Preserved. — Cut  without 
peeling  or  splitting,  six  pounds  of  ordin- 
ary-sized rhubarb  into  pieces  about  an 
inch  long;  put  it  in  with  the  rind  of  a 
lemon,  into  the  stewpan,  in  which  must 
be  about  a  tablespoonful  of  water  to  keep 
it  from  burning;  let  it  boil  till  tender, 
then,  with  a  strainer,  take  out  the  fruit, 
and  add  to  the  juice  five  pounds  of  sugar; 
boil  this  forty  minutes,  then  again  put  in 
the  fruit  and  boil  ten  minutes.  This  is  a 
delicious  preserve. 

RASPBERRIES,  Preserved.  —  These 
may  be  preserved  wet,  bottled,  or  made 
jam  or  marmalade  of,  the  same  as  straw- 
berries. Raspberries  are  very  good  dried 
in  the  sun  or  in  a  warm  oven.  They  are 
very  delicious  stewed  for  table  or  tarts. 

STRAWBERRIES,  Preserved.  —  Use 
ripe  strawberries,  but  not  soft.  Make  a 
syrup  of  one  pound  of  sugar  to  a  pound 
of  berries.  Sugar  should  be  double-re- 
fined (though  refined  sugar  will  answer), 
as  it  makes  the  preserves  have  a  more 
brilliant  color  than  simply  refined  sugar. 
To  each  pound  of  sugar  put  a  tea-cup  of 
water;  set  it  over  a  gentle  fire  and  stir  it 
until  totally  dissolved.  When  boiling 
hot  put  in  the  fruit,  having  picked  off 
every  hull  and  imperfect  berry ;  then  boil 
very  gently  in  a  covered  kettle,  until  by 
cutting  one  open,  you  find  it  cooked 
through;  that  will  be  known  by  it  having 
the  same  color  throughout.  Take  them 
from  the  syrup  with  a  skimmer  and 
spread  them  on  flat  dishes,  and  let  them 
remain  till  cold ;  boil  the  syrup  until  quite 
thick ;  then  let  it  cool  and  settle;  put  the 
fruit  into  jars  or  pots,  and  strain  or  pour 
the  syrup  carefully  over,  leaving  the  sedi- 
ment which  will  be  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pitcher.     The  next  day  cover  with  several 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       303 


papers  wet  with  sugar  boiled  to  candy; 
set  them  in  a  cool,  airy  place.  Straw- 
berries keep  perfectly  well  made  with 
seven  pounds  of  sugar  tp  ten  of  fruit. 
They  should  be  done  as  directed  above, 
and  the  syrup  cooked  quite  thick.  A 
pint  of  red  currant  juice  and  a  pound  of 
sugar  for  it  to  three  pounds  of  straw- 
berries, make  the  syrup  very  beautiful. 

TOMATOES,  Preserved.  —  Scald  the 
tomatoes,  take  off  the  skins.  Weigh  the 
tomatoes,  which  must  be  full  grown  and 
ripe.  Allow  to  every  two  pounds  of 
the  best  brown  sugar,  a  large  spoonful 
of  ground  ginger  and  the  juice  and 
rind  of  one  large  lemon.  Mix  the 
tomatoes  and  sugar  and  white  of  one  egg 
together,  and  put  in  a  porcelain  kettle. 
Boil  slowly  till  the  scum  ceases  to  appear; 
then  add  gradually  the  juice  and  grated 
rind  of  the  lemons  and  boil  slowly  for  an 
hour  or  more.  The  tomatoes  must  all 
have  burst  by  this  time.  When  done 
take  them  off,  and  when  cool  put  them  in 
jars. 

WALNUTS,  Preserved. — Pierce  your 
nuts  several  times  with  a  fork  and  boil 
them  in  water  until  they  begin  to  be 
tender ;  take  them  out  of  the  water,  and 
when  cold  make  a  hole  through  every 
one  with  a  pretty  large  bodkin,  and  in- 
troduce a  piece  of  candied  lemon  or 
citron.  Make  a  syrup  of  brown  sugar 
and  a  little  water  (the  sugar  to  the  weight 
of  your  nuts)  and  boil  your  nuts  well 
until  the  sugar  has  penetrated  to  the 
centre;  then  put  them  into  preserving 
pots,  filling  them  with  a  thick  syrup,  and 
tie  them  up  like  jellies. 

PEACHES,  Canned,  by  the  Cold  Pro- 
cess.—  Pare  and  halve  the  peaches. 
Pack  them  as  closely  as  possible  in 
a  can  without  any  sugar.  When  the  can 
is  full,  pour  in  sufficient  cold  water  to  fill 
all  the  crevices  between  the  peaches,  and 
reach  the  top  of  the  can.  Let  it  stand 
long  enough  for  the  water  to  soak  into 
all  the  crevices — say  five  hours — then 
pour  in  water  to  replace  what  has  sunk 
away.  Seal  up  the  can,  and  all  is  done. 
Peaches  preserved  in  this  way  retain'  all 
their  freshness  and  flavor.  There  will 
not  be  enough  water  in  them  to  render 
them  insipid.  If  preferred,  a  cold  syrup 
could  be  used  instead  of  pure  water,  but 
the  peaches  taste  most  natural  without 
.any  sweetening. 


FKUTX,  in  Brandy. — Gather  your  fruit 
before  it  is  quite  ripe;  prick  them  with  a 
pin  on  each  side ;  put  them  into  a  stew- 
pan  of  fresh  spring  water,  and  stew  them 
gently  until  you  can  pass  a  pin  with  facil- 
ity to  the  stone  of  the  fruit,  when  take 
them  from  the  pan  and  put  them  to  drain 
on  a  sieve.  Whilst  draining,  prepare  a 
syrup,  which,  when  the  fruit  is  nicely  ar- 
ranged in  a  tureen,  should  be  thrown  on 
it  boiling  hot,  and  so  left  for  twenty-four 
hours,  when  the  fruit  is  again  put  to  a 
drain,  and  the  syrup  boiled  for  one  hour, 
and  poured  boiling  hot  over  the  fruit 
once  more.  On  the  third  day  arrange 
the  fruit  in  the  preserving  pots,  and  boil 
the  syrup  to  a  proper  consistency ;  when 
cool,  mix  it  with  brandy,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two-thirds  syrup  to  one-third 
brandy,  and  pour  it  over  the  fruit. 

FBUIT,  Bottled. — Cherries,  strawber- 
ries, sliced  pine  apples,  plums,  apricots, 
gooseberries,  etc.,  may  be  preserved  in 
the  following  manner,  to  be  used  as  fresh 
fruit :  Gather  the  fruit  before  it  is  very 
ripe;  put  it  in  wide-mouthed  bottles 
made  for  the  purpose;  fill  them  as  full 
as  they  will  hold,  and  cork  them  tight ; 
seal  the  corks;  put  some  hay  in  a  large 
sauce-pan;  set  in  the  bottles  with  hay 
between  them  to  prevent  their  touching ; 
then  fill  the  sauce-pan  with  water  to  the 
necks  of  the  bottles,  and  set  it  on  the 
fire  until  the  water  is  nearly  boiling,  then 
take  it  off;  let  it  stand  until  the  bottles 
are  cold;  then  keep  them  in  a  cool  place 
until  wanted,  when  the  fruit  will  be  found 
equal  to  fresh. 

FRUIT,  To  Keep  Fresh  in  Jars.— 
We  advise  the  use  of  self-sealing  glass 
jars.  Put  the  fruit  in  a  porcelain-lined 
preserving  kettle,  sufficient  to  fill  four 
quart  jars;  sprinkle  on  sugar,  one-half 
pound ;  place  over  a  slow  fire  and  heat 
through,  not  boiled.  While  the  fruit  is 
being  heated,  keep  the  jars  filled  with 
moderately  hot  water.  As  soon  as  the 
fruit  is  ready,  empty  the  water  from  the 
jars,  fill  to  the  brim  with  fruit,  and  seal 
immediately.  As  it  cools  a  vacuum  is 
formed,  which  prevents  bursting.  In  this 
way  every  kind  of  fruit  will  retain  its 
flavor.  Sometimes  a  thick,  leathery  mold 
forms  on  the  top — if  so,  all  the  better. 
The  plan  of  keeping  the  jars  full  of  hot 
water  is  merely  to  prevent  the  danger 
of  cracking  when  the  hot  fruit  is  insert- 


3°4 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


ed.  Some  prefer  to  set  the  bottles  full 
of  cool  water  in  a  boiler  of  water,  and 
heating  all  together  gradually;  but  the 
other  way  is  much  simpler  and  equally 
effective. 

JAM. — Let  the  jam  be  drawn  on  a 
dry  day;  wipe  the  fruit  clean,  but  do 
not  wash  it;  peel  off  the  skin  and  coarse 
fibres,  and  slice  the  fruit  thin.  To  each 
pound  thus  prepared  allow  a  pound  of 
fine  sugar  in  fine  powder;  put  the  fruit 
in  a  pan,  and  stew  a  quarter  of  the  su- 
gar amongst  it  and  over  it ;  let  it  stand 
until  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  when  boil  it 
slowly  to  a  smooth  pulp;  take  it  from  the 
fire,  and  stir  in  the  remainder  of  the  su- 
gar by  degrees;  when  it  is  dissolved,  boil 
the  preserve  quickly  until  it  becomes 
very  thick,  and  leaves  the  bottom  of  the 
pan  visible  when  stirred.  The  time  re- 
quired for  preserving  this  preserve  will  de- 
pend on  the  kind  of  fruit  used,  and  the 
time  of  year  it  is  made.  It  will  vary 
from  an  hour  to  two  hours  and  a  quarter. 
The  juice  should  be  slowly  drawn  from  it 
first. 

JAM,  To  be  Put  up  while  Hot.— It 
is  said  that  ordinary  jam — fruit  and  sugar 
which  have  been  boiled  together  some 
time — keeps  better  if  the  pots  into  which 
it  is  poured  are  tied  up  while  hot.  If  the 
paper  can  act  as  a  strainer,  in  the  same 
way  as  cotton  wool,  it  must  be  as  people 
suppose.  If  one  pot  of  jam  be  allowed 
to  cool  before  it  is  tied  down,  little  germs 
will  fall  upon  it  from  the  air,  and  they 
will  retain  their  vitality,  because  they  fall 
upon  a  cool  substance;  they  will  be  shut 
in  by  the  paper,  and  will  soon  fall  to 
work  decomposing  the  fruit.  If  another 
pot,  perfectly  similar,  be  filled  with  a  boil- 
ing-hot mixture,  and  immediately  covered 
over,  though,  of  course,  some  of  the  out- 
side air  must  be  shut  in,  and  germs  which 
are  floating  in  it  will  be  scalded,  and  in 
all  probability  destroyed,  so  that  no  de- 
composition can  take  place. 

JELLY. — To  make  a  quart,  soak  one 
ounce  of  gelatine  in  a  pint  of  cold  wa- 
ter for  twenty  minutes,  then  add  the  same 
quantity  of  boiling  water,  stir  until  dis- 
solved; add  the  juice  and  peel  of  two 
lemons,  with  enough  sugar  to  sweeten; 
have  ready,  well  beaten,  the  white  and 
shell  of  one  egg,  stir  these  briskly  into 
the  jelly,  then  boil  for  two  minutes  with- 
out stirring  it;  remove  it  from  the  fire, 


and  allow  it  to  stand  twenty  minutes, 
then  strain  through  a  coarse  flannel  bag ; 
this  jelly  may  be  flavored  or  colored  ac- 
cording to  taste. 

JELLY,  Custard.— To  one  cupful  of 
any  sort  of  jelly,  add  one  egg,  and  beat 
well  together  with  three  teaspoonfuls  of 
cream  or  milk.  After  mixing  thoroughly > 
bake  in  a  good  crust. 

JELLY,  Fruit  in. — Put  in  a  basin  a 
half  pint  of  calf's-foot  jelly ;  and  when 
it  has  become  stiff,  lay  in  a  bunch  of 
grapes,  with  the  stalks  upwards,  or  fruit 
of  any  kind;  over  this  put  a  few  vine 
leaves,  and  fill  up  the  bowl  with  warm 
jelly;  let  it  stand  till  next  day,  and  then 
set  the  bowl  in  water  up  to  the  brim  for 
a  moment;  then  turn  out  carefully.  It 
is  an  elegant  looking  dish. 

JELLY,  with  Gelatine. — Take  two 
ounces  and  three-quarters  of  gelatine, 
dissolved  in  about  a  quart  of  water,  four 
lemons,  one  pound  of  loaf  sugar,  nearly 
half  a  bottle  of  raisin  wine,  or  a  little 
brandy,  and  less  of  the  wine,  a  little 
white  of  egg  is  necessary  to  clear  it,  as 
the  egg  takes  from  the  stiffness  of  the 
jelly.  Boil  together,  strain  through  a 
jelly-bag,  and  put  into  a  mold. 

JELLY,  Isinglass. — Two  ounces  of 
isinglass  to  a  quart  of  water ;  boil  till  it 
is  dissolved;  strain  it  into  a  basin  upon  a 
slice  of  lemon-peel  pared  very  thin,  six 
cloves  and  three  or  four  lumps  of  sugar; 
let  this  stand  by  the  fire  for  an  hour ;  take 
out  the  lemon  and  cloves,  and  then  add 
four  table  spoonfuls  of  brandy. 

JELLY,  To  Color.— To  color  jelly  red, 
boil  fifteen  grains  of  cochineal,  in  the 
finest  powder,  with  a  drachm  and  a  half 
of  cream  of  tartar,  in  half  a  pint  of  wa- 
ter, very  slowly  half  an  hour.  Add,  in 
boiling,  a  bit  of*  alum  the  size  of  a  pea. 

JELLIES,  To  Preserve  from  Mold. — 
Cover  the  surface  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
deep  with  fine  pulverized  loaf  sugar. 
When  thus  protected,  the  jellies  will  keep 
for  years  in  good  condition,  and  free  from 
moldiness. 

MARMALADE. — Pare  and  cut  up  the 
fruit  in  small  pieces,  and  to  a  pound  of 
fruit  add  a  pound  of  sugar.  When  the 
sugar  is  dissolved,  set  it  over  the  fire, 
and  let  it  boil  till  it  is  a  smooth  paste. 
Stir  it  all  the  time  it  is  boiling.  If  you 
wish  to  flavor,  add  any  essence  you  de- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       305 


sire.     Put  it  in  the  jars  while  warm,  and 
paste  them  over  the  next  day. 

WINE,  Apple. — Take  pure  cider  made 
from  sound  ripe  apples  as  it  runs  from 
the  press;  put  sixty  pounds  of  common 
brown  sugar  into  fifteen  gallons  of  the  ci- 
der, and  let  it  dissolve;  then  put  the 
mixture  into  a  clean  barrel,  and  fill  the 
barrel  up  to  within  two  gallons  of  being 
full,  with  clean  cider;  put  the  cask  in  a 
cool  place,  leaving  the  bung  out  for  forty- 
eight  hours ;  then  put  in  the  bung,  with 
a  small  vent,  until  fermentation  wholly 
ceases,  and  bung  up  tight;  and  in  one 
year  the  «wine  will  be  fit  for  use.  This 
wine  requires  no  racking ;  the  longer  it 
stands  upon  the  lees,  the  better. 

WINE,  Apricot. — Wipe  clean  and  cut 
twelve  pounds  of  apricots;  boil  them  in 
two  gallons  of  water  till  the  water  has 
imbibed  the  flavor  of  the  fruit,  then  strain 
the  liquor  through  a  hair  sieve,  and  to 
each  quart  of  it  put  six  ounces  of  loaf 
sugar;  then  boil  it  and  add  six  pounds 
sugar  and  one  pound  of  sliced  beet-root. 
When  fermented,  put  into  the  cask  a  quart 
or  more  of  brandy  or  flavorless  whisky. 

WINE,  Blackberry. — Gather  the  ber- 
ries when  perfectly  ripe,  and  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  avoid  bruising.  Empty 
them,  as  fast  as  gathered,  into  a  tub  un- 
til you  have  a  quantity  sufficient  to  fill, 
with  juice,  the  cask  in  which  you  pro- 
pose to  make  the  wine. 

Have  the  utensils,  etc.,  required  in  the 
process,  all  ready  before  you  pick — or  at 
least  before  you  mash  your  berries.  Ev- 
erything must  be  scrupulously  clean. 
You  want  a  keg,  a  beater  of  seasoned 
hard  wood,  a  pail,  a  large  bowl,  tureen  or 
other  vessel  into  which  to  strain  your 
juice,  a  good  thick  strainer — two  or  three 
folds  of  fine  white  flannel  is  the  best  ma- 
terial— a  couple  of  yards  of  Osnaburgs, 
a  spare  tub  or  a  bucket  or  two,  and  a  tub 
of  soft  spring  water.  Everything  must 
be  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  dirt  or 
odor  of  any  kind. 

Crush  the  berries  thoroughly  with  the 
beater,  and  then  after  straining  the 
liquor,  which  runs  freely  from  the  pulp 
through  the  folded  flannel,  empty  it  into 
the  cask,  measuring  it  as  you  put  it  in. 
When  the  juice  has  been  all  drained  from 
the  pulp,  you  proceed  to  press  the  pulp 
dry.  If  the  quantity  is  large,  this  had 
best  be  done  by  a  regular  press,  but  if  only 


a  few  gallons  are  wanted,  the  Osna- 
burg  answers  very  well.  Stretch  out  the 
Osnaburg,  put  a  gallon  or  a  gallon  and  a 
half  of  the  pulp  into  the  center,  fold  the 
cloth  over  it  on  each  side,  and  let  a  strong 
hand  at  either  end  twist  the  cloth  with  all 
their  strength;  when  the  juice  is  well 
pressed  out,  remove  and  lay  aside  the 
cake  of  pomace,  and  put  in  more  pulp. 
This  process  is  apparently  rough,  but  is 
both  rapid  and  effectual.  The  juice  so 
extracted  is  strained  and  measured  into 
the  cask  as  before  mentioned.  The  flan- 
nel strainer  and  the  Osnaburg  may  need 
rinsing  occasionally  during  the  work. 

When  all  the  pulp  is  pressed,  put  the 
hard  cakes  of  pomace  taken  from   the 
cloth  into  a  tub,  and  pour  upon  them  a 
little  more  soft   spring   water  than  you 
have  clear  juice ;  break  up  the  balls  and 
wash  them  thoroughly  in  the  water,  so 
as  to  obtain  all  the  juice  left  in  the  mass, 
and  then  strain  it  clear;  measure  out  as 
many  gallons  of  this  water  as  you  have  of 
clear  juice,  say  five  gallons  of  the  water 
to  five  gallons  of  the  juice,  dissolve  in 
each  gallon  of  the  water  six  pounds  of 
sugar  (brown  or  white,  as  you  want  a, 
common  or.  first-rate  wine,)   and  when, 
thoroughly  dissolved,  add    the  juice  (first 
passing  it   again  through   the   strainer), 
and  mix  them.      Then  rinse   out  your 
cask,  put  it  where  it  can  stand  undisturbed 
in  a  cellar;  fill  it  perfectly  full  of  the 
mixture,  and  lay  a  cloth  loosely  over  the 
bung- hole.     In  two  or  three  days  fermen- 
tation will  commence,  and  the  impurities 
run  over  at  the  bung ;  look  at  it  every 
day,  and  if  it  does  not  run  over,  with 
some  of  the  mixture  which  you  have  re-  - 
served  in  another  vessel,  fill  it  up  to  the 
bung.     In  about  three  weeks  fermenta- 
tion will  have  ceased,  and  the  wine  be 
still;  fill  it  again,  drive  in  the  bung  tight,, 
nail  a  tin  over  it,  and  let  it  remain  undis- 
turbed until  the  following  November,  or 
what  is  better,  March.     Then  draw  it  off, 
without  shaking  the  cask,  put  it  into  bot- 
tles or  demijohns,  cork  tightly  and  seal 
over. 

For  a  ten-gallon  cask,  you  will  need 
about  4}i  gallons  of  juice,  \Yi  gallons  of 
water,  and  26  pounds  of  sugar,  and  in  the 
same  proportion  for  larger  or  smaller 
quantities.  Some  persons  add  spirit  to 
the  wine,  but  instead  of  doing  good,  it. 
is  only  an  injury. 


306 


CURING  AND  STORING. 


Another  process  is,  after  pouring  in  the 
mixture  for  a  ten-gallon  cask,  to  beat  up 
the  whites  of  two  or  three  eggs  into  a 
froth,  put  them  into  the  cask,  and  with  a 
long  stick  mix  them  thoroughly  with  the 
wine.  In  five  or  six  days,  draw  the  now 
clarified  wine  off  by  a  spigot,  and  without 
shaking  the  cask  at  all,  into  a  clean  cask, 
bung  up  and  tin,  to  be  drawn  off  into 
glass  m  November  or  March. 

The  more  carefully  your  juice  is  strained, 
the  better  the  quality  of  sugar,  and  the 
more  scrupulously  clean  your  utensils, 
particularly  your  kegs,  are,  the  purer  and 
better  will  be  your  wine. 

The  best  quality,  when  you  gather  your 
own  fruit,  and  make  it  yourself,  costs  you 
only  the  price  of  the  white  sugar,  and 
when  bottled  will  cost  you  in  money 
about  twelve  and  a  half  cents  a  bottle. 

WINE,  Currant.  —  The  currants 
should^  be  fully  ripe  when  picked;  put 
them  into  a  large  tub,  in  which  they 
should  remain  a  day  or  two ;  then  crush 
with  the  hands,  unless  you  have  a  small 
patent  wine  press,  in  which  thev  should 
not  be  pressed  too  much,  or  the  stems 
will  be  bruised,  and  impart  a  disagreeable 
taste  to  the  juice.  If  the  hands  are  used, 
put  the  crushed  fruit,  after  the  juice  is 
poured  off,  in  a  cloth  or  sack  and  press 
out  the  remaining  juice.  Put  the  juice 
back  into  the  tub  after  cleansing  it,  where 
it  should  remain  about  three  days,  until 
the  first  stages  of  fermentation  are  over, 
-and  removing  once  or  twice  a  day  the 
scum  copiously  arising  to  the  top.  Then 
put  the  juice  in  a  vessel — a  demijohn, 
keg,  or  barrel — of  a  size  to  suit  the 
•quantity  made,  and  to  each  quart  add 
.3  lbs.  of  the  best  yellow  sugar,  and  soft 
water  sufficient  to  make  a  gallon. 

Thus,  ten  quarts  of  juice  and  30  lbs.  of 
sugar  will  give  you  10  gals,  of  wine,  and 
so  on  in  proportion.  Those  who  do  not 
like  sweet  wine  can  reduce  the  quantity 
of  sugar  to  two  and  a  half,  or  who  wish 
it  very  sweet,  raise  to  three  and  a  half 
pounds  per  gallon. 

The  vessel  must  be  full,  and  the  bung 
or  stopper  left  off  until  fermentation 
ceases,  which  will  be  in  12  or  15  days. 
Meanwhile,  the  cask  must  be  filled  up 
daily  with  currant  juice  leftover,  as  fer- 
mentation throws  out  the  impure  matter. 
When  fermentation  ceases,  rack  the  wine 
off  carefully,  either  from  the  spiggot  or 


by  a  syphon,  and  keep  running  all  the 
time.  Cleanse  the  cask  thoroughly  with 
boiling  water,  then  return  the  wine,  bung 
up  tightly,  and  let  it  stand  4  or  5  months, 
when  it  will  be  fit  to  drink,  and  can  be 
bottled  if  desired. 

All  the  vessels,  casks,  etc.,  should  be 
perfectly  sweet,  and  the  whole  operation 
should  be  done  with  an  eye  to  cleanli- 
ness. In  such  event,  every  drop  of 
brandy  or  other  spirituous  liquors  added 
will  detract  from  the  flavor  of  the  wine, 
and  will  not,  in  the  least  degree,  increase 
its  keeping  qualities.  Currant  wine  made 
in  this  way  will  keep  for  an  age. 

WINE,  Gooseberry.  —  Pick  and 
bruise  the  gooseberries,  and  to  every 
pound,  put  a  quart  of  cold  spring  water, 
and  let  it  stand  three  days,  stirring  it  twice 
or  thrice  a  day.  Add  to  every  gallon  of 
juice  three  pounds  of  loaf  sugar ;  fill  the 
barrel,  and  when  it  is  done  working,  add 
to  every  twenty  quarts  of  liquor,  one 
quart  of  brandy,  and  a  little  isinglass.  The 
gooseberries  must  be  picked  when  they 
are  just  changing  color.  The  liquor  ought 
to  stand  in  the  barrel  six  months.  Taste 
it  occasionally,  and  bottle  when  the  sweet- 
ness has  gone  off. 

WINE,  Grape. — Take  two  quarts  of 
grape  juice,  two  quarts  of  water,  four 
pounds  of  sugar.  Extract  the  juice  of 
the  grape  in  any  simple  way ;  if  only  a 
few  quarts  are  desired,  we  do  it  with  a 
strainer  and  a  pair  of  squeezers,  if  a  larger 
quantity  is  desired,  put  the  grapes  into  a 
cheese  press  made  particularly  clean, 
putting  on  sufficient  weight  to  extract  the 
juice  of  a  full  hoop  of  grapes,  being  care- 
ful that  none  but  perfect  grapes  are  used, 
perfectly  ripe  ^and  free  from  blemish. 
After  the  first  pressing  put  a  little  water 
with  the  pulp  and  press  a  second  time, 
using  the  juice  of  the  second  pressing 
with  the  water  to  be  mixed  with  the  clear 
grape  juice.  If  only  a  few  quarts  are 
made  place  the  wine  as  soon  as  mixed 
into  bottles,  filling  them  even  full  and 
allow  to  stand  in  a  warm  place  until  it 
ferments,  which  will  take  about  thirty-six 
hours  usually ;  then  remove  all  the  scum, 
cool  and  put  into  a  dark,  cool  place.  If 
a  few  gallons  are  desired  place  in  a  keg, 
but  the  keg  must  be  even  full,  and  after 
fermentation  has  taken  place  and  the  scum 
removed,  draw  off  and  bottle,  and  cork 
tight. 


BEE-KEEPERS'   GUIDE. 


APIARY,  Establishment  of  an.— The 
proper  time  for  this  purpose  is  about  Feb- 
ruary, or  the  beginning  ot*  March,  as  the 
stocks  have  then  passed  through  the  win- 
ter iu  safety;  the  combs  are  then  empty 
of  broods,  and  light  of  honey,  and  may 
be  removed  with  safety  and  ease.  Stocks 
should  be  selected  by  a  competent  judge, 
as  the  weight  alone  cannot  always  be 
relied  on ;  such  as  weigh  1 2  lbs.  and  up- 
wards, the  number  of  Bees  being  also 
observed,  and  that  they  are  well  combed 
to  near  the  bottom,  may  be  safely  chosen. 
As  soon  as  they  are  brought  home  they 
should  be  set  in  the  Bee-house,  care  being 
taken  to  keep  them  dry  and  free  from  the 
attacks  of  vermin.  The  best  time  for  re- 
moving stocks  is  in  the  evening.  Swarms 
should  be  brought  home  the  same  even- 
ing they  are  purchased,  for  if  delayed  a 
day  or  two,  the  combs  will  be  worked,  and 
subject  to  be  broken  in  removing. 

BEE-KEEPING,  Success  in.— Success 
in  bee-keeping,  as  well  as  success  in  every- 
thing else,  depends  so  much  upon  taking 
hold  of  it  the  right  way  and  sticking  to  it 
with  a  determination  to  succeed,  that  we 
will  offer  a  few  suggestions,  which  may  be 
of  use  to  the  new  beginner. 

A  person  commencing  bee-keeping,  as 
well  as  anything  else,  had  better  begin 
moderately.  Two  or  three,  or  perhaps 
four  hives,  are  as  many  as  it  would  be  safe 
in  a  majority  of  cases  to  commence  opera- 
tions with.  These  may  be  purchased  of 
any  bee-keeper  who  has  them  to  spare ; 
or  what  may  be  better,  have  hives  made 
such  as  you  want,  and  engage  some  neigh- 
bor who  keeps  bees  to  put  his  earliest 
swarms  in  them.  If  the  former  plan  is 
adopted,  March  or  April  is  a  good  time 
to  select  and  take  them  home.  Choose 
hives  under  five  years  old,  and  that  are 
strong  in  bees ;  by  rapping  smartly  on  a 
hive  early  in  the  morning,  or  any  time  in 
a  cold  day,  you  can  judge  pretty  well  of 
its  strength ;  if  there  is  a  vigorous  buzzing 
in  answer  to  the  raps,  it  is  probably  well 


supplied  with  bees ;  if  the  rap  is  but  feebly 
responded  to,  better  try  another.  They 
can  be  taken  home  any  cool  day,  by  shut- 
ting them  in  the  hive.  If  the  most 
approved  system  is  to  be  adopted,  the 
movable  comb  hive  will  have  to  be  pro- 
cured. If  common  hives  are  to  be  used, 
twelve  inches  square  by  fourteen  high, 
inside  measurement,  is  a  good  size.  No 
one  should  commence  bee-keeping  with- 
out profiting  as  much  as  possible  by  the 
experience  of  others,  as  found  in  books 
and  agricultural  papers.  Lanstroth's 
work  on  "  The  Hive  and  Honey  Bee" 
should  be  owned  and  *ead  by  every  bee, 
keeper.  Many  are  afraid  to  commence 
bee-keeping  on  account  '  of  the  moth. 
After  learning  its  habits,  any  intelligent, 
industrious  person  can  keep  as  free  from 
it  as  he  can  keep  his  cornfield  free  from 
weeds. 

BEE,  Pasturage.— The  first  of  March 
brings  the  blossoms  of  the  white  and  sugar 
maple,  quaking  asp ,  elm  and  some  varieties 
of  the  willow.  April  brings  with  it  the 
perfumed  blossoms  of  the  wild  plum, 
cherry  and  peach,  followed  by  the  rose- 
scented  apple  blossoms  of  our  tame 
orchards,  and  the  no  less  perfumed  and 
honey-yielding  crab  apple  blossoms  of 
our  groves  and  forests.  With  the  floral 
month  of  May  come  flowers  innumerable, 
that  yield  an  enormous  quantity  of  finely 
flavored  honey.  Besides  the  flowers, 
there  is  the  honey-yielding  blossoms  of 
the  black  and  honey  locusts,  white  haw, 
wild  black  cherry,  raspberry,  blackberry 
and  box  elder.  In  June  we  have,  added 
to  the  large  number  of  wild  flowers,  the 
honey-laden  blossoms  of  our  meadows 
and  pastures.  The  white  and  red  clover 
blossoms  that  grow  not  only  in  our 
meadows  and  pastures,  but  which  are 
found  covering  all  waysides  and  outlands, 
yield  an  abundant  harvest.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  month  of  July,  all 
sources  of  honey  measurably  fail,  until 
the   fore  part  of  August,  which   brings, 


(307) 


3°& 


BEES— MANAGEMENT  AND  CARE  OF. 


among  other  sources,  the  snow-white 
blossoms  of  buckwheat.  This  is  raised  to 
a  considerable  extent  here,  and  is  the 
richest  harvest  of  the  year.  It  usually 
lasts  till  frost. 

The  meagre  supply  of  honey  from 
flowers  and  blossoms  during  the  latter 
part  of  July  might,  to  the  casual  observer, 
be  considered  an  injury  to  the  honey  bee 
and  its  business  of  making  honey ;  but  a 
little  further  observation  shows  that  it  is 
not  the  case.  About  this  time  the  comb 
is  filled,  and  the  honey  that  has  already 
been  gathered  is  to  be  sealed  over  and 
secured ;  the  brood  of  young  ones  is  to 
be  nurtured  and  ma'tured  to  supply  the 
place  of  those  which  have  gone  forth  in 
swarms;  pollen,  or  bee  bread — that  is 
furnished  principally,  at  this  time,  by 
corn  tassels — is  to  be  laid  up  for  the  next 
spring's  brood,  then  to  be  reared,  and  the 
industrious  bee  takes  this  opportunity  to 
gather  and  store  it  up.  After  the  early 
frosts  there  is  not  much  honey  to  be  col- 
lected, except  from  the  yellow  blossoms 
fall  which  now  appear  amid  the  faded  ver- 
dure of  decaying  nature.  But  now  the 
weather  is  too  cold  for  gathering  honey, 
and  the  bee  only  struggles  for  a  time  with 
the  chilling  winds  of  autumn,  then  ends 
the  campaign  and  returns  to  winter 
quarters. 

The  following  list  comprises  some  of 
the  plants  from  which  bees  gather  honey 
and  pollen  during  the  feeding  seasons  : 

Spring. — Willow,  alder,  aspen  or  pop- 
lar, elm,  maple,  marsh-marigold,  hepatica, 
anemone,  dandelion,  erythronium,  service 
berry,  currant,  gooseberry,  strawberry, 
peach,  cherry,  apple,  pear,  China  tree, 
black  gum,  whortleberry,  cottonwood, 
cornel  or  dogwood,  narcissus,  honey- 
suckle, oak,  red  bud,  hazle,  yellow  jas- 
mine, sweet  myrtle,  magnolia,  hawthorn, 
box-elder,  locust,  azalea. 

Summer. — Red  clover,  white  clover, 
raspberry,  blackberry,  cockspur,  thorn, 
whortleberry,  black-haw,  self-heal,  azalea, 
sour-wood,  cinquefoil,  cucumber,  narrow- 
leaved  plantain,  horse  chestnut,  straw- 
berry, pea,  honey-kew,  (on  live  oak,) 
chincapin,  persimmon,  linden,  bee-balm, 
maize,  sorghum,  heliotrope,  iron  weed, 
smart  weed,  butterfly  weed,  viper's  bug- 
loss,  cotton  plant,  buckwheat,  sumac, 
catnip,  Spanish  needles,  beggar's  lice, 
boneset,  starwort,  silk  weed,  thistle,  sage, 


cardinal  flower,  balsam,  mountain  mint, 
sweet  marjoram,  lavender,  spearmint, 
peppermint,  thyme,  dandelion,  duckweed, 
pennyroyal,  sweet  clover,  speedwell, 
poppy,  turnip,  hollyhock,  sunflower, 
dahlia,  phlox. 

Autumn. — Aster,  golden  rod,  dande- 
lion, white  clover,  red  clover,  cinquefoil, 
chickweed,  pennyroyal,  artichoke,  phlox„ 
chrysanthemum. 

BEES,  Common  or  Black,  vs.  Italian. — 
We  are  satisfied  that  the  Italian  bees  are 
superior  to  the  common  or  black  bees,, 
first,  in  the  prolificness  of  their  queens ;; 
this  is  marked.  Italian  hives  will  be 
strong  in  spring,  and  throw  off  swarms 
from  one  to  two  weeks  before  the  com- 
mon bees.  The  great  preventive  of  the 
ravages  of  the  moth  is  to  keep  your  hives, 
strong;  this  very  prolificness  of  the  Italian 
queen  keeps  the  hives  strong.  Seldom 
do  we  find  moth  worms  in  an  Italian 
hive.  Second,  in  vigor  and  energy. 
They  commence  work  earlier  in  the  morn- 
ing; this  is  easily  tested.  Let  a  box  with 
comb  be  exposed  to  the  bees,  the  first 
bees  that  visit  it  in  the  morning,  though 
there  may  not  be  more  than  one  hive  of 
Italians  in  twenty,  will  be  the  Italians, 
and  they  will  be  the  last  to  leave  it  at 
night.  This  superior  energy  and  vigor 
enables  them  to  store  more  honey  than 
the  common  bee.  Third,  in  keenness  of 
scent.  This  is  also  marked.  Few  who 
have  kept  the  Italians  have  failed  to 
notice  this  peculiarity.  Let  a  dish  of 
honey  be  exposed  in  a  room  with  an  open 
door  or  window,  during  the  scarcity  of 
honey,  and  the  first  bee  that  approaches 
it  is  sure  to  be  an  Italian.  And  fourth,  in 
amiability  of  disposition.  This  has  been 
questioned,  and  we  will  acknowledge  that 
they  are  not  always  the  quiet,  gentle  crea- 
tures that  some  have  represented  them  to 
be.  Excite  their  anger,  and  the  same 
vigor  and  energy  that  leads  them  to  work 
earlier  and  later  than  the  common  bee 
will  make  them  more  furious  and  less 
easily  quieted,  but  my  own  experience  is 
that  they  are  rather  more  peaceable  than 
the  common  bee.  That  they  work  on  red 
clover  any  more  readily  than  the  common 
bee,  we  have  not  been  able  to  see  yet  But. 
to  conclude,  the  Italianizing  of  an  apiary 
of  common  bees  adds,  in  pur  humble 
opinion,  fully  one-third  to  its  working 
powers. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       309 


BEES,  Supplying  with  a  Queen. — 
Three  weeks  are  required  for  supplying  a 
colony  with  a  queen  when  lost.  The 
queen  is  very  frequently  lost  when  she 
goes  out  for  the  purpose  of  being  impreg- 
nated, and  as  she  has  destroyed  all  the 
unhatched  queens,  and  there  is  no  worker 
brood,  the  loss  must  be  repaired  by  the 
owner.  The  loss  is  made  sufficiently 
plain,  and  when  the  young  queens  are  a 
week  old,  the  hives  should  have  attention 
paid  to  them  morning  and  evening.  The 
bees  run  about  on  the  hive,  fly  away  a 
short  distance  and  return,  and  for  the 
time  being,  all  is  confusion  both  within 
and  without  the  hive.  The  swarm  should 
now  be  given  some  worker  brood  from 
some  other  hive,  or,  better  still,  a  fertile 
•queen.  The  best  way  to  introduce  the 
queeri  to  a  new  colony  is,  to  cover  her 
with  honey  water.  If  a  queen  survives 
her  second  year,  it  is  best  to  remove  her, 
to  give  place  to  a  younger  and  more  vig- 
orous one.  The  keeper  who  allows  his 
stock  to  remain  without  queens,  is  too 
careless  to  succeed. 

BEES,  Swarms  Going  to  the  Woods. — 
They  may  be  prevented  from  doing  so  by 
keeping  the  hive  shaded  and  cool,  and 
close  to  the  bottom  board,  except  about 
an  inch  in  front.  If  a  difficult  case,  set  in 
the  cellar  from  forty-eight  to  seventy-two 
hours,  and  give  them,  perhaps,  from  a 
pound  to  two  pounds  of  honey. 

BEES,  Swarming  to  Prevent. — Imme- 
diately after  the  issue  of  the  first  swarm, 
open  the  hives,  (you  must  have  movable 
frames  for  this,)  destroy  every  royal  cell 
but  one.  If  at  the  end  of  five  days  this 
has  not  hatched,  look  over  the  combs 
again,  and  destroy  every  royal  cell  that 
may  now  appear,  excepting  the  one  saved 
at  first.  But  if  the  oldest  of  the  young 
queens  is  allowed  to  hatch  and  begin  pip- 
ing before  anything  is  done,  the  fever  of 
swarming  will  rise  to  such  a  pitch,  that  you 
cannot  allay  it,  and  the  old  hive  may  even 
be  left  destitute.  The  best  way  is  to  make 
the  first  swarm  an  artificial  one,  before  or 
soon  after  queen  cells  are  started.  Then 
at  the  end  of  nine  days,  destroy  all  cells 
but  one,  as  above.  To  prevent  first 
swarms,  clip  the  wings  of  the  queen,  and 
put  a  "queen  yard"  in  front  of  the  hive — 
a  shallow  box  some  two  feet  square,  with 
edges  of  tin  projecting  inward,  so  that  no 
bee  can  get  out  and  away  from  the  hive 


without  flying.  This  will,  of  course,  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  the  queen,  and  swarms 
will  return. 

BEES,  Enemies  of  the.  —  Domestic 
fowls  are  destroyers  of  bees,  and  also  some 
birds,  from  whose  attacks  as  they  range 
the  fields  at  a  distance  from  the  hive  they 
cannot  be  protected.  Among  these  is  the 
titmouse,  or  blue  tomtit,  which  devours 
the  bees,  and  feeds  his  young  with  them ; 
and  in  winter  is  said  to  endeavor  to  force 
his  way  into  the  hive  itself.  Mice  are 
often  very  troublesome,  and  even  rats 
sometimes  make  their  way  into  the  hive. 
Slugs  and  snails  often  occasion  much 
trouble;  and  especially  in  warm  summer 
evenings,  the  attacks  of  wasps  and  hornets 
are  a  great  annoyance  to  the  bees.  In 
all  these  cases,  care  and  vigilance  can  do 
much.  Wasps'  nests  ought  to  be  destroy- 
ed wherever  met  with ;  insects  of  all  kinds, 
such  as  earwigs,  woodlice,  ants,  etc., 
should  be  cleared  away.  In  a  word,  the 
hives  and  stands  for  them  ought  to  be 
kept  as  clean  and  neat  as  possible. 

BEE  MOTH  or  WAX  WORM.— Large 
hawk-moths  sometimes  enter  a  bee  hive 
for  what  honey  they  can  get,  and  even 
mice  have  been  known  to  enter  a  hive ; 
while  several  parasites  live  upon  the  bees 
themselves.  But  by  far  the  worst  enemy 
the  bee-keeper  has  to  contend  with,  is  the 
bee-moth.  This  insect  is  so  well  known 
to  bee  men  generally  that  it  scarcely 
needs  a  description.  It  suffices  to  say, 
that  the  color  of  the  moth  is  dusky  gray, 
the  fore  wings  which  are  scallopped  at 
the  end,  being  more  or  less  sprinkled  and 
dotted  with  purple-brown.  The  female 
is  generally  a  good  deal  larger  than  the 
male,  though  there  is  not  so  much  differ- 
ence between  the  sexes  as  some  writers 
have  supposed.  The  worms  which  pro- 
duce these  moths  are  of  an  ash-gray 
color  above,  and  yellowish -white  beneath. 

The  bee  moth  was  first  introduced  into 
this  country  from  Europe  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century,  and  it 
was  in  all  probability  imported  with  the 
common  bee  hive.  There  are  two  broods 
of  the  moth  each  year,  the  first  brood  ap- 
pearing in  May  and  June,  and  the  second, 
which  is  the  most  numerous,  in  August. 
During  the  day  time  these  moths  remain 
quietly  ensconced  in  some  angle  ot  the 
hive,  but  as  night  approaches  they  be- 
come active,  and  the  female  uses  her  best 


3io 


BEES— MANAGEMENT  AND  CARE  OF. 


endeavors  to  get  into  the  hive,  her  object 
being  to  deposit  her  eggs  in  as  favorable 
place  as  possible.  Wire-gauze  contriv- 
ances are  of  no  avail  to  keep  her  out,  as 
she  frequently  commences  flying  before 
all  the  bees  have  ceased  their  work.  But 
even  if  she  were  entirely  prevented  from 
entering  the  hive,  she  could  yet  deposit 
her  eggs  on  the  outside,  or  by  means  of 
her  extensile  ovipositor,  thrust  them  in 
between  the  slightest  joint  or  crack,  and 
the  young  worms  hatching  from  them 
would  readily  make  their  way  into  the 
hive.  The  moment  the  worm  is  hatched 
it  commences  spinning  a  silken  tube  for 
its  protection,  and  this  tube  is  enlarged 
as  it  increases  in  size.  This  worm  cuts 
its  channels  right  through  the  comb,  feed- 
ing on  the  wax,  and  destroying  the  young 
bees  on  its  way.  When  full-grown,  it 
creeps  into  a  corner  of  the  hive  or  un- 
der some  ledge  at  the  bottom,  and  forms 
a  tough  white  cocoon,  of  silk  intermin- 
gled with  its  own  black  excrement.  In 
due  time  the  mouth  emerges  from  this 
cocoon. 

A  worm-infested  hive  may  generally  be 
known  by  the  discouraged  aspect  which 
the  bees  present,  and  by  the  bottom- 
board  being  covered  with  pieces  of  bee- 
bread  mixed  with  the  black  gunpowder- 
like excrement  of  the  worm.  It  must 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  pieces  of  bee-bread  at 
the  bottom  of  a  hive,  when  not .  mixed 
with  the  black  excrement,  is  not  necessa- 
rily a  sign  of  the  presence  of  the  worm, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  may  indicate  indus- 
try and  thrift.  If  a  hive  is  very  badly 
infested  with  the  worm,  it  is  better  to 
drive  out  the  bees  and  secure  what  honey 
and  wax  there  may  be  left,  than  to  pre- 
serve it  as  a  moth  breeder  to  infest  the 
apiary.  If  put  into  a  new  hive,  the  bees 
may  do  something,  and  if  they  do  not, 
there  is  no  loss,  as  they  would  have  per- 
ished, finally,  from  the  ravages  of  the 
worm. 

It  should  invariably  be  borne  in  mind 
that  a  strong  stock  of  bees  is  ever  capa- 
ble of  resisting,  to  a  great  extent,  the  at- 
tacks of  the  worm;  while  a  starved  or 
queenless  swarm  is  quite  indifferent  to  its 
attacks.  In  a  common  box  hive,  a  good 
way  to  entrap  the  worms  after  they  are 
once  in  the  hive,  is  to  raise  the  front  upon 
two  small  wooden  blocks,  and  to  put  a 


piece  of  woolen  rag  between  the  bottom 
board  and  the  back  of  the  hive.  The 
worms  find  a  cozy  place  under  the  rag,  in 
which  they  form  their  cocoons,  and  may 
there  may  be  found  and  killed,  from  time 
to  time.  Much  can  be  done  in  the  way 
of  prevention,  by  killing  every  morning 
the  moths  which  may  be  found  on  the 
outside  of  the  hides.  At  this  time  of  the 
day  they  allow  themselves  to  be  crushed,, 
with  very  good  grace;  and  if  two  or 
three  be  killed  each  morning,  they  would 
form  an  important  item  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  especially  when  we  recollect  that 
each  female  is  capable  of  furnishing  a 
hive  with  at  least  300  eggs.  In  conclu- 
sion, we  give  it  as  our  conviction  that  im- 
munity from  the  ravages  of  this  bee- 
worm  can  only  be  guaranteed  where  a 
thorough  control  is  had  of  both  hive  and 
bees;  hence  the  importance  of  the  mov- 
able frame  hive. 

BEES,  Swarming,  Artificial  vs.  Natural. 
— Which  is  the  best  ?  It  is  probably  well 
known  to  all  who  have  heard  of  the  mov- 
able comb  hive  that  one  of  the  advan- 
tages claimed  for  it  is  that  of  being  able 
with  it  to  divide  your  bees,  or,  in  other 
words,  to  swarm  them  artificially.  Those 
who  are  using  the  old  box  hives,  nail 
kegs,  hollow  logs,  etc.,  sometimes  ques- 
tion whether  an  artificial  swarm  is  as  good 
as  a  natural  one.  Actual  trial  of  the  two 
modes,  under  equal  circumstances,  will 
alone  decide.  Last  year  the  writer  tried 
both  thoroughly,  and  could  see  difference 
in  results.  There  are  several  things  in 
favor  of  artificial  swarming.  1st.  All 
swarms  can  be  made  early,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  an  early  swarm  is  worth  far 
more  than  a  late  one.  2d.  Swarms  can 
be  made  at  will — in  other  words,  a  per- 
son does  not  have  to  watch  his  bees  all 
spring,  and  then  have  some  of  his  best 
hives  fail  of  swarming,  or  lose  their 
swarms.  This  feature  of  the  moveable 
comb  hive  renders  bee  keeping  more 
pleasant  and  safe  to  the  business  man 
who  wishes  to  keep  bee  hives  enough  to 
supply  his  family  with  honey.  How 
many  have  been  deterred  from  keeping 
bees  by  the  trouble  of  watching  them 
during  swarming  time,  and  then  of  being 
taken  from  their  business  to  hive  them 
after  they  are  swarmed?  3d.  Artificial 
swarms  when  made  properly  are  more  apt 
to  remain   than  natural  swarms.      4th. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       31  r 


They  are  more  easily  made,  as  a  general 
thing,  than  natural  swarms  are  hived. 
How  often  has  the  bee-keeper,  while 
getting  ready  to  hive  a  swarm,  been 
troubled  with  having  swarm  after  swarm 
issue  and  persist  in  clustering  together  ? 
We  have  had  as  many  as  four  clusters  to- 
gether in  one  monstrous  swarm.  Then 
the  qustion  is  what  to  do  with  them  ?  To 
hunt  up  even  two  queens  and  put  them 
in  two  hives  is  tedious  business — to  run 
them  into  three  or  four  hives  at  a  venture 
runs  the  risk  of  getting  all  the  queens  in 
one  hive,  when  the  other  bees  will  either 
leave  or  join  the  hive  with  the  queens. 
There  is  considerable  loss  in  hiving  two 
or  three  prime  swarms  together,  unless 
the  honey  season  is  short  or  the  swarms 
very  small.  Artificial  swarming  saves  all 
of  this,  makes  a  certainty  of  increase  of 
stocks,  and  having  tew,  if  any,  late 
swarms.  We  say  few,  if  any,  because  with 
a  large  number  of  hives,  occasionally  a 
hive  that  has  been  divided  will  throw 
off  a  swarm,  but  the  two  cases  are 
so  few  that  they  are  hardly  worth  men- 
tioning. 

BEES,  Swarming,  Artificial.  —  This 
should  be  undertaken  only  when  honey  is 
abundant  in  the  fields  and  the  nights 
warm.  To  divide  them,  have  a  hive  at 
hand  of  the  same  size  and  pattern  as 
your  others.  Then  from  four  hives  take 
each  two  frames  and  place  them  in  the 
new  hive,  supplying  them  in  the  old  with 
empty  frames.  Then  move  a  hive  which 
you  have  not  disturbed,  arodor  more  away 
to  a  new  place,  and  place  the  new  hive 
where  that  one  stood.  This  should  be  done 
in  the  fields.  These  will  come  in  loaded 
to  their  old  place,  and  find  it  strange;  and 
as  it  contains  stores  and  young  bees  hatch- 
ing, and  eggs  from  which  to  rear  another 
queen,  they  will  at  once  proceed  to  rear 
one,  and  remain  and  work  as  contended 
as  ever.  This  process  may  be  repeated 
every  two  weeks  until  you  have  secured 
sufficient  increase.  The  hives  from  which 
you  take  the  combs,  and  the  ones  which 
you  move  to  a  new  place,  will  lose  so 
many  bees  that  they  will  not  think  of 
swarming,  but  will  energetically  make  up 
their  loss,  and  be  better  than  if  nothing 
had  been  taken  from  them.  This  is  the 
safest  of  all  ways  to  divide  bees,  and  can 
be  safely  practiced  by  beginners. 

BEES,  Swarming  of.  —  It  is  generally 


supposed  that  a  hive  will  not  swarm  until 
most,  if  not  all,  of  the  cells  are  so  filled 
that  the  queen  has  no  place  to  lay  her 
eggs,  and  as  this  is  not  apt  to  happen  un- 
less bees  are  gathering  honey  freely,  it  is 
useless  to  look  for  swarms,  particularly  in 
the  spring,  until  warm,  dry  weather,  as 
either  cold  or  wet  weather  is  unfavorable 
for  the  secretion  of  honey.  Swarms  sel- 
dom or  never  issue  until  at  least  one 
queen  cell  is  capped  over. 

Those  using  the  movable  comb  hive 
can  by  examining  the  frames  every  few 
days  tell  almost  to  a  certainty  when  to 
expect  a  swarm,  though  occasionally  bees 
will  change  their  mind  and  permit  the 
queen  to  destroy  the  royal  cells. 

No  rattling  of  pans  or  any  other  noise 
is  needed  to  make  a  swann  settle;  in 
fact,  I  never  was  able  to  satisfy  myself 
that  throwing  dirt  or  water  among  the 
bees  ever  had  any  tendency  to  make  them 
settle,  though  others  think  it  will. 

The  sooner  bees  are  hived  after  clus- 
tering, the  better  the  chances  are  of  their 
remaining  with  you. 

Hives  need  no  rubbing  with  leaves  or 
salt  to  induce  bees  to  go  into  them ;  be 
sure  they  are  clean,  and  free  from  cob- 
webs. 

There  is  another  thing  very  necessary, 
the  lack  of  which  has  caused  the  loss  of 
many  a  swarm  of  bees,  and  that  is  a  cooL 
hive. 

After  hiving  a  swarm,  put  the  hive  on 
a  ventilating  bottom  board;  it  should 
not  be  raised,  as  bees  are  more  inclined 
to  remain  in  the  hive  if  the  ventilation  is 
from  below,  and  the  entrance  the  only 
place  they  can  get  out.  The  hive  should 
be  well  shaded,  and  in  very  warm  weather 
sprinkling  or  syringing  with  water  fre- 
quently will  help  keep  the  hive  cool,  and, 
of  course,  have  a  tendency  to  make  the 
bees  satisfied  with  their  new  home. 

Occasionally  a  swarm  will  leave  a  hive 
when  it  seems  as  if  all  had  been  done 
that  could  be  to  keep  them.  If  a  swarm 
appears  determined  to  "secede,"  put  a 
box  of  honey  on  it,  shut  it  up  on  its  ven- 
tilating bottom  board,  and  take  it  into 
the  cellar,  keeping  it  there  four  or  five 
days ;  it  might  be  well  to  give  water  by 
putting  a  dish  full  under  the  bottom  board 
and  pressing  it  up  to  the  wire  screen, 
then  the  bees  can  help  themselves. 

We  never  knew  a  swarm  desert  a  hive 


312 


BEES— MANAGEMENT  AND  CARE  OF. 


after  remaining  in  it  four  days  (unless  an 
accident  happened,  such  as  melting  down 
the  comb,)  by  that  time  there  is  brood 
which  bees  will  seldom  leave. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  explain  what  a 

bottom  board  is:  it  is  simply  a  bottom 

board  with  a  six  or  eight  inch  square  cut 

out  of  the  centre  and  a  wire  cloth  tacked 

/     over  it. 

BEE  QTJEEN,  Fertilization  of  the.— The 
idea  is  just  this — a  young  queen  will  be  fer- 
tilized in  confinement  if  shut  up  about  the 
time  she  would  have  flown,  providing,  of 
course,  that  a  drone  of  the  right  sort  is 
confined  with  her. 

It  is  necessary  to  make  a  fertilizer  of 
some  kind  large  enough  to  allow  the 
queen  and  drones  to  fly  around  in.  It  is 
best  to  make  them  of  fine  wire  cloth,  say 
twelve  inches  long  by  seven  inches  in 
diameter — size  immaterial. 

If  coarse  wire  cloth  is  used  in  making 
them,  the  queen  will  be  apt  to  be  caught 
and  held  by  the  workers  until  she  starves; 
workers  sometimes  pull  the  wings  and 
legs  from  their  own  queen.  We  mention 
this  so  that  the  necessity  for  using  fine 
wire  cloth  may  be  seen. 

A  wire  cloth  dish  cover,  ten  inches  in 
■diameter,  is  just  the  thing  for  the  purpose; 
they  cost  but  little  and  can  be  easily  fixed 
by  fitting  a  piece  of  thin  board  in  the 
bottom,  in  which  a  door  large  enough  to 
put  in  one's  hand  should  be  made.  Fas- 
ten on  the  inside  of  the  fertilizer  a  piece 
of  empty  comb  (drone  comb  is  best)  three 
or  four  inches  square,  which,  when  required 
for  use,  fill  with  honey  and  water — taking 
pains  not  to  drop  any  honey  in  the  fer- 
tilizer, or  the  queen  and  the  drones  will 
become  daubed  up  so  as  to  prevent  them 
from  flying. 

From  close  observations  it  has  been 
discovered  that  in  the  spring  and  summer 
young  queens  leave  the  hive  to  meet  the 
drones  for  impregnation,  usually  on  the 
fifth  day ;  in  tire  fall  months  they  very 
seldom  leave  until  seven  or  eight  days  old. 

On  the  morning  of  the  day  that  a  queen 
is  to  leave  the  hive  put  her  with  four  or 
five  drones  into  the  fertilizer. 

In  selecting  the  drones  to  be  put  with 
young  queens,  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  choose  only  those  that  are  strong,  vig- 
orous and  well  marked,  and  they  should 
he  caught  as  they  are  about  to  leave  the 


hive  —  those  returning  from  a   trip   are 
generally  too  tired  to  be  serviceable. 

Having  got  the  queen  and  the  drones 
in  the  fertilizer  and  everything  fixed,  lay 
it  over  the  frames  of  the  hive  to  which 
the  queen  belongs,  so  that  the  heat  from 
the  hive  can  get  into  it.  If  a  dish  cover 
fertilizer  is  used,  put  the  round  side 
downward. 

Put  on  the  cap,  which  should  have  an 
opening  in  the  side  or  top,  covered  with 
glass  to  admit  light. 

Leave  her  there  thirty-six  or  forty- 
eight  hours  —  a  shorter  time  usually  an- 
swers ;  when  a  dead  drone  is  found,  ex- 
amine it,  and  if  the  generative  organ  is 
gone,  the  queen  can  be  released,  when  she 
will  go  down  into  the  hive  and  begin  to 
lay  in  a  few  days,  or  she  can  be  intro- 
duced to  a  nuclei  hive,  which  can  be  done 
in  a  minute  by  giving  the  bees  in  the  nu- 
clei a  dose  of  smoke,  where  she  can  be 
kept  until  wanted. 

Fertilizers  can  be  put  on  any  hive,  and 
two  or  three  can  be  put  on  at  a  time  if 
the  space  is  large  enough. 

If  any  are  in  doubt  about  their  queens 
becoming  fertile,  they  can  easily  prove 
the  matter  by  clipping  the  wings  of  the 
queen ;  or,  better  still,  confining  her  with 
all  the  bees  until  she  begins  to  lay. 

We  had  over  one  hundred  queens 
mated  this  season,  in  complying  with  the 
above  directions,  twenty  of  which  were 
mated  before  our  eyes. 

Those  that  go  to  work  and  raise  a  large 
batch  of  queens  in  nurseries,  and  expect 
to  have  them  fertilized  by  the  wholesale, 
need  not  be  surprised  to  find  out  that 
they  have  got  a  large  sized  elephant  on 
their  shoulders,  and  that  instead  of  ac- 
complishing their  object,  they  lose  the 
whole  lot. 

In  our  opinion,  it  is  best  to  allow  young 
queens  to  run  with  the  workers  until  four 
days  old,  when  the  queen  bees  and  all 
can  be  confined  until  the  queen  is  ready 
to  be  put  into  a  fertilizer,  or  she  could  be 
caught  and  put  into  a  queen  cage  until 
six  or  seven  days  old,  when  there  could 
be  some  prospect  of  success. 

We  have  endeavored  to  describe  the 
methods  as  minutely  as  possible,  and  in 
as  "come-at-able  "  way  as  we  know  how. 

Those  having  an  accurate  and  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  nature  and  habits 
of  the  bee,  will  not  only  succeed  with  it, 


UBOXB  BEE. 


QUEEN  BEJI 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       313 


but  should  try  all  the  experiments  within 
their  power  to  perfect  the  method  for  the 
benefit  of  apiarians  generally. 

BEE  MILLER,  to  Destroy.— To  a  quart 
cf  water,  sweetened  with  honey  or  sugar, 
add  a  gill  of  vinegar,  and  set  in  an  open 
vessel  on  the  top  or  by  the  side  of  the 
hive.  When  the  miller  comes  in  the 
night  he  will  fly  into  the  mixture  and  be 
drowned. 

BEES,  Different  Kinds  of.— There  are 
three  kinds  of  bees  in  every  hive — viz., 
the  queen,  the  drones,  and  the  workers. 

The  queen  bee  is  the  mother  of  all  the 
bees  in  the  hive,  and  is  the  only  perfect 
female,  and  is  readily  distinguished  from 
all  the  others  by  her  long  body,  short 
wings,  and  yellow  abdomen.  There  is 
but  one  queen  bee  in  a  hive,  and  in  case 
she  is  lost,  the  industry  of  the  hive  is 
stopped  until  preparations  are  completed 
for  hatching  another.  The  queen  leaves 
.the  hive  when  she  is  seven  or  eight  days 
old,  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the  male 
bee,  is  impregnated,  and  then  never  leaves 
the  hive  again,  except  with  a  swarm. 
Queens  are  the  only  bees  that  live  more 
than  one  season,  and  they  sometimes  live 
three  years,  and  they  have  been  known  to 
exist  for  five  years.  They  are,  if  supplied 
with  good  cells,  capable  of  laying  over  one 
hundred  thousand  eggs  in  a  season.  The 
•queen  always  goes  out  with  a  swarm,  and 
if  by  accident  she  becomes  lost,  the  bees 
immediately  return  to  the  hive  which 
they  left. 

Drones  are  male  bees.  Large  numbers 
are  reared  in  each  hive,  but  are  destroyed 
after  the  honey  season  is  over,  and  the 
young  queens  have  been  impregnated. 
They  are  the  consumers,  not  the  pro- 
ducers—  they  do  not  labor,  but  are 
4rones.  They  are  somewhat  larger  and 
more  clumsy  than  the  workers,  and  some- 
times number  as  high  as  several  thousand 
to  a  hive. 

The  workers  are  the  bees  who  do  the 
work  of  the  colony.  For  two  weeks  after 
they  are  hatched  they  work  inside  the  hive; 
•after  that  they  go  out  to  gather  honey. 
During  the  working  season,  a  bee  of  this 
class  seldom  lives  over  two  months,  so 
that  during  a  season  a  colony  is  several 
times,  with  the  exception  of  the  queen, 
changed.  A  good  swarm  should  number 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  thousand  bees, 
and  previous  to  swarming  they  often  num- 


ber from  forty  to  fifty  thousand.  This 
bee  has  a  poisonous  sting,  which  in  self- 
defence  they  will  use,  but  if  carefully 
handled  they  will  not  sting.  The  work- 
ers, when  absent  from  their  hives,  will 
not  use  their  sting  unless  they  cannot 
escape  without  it,  and  especially  when 
swarming,  they  can  be  even  brushed, 
handled,  shaken,  and,  unless  likely  to  be 
crushed,  is  this  the  case.  When  filled 
with  honey  at  any  time  they  will  not 
sting,  even  in  defence  of  their  hives  and 
treasures.  They  are  smaller  than  the 
drone,  and  have  a  little  sac  for  storing 
honey,  and  little  baskets  on  their  legs  for 
pollen. 

BEES,  Wintering. — Bees  require  so  little 
care  and  attention  at  the  very  time  other 
stock  require  the  most,  that  they  are  very 
apt  to  be  entirely  neglected ;  but  we  know 
of  no  stock  so  much  benefited  by  a  little 
labor  rightly  directed  as  bees.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  twenty-five  pounds 
of  honey,  after  the  first  of  November,  is 
sufficient  to  winter  a  hive  of  bees  in  this 
latitude  in  the  open  air ;  if  the  spring  is 
late  and  wet,  thirty  pounds  is  barely 
enough.  But  our  most  successful  apiari- 
ans find  that  it  pays  to  build  a  house  for 
wintering  bees,  or  to  partition  off  a  room 
in  the  cellar.  We  have  a  room  eight  by 
ten  feet,  ceiled  perfectly  tight,  with  floor 
cemented.  Two  ventilating  tubes,  one 
from  the  bottom  at  one  corner,  the  other 
from  the  opposite  corner  at  the  top ;  both 
opening  out  doors  with  slides  to  regulate 
ventilation.  A  thermometer  hung  to  a 
slide  running  through  the  door  so  as  to 
to  be  drawn  out  and  examined  without 
opening  the  door,  gives  us  the  tempera- 
ture without  disturbing  the  bees ;  we  have 
four  tiers  of  shelves.  The  hives  are  taken 
from  their  bottom  boards,  caps  or  boxes 
taken  off,  and  placed  upon  strips  of  laths 
to  raise  them  from  the  shelves  so  as  to 
give  ventilation ;  the  holes  in  the  top  for 
honey  boxes  are  left  open.  The  shelves 
are  movable  so  as  to  be  taken  down  or 
put  up  to  facilitate  operations.  We  win- 
tered ninety-two  hives  in  this  room  last 
winter  without  the  loss  of  one. 

BEE,  Hat. — This  hat,  which  is  very 
useful  to  keepers  of  bees,  is  made  by  sew- 
ing a  strip  of  cloth  to  the  edge  of  a  com- 
mon stiff  brim  hat,  sufficiently  long  to 
button  under  the  coat.  Over  the  face 
sew  in  the  cloth  a  piece  of  wire  gauze. 


3»4 


BEES— MANAGEMENT  AND  CARE  OF. 


Let  the  gauze  be  coarse  enough  to  keep 
the  bees  from  entering,  and  it  will  not 
obstruct  the  sight. 

BEE,  Drones,  in  Swarming.  —  Mr. 
Quimby,  one  of  the  best  bee  men  in  the 
country,  speaks  thus  in  regard  to  drones : 
"A  strong  colony  of  bees,  with  a  fertile 
queen,  and  abundance  of  honey  on  hand, 
will  rear  drones  at  the  commencement  of 
warm  weather,  usually  in  May.  Yet  but 
few  swarm  then  in  this  latitude.  If  honey 
should  become  scarce  between  fruit  blos- 
soms and  clover — it  does  sometimes — the 
mature  drones  are  destroyed,  and  even 
the  chrysalis  is  often  dragged  out  and 
sacrificed.  When  honey  is  again  abun- 
dant in  the  flowers,  more  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  the  drone-cells.  The  swarm 
may  issue  before  the  drone  appears. 
When  a  stock  has  too  little  honey  to 
afford  to  rear  drones  until  the  flowers 
yield  it,  they  will  occasionally  swarm  be- 
fore drones  appear.  The  appearance  of 
drones  is  not  a  certain  indication  of 
swarming.  But  when  they  are  destroyed, 
it  indicates  that  honey  is  scarce,  and  no 
swarms  need  be  expected  at  such  time. 
If  it  occurs  late  in  the  season,  they  may 
not  swarm,  although  they  may  rear  drones. 
A  hive  that  has  not  reared  %any  drones 
until  the  flowers  yield  honey,  is  much 
more  likely  to  swarm  than  one  that  has 
destroyed  them  once.  The  queen  does 
not  lay  drone  eggs  exclusively  at  any 
time,  but  a  number  of  both  drone  and 
worker  eggs  daily  for  months  in  some  sea- 
sons. Drones  do  not  appear  to  control 
the  swarming.  We  consider  so  many  of 
them  a  useless  horde  of  consumers,  and 
take  measures  to  prevent  the  bees  from 
rearing  so  many.  We  find  that  if  the 
queen  lays  her  eggs  in  drone-cells  they 
hatch  out  drones ;  if  in  worker  cells,  they 
are  workers.  Acting  on  this  hint,  we  cut 
out  all  the  combs  from  a  box-hive,  trans- 
ferring them  to  movable  frames,  rejecting 
drone-combs,  and  without  them  they  can 
raise  no  drones." 

BEES,  Feed  for.— Should  the  weather 
be  favorable,  every  stock  should  be  ex- 
amined about  the  first  of  February. 
Should  any  one  be  in  want  of  food,  it 
should  be  supplied.  If  in  a  box  or  gum 
hive,  thin  pieces  of  white  sugar  candy  can 
be  slightly  pushed  between  the  combs 
through  an  opening  in  the  top.  Honey 
or  good  sugar  syrup  can  be  given  by 


means  of  a  saturated  sponge  or  comb, 
filled  with  honey,  placed  at  the  opening 
on  top,  being  careful  to  cover  with  a  boxv . 
to  keep  out  outside  bees.  In  movable 
frame-hives,  frames  of  honey  from  other 
hives  having  it  to  spare,  is  most  conve- 
nient, and  any  required  quantity  can  be 
given  to  the  various  feeders  through  the 
honey  board.  This  feeding  should  be 
kept  up,  or  food  enough  should  be  given 
for  the  bees  and  their  brood  until  honey 
can  be  gathered  from  forage  outside.  As 
soon  as  bees  begin  to  fly  freely,  stimulat- 
ing should  begin,  which  may  be  accom- 
plished as  in  feeding  for  stores,  except  the 
feed  should  be  given  every  day  about  sun- 
down, and  not  more  than  three  table- 
spoonsful  of  honey  or  four  of  syrup  should 
be  given  at  any  one  time.  This  should  be 
done,  whether  the  bees  have  an  abun- 
dance of  honey  in  their  hives  or  not. 
The  bees  getting  a  little  every  day,  it 
produces  much  the  same  effect  as  honey 
gathered  from  the  field,  which  stimulates 
and  promotes  early  brood. 

Another  important  feed  for  bees  is  un- 
bolted flour,  or,  what  is  better,  rye-meal, 
which  supplies  the  want  of  pollen  (bee 
bread)  for  the  larvae  brood  of  the  hive. 

This  meal  is  given  to  the  bees  on  a 
waiter,  or  wide  plank  having  strips  nailed 
on  the  edges  to  prevent  waste,  and  should 
be  placed  in  or  near  the  apiary,  out  of 
the  wind,  and  in  the  sun  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. 

Should  the  bees  be  tardy  in  finding  the 
meal,  put  a  piece  of  empty  comb  on  the 
meal,  or  a  few  drops  of  honey  on  the 
plank,  and  when  found  the  bees  will  pack 
it  on  their  legs  and  take  it  to  their  hives 
every  warm  day  with  great  avidity,  until 
they  can  get  pollen  from  the  blossoms. 

The  effect  is  to  produce  large  and  early 
broods,  strengthening  weak  stock,  and 
making  all  strong  with  young  bees  Iff  good 
time  for  the  honey  harvest,  giving  earlier 
and  larger  swarms,  and  greatly  increasing 
the  amount  of  surplus  honey. 

White  clover,  buckwheat,  the  linden- 
tree,  golden-rod,  and  aster  furnish  good 
food.  White  clover  and  the  linden-tree 
yield  the  best  honey.  Alsike  clover  is 
sown  extensively  for  this  purpose,  and  not 
only  supplies  honey  for  the  bees,  but  hay 
and  forage  for  the  farm  stock.  It  pro- 
duces a  great  abundance  of  honey  of  fine 
quality,  yields  two  crops  of  hay  a  year, 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       315 


and  continues  to  bloom  till  the  frost  comes. 
The  Italian  bee  is  said  to  prefer  it  to  white 
clover. 

BEE  HIVES,  the  Best.  — Mr.  M. 
Quinby,  the  noted  bee  culturist,  prefers 
the  movable-comb  bee-hive  on  account 
of  its  special  fitness  for  removing  the 
honey,  feeding  the  bees,  and  for  artificial 
swarming.  Bees  generally  store  much 
more  honey  than  their  necessities  require. 
With  this  hive  each  sheet  of  comb  may 
be  taken  out  when  it  is  filled,  and  the 
bees  will  restore  it ;  or  the  comb  may  be 
emptied  of  its  honey  by  means  of  a  ma- 
chine for  that  purpose,  and  the  empty 
combs  replaced.  In  this  case  the  bees 
will  need  only  to  fill  the  old  comb-cells. 
This  makes  a  great  saving  of  labor  for 
the  bees,  as  they  will  collect  thirty 
pounds  of  honey  in  the  time  it  would 
take  to  make  one  pound  of  comb.  It  is 
estimated  that  a  swarm  of  bees,  when 
supplied  with  the  comb,  as  may  be  done 
with  the  movable  comb-hive,  will  store 
more  than  two  hundred  pounds  of  honey 
in  a  favorable  season. 

How  to  Make. — The  shape  of  a  box- 
hive  should  be  long  from  front  to  rear, 
fifteen  inches  deep,  twelve  inches  wide, 
and  the  same  in  height.  Inch  boards  un- 
planed  are  the  best,  and  the  boards  should 
be  well  seasoned  and  carefully  put  to- 
gether. The  hive  should  set  in  a  groove 
in  the  bottom  board  and  not  be  fastened 
to  it.  Place  two  or  three  half-inch  sticks, 
crossing  each  way  in  the  middle  of  the 
hive,  aids  to  support  the  combs.  One- 
quarter  inch  from  the  top  of  the  hive,  fas- 
ten slats  four  to  six  inches  in  width  of 
one-half  inch  stuff",  leaving  cracks  from 
one-fourth  to  one-third  inch  in  width  be- 
tween them.  Over  the  top  of  the  hive 
place  a  cover  projecting  on  every  side, 
and  fasten  the  same  to  the  hives  by  means 
of  small  hooks,  which  not  only  gives  you 
a  movable  top  and  bottom  board,  but 
also  a  honey  board.  This  is  as  near  a 
movable  comb  hive  as  we  can  mention. 

BEE  HIVES,  Position  of.— So  far  as 
our  experience  goes,  it  is  better  that  the 
hive  should  be  near  the  ground.  All  of 
our  hives  are  on  the  ground,  or  separated 
from  it  only  by  a  board.  The  comb  does 
not  mold.  The  weary  and  heavy  laden 
bee  returning  late  at  evening  not  seldom 
misses  the  entrance,  and  falls  to  the 
ground.     Though  chilled,  they  can  still 


crawl  into  the  hive,  whereas,  if  it  were 
high  they  would  never  reach  it.  Weeds 
must  not  be  allowed  in  front,  nor  high 
grass.  Neither  is  it  very  important  in 
what  direction  the  hive  faces.  If  it 
fronts  the  south  in  the  summer  the  heat 
of  the  entrance  is  too  great,  and  in  win- 
ter the  bees  are  invited  forth  by  the  sun 
in  unsuitable  times.  If  the  west,  the 
high  winds  of  summer  and  winter  dash 
them  to  the  ground,  and  the  setting  sun 
invites  them  forth  when  they  should  re- 
main at  home.  If  the  north,  they  get  to 
work  too  late  of  a  morning,  and  quit  too 
soon  at  night,  besides  other  objections. 
If  the  east,  some  think  they  get  to  work 
too  soon,  and  many  are  lost,  chilled  by 
the  morning  dews.  I  think  the  east  or 
southeast  less  objectionable  than  any 
other.  It  is  the  early  bird  that  catches  the 
worm.  Many  plants,  such  as  buckwheat, 
and  our  yellow  prairie  flowers,  are  rich  in 
honey  in  the  morning  only ;  whereas  after 
ten  o'clock,  unless  the  day  is  cloudy  or 
moist,  the  fount  of  honey  is  dry.  Neither 
would  this  aspect  tempt  them  forth  too 
late  in  the  evening.  Many  bees  foraging; 
after  sundown  are  lost  and  never  return. 
My  Italians  have  been  found  watering 
three  miles  from  home  as  a  regular  thing. 
A  neighbor  found  them  at  that  distance, 
and  lined  them  home,  supposing  he  had 
found  a  wild  Italian  hive ;  and  yet  there 
was  plently  of  water  at  all  times  within  a 
stone's  throw  of  their  home. 

BEE  HIVES,  Common. — The  common 
box  hive  is  the  one  most  generally  used. 
It  is  usually  made  of  one  and  a  half  inch 
pine  boards,  though  other  materials  are 
used,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  maker 
or  the  cost  of  the  material.  The  size  of 
the  hive  varies  much,  but  generally  con- 
tains two  hundred  cubic  inches,  with 
cross-bars  placed  in  the  center  to  aid  in 
supporting  the  combs.  In  general,  they 
are  simple  boxes.  This  form  is  varied  at 
times,  however,  by  placing  on  the  top  of 
the  hive  drawers  or  boxes  for  surplus 
honey.  In  these  hives  the  bees  are  left 
to  take  care  of  themselves,  as  very  little 
can  be  done  to  aid  them.  The  old-fash- 
ioned basket  or  straw  hive  is  seldom  used, 
and  it  will  soon  be  wholly  discarded,  save 
by  a  few  bee-keepers,  who  may  retain  it 
rather  as  a  curiosity  than  for  any  practi- 
cal use. 

In  the  Southern  States  the  favorite  form. 


3l6 


BEES— MANAGEMENT  AND  CARE  OF. 


of  hive  is  the  "gum."  This  consists  of  a 
hollow  log,  generally  a  portion  of  a  cy- 
press stump,  about  two  feet  in  length  and 
a  foot  in  diameter;  upon  the  top  of  the 
hollow  is  placed  a  board,  and  at  the  bot- 
tom is  cut  a  small  notch  for  the  entrance 
of  the  bees,  and  the  hive  is  complete. 
Three-fourths  of  the  hives  in  these  States 
are  of  this  description.  This  form  of  hive 
served  the  purpose  before  the  appearance 
of  the  moth  or  foul-brood,  but  no  reli- 
ance can  now  be  placed  upon  it.  If  the 
moth  is  gaining  the  upper  hand,  foul- 
brood  raging,  honey  supply  low,  or  queen 
lost,  there  is  no  remedy — the  bees  must 
perish.  The  do-nothing  system  in  bee- 
keeping, as  in  other  branches  of  agricul- 
ture, will  lead  to  the  ruin  of  the  bee- 
keeper. Those  apiarians  who  use  the 
movable-comb  hive  and  a  scientific  meth- 
od of  bee-keeping  have  been  the  most 
successful. 

HONEY.— The  color  of  the  honey 
shows  whether  it  is  fine  or  inferior.  If  it 
be  wanted  to  press  some  in  the  comb, 
choose  the  fairest  and  those  that  have  not 
been  broken ;  wrap  each  comb  in  white 
paper,  such  as  lines  the  blue  cover  of  loaf- 
sugar.  Set  it  edgewise  as  it  stood  in  the 
hive,  and  it  may  be  preserved  many 
months.  The  combs  meant  to  be  drained 
must  be  cut  in  slices.  Lay  them  on  a 
hair-search,  supported  by  a  rack  over  the 
jar,  in  which  the  honey  is  to  remain ;  for 
the  less  it  is  stirred  after  drainage  the 
better  it  keeps. 

Fill  the  jar  to  the  brim,  as  a  little  scum 
must  be  taken  off  when  it  has  settled.  A 
bladder  well  washed  in  lukewarm  water 
ought  to  be  laid  over  the  double  fold  of 
white  paper  with  which  it  is  covered. 

HONEY,  to  Take,  without  Destroying 
the  Bees.  —  In  the  dusk  of  the  evening, 
when  the  bees  are  quietly  lodged,  ap- 
proach the  hive  and  turn  it  gently  over. 
Having  steadily  placed  in  it  a  small  pit, 
previously  dug  to  receive  it,  with  its  bot- 
tom upward,  cover  it  with  a  clean,  new 
hive,  which  has  been  properly  prepared, 
with  a  few  sticks  across  the  inside  of  it, 
and  rubbed  with  aromatic  herbs.  Having 
•carefully  adjusted  the  mouth  of  each  hive  to 
the  other,  so  that  no  aperture  remains  be- 
tween them,  take  a  small  stick  and  beat 
gently  around  the  sides  of  the  lower  hive 
for  about  ten  minutes  or  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  in  which  time  the  bees  will  leave 


their  cells  in  the  lower  hive,  ascend  and 
adhere  to  the  upper  one.  Then  gently 
lift  the  new  hive,  with  all  its  little  tenants, 
and  place  it  on  the  stand  from  which  the 
other  was  taken.  This  should  be  done 
some  time  in  the  week  preceding  mid- 
summer-day, that  the  bees  may  have  time 
before  the  summer  flowers  have  faded  to 
lay  in  a  new  stock  of  honey,  which  they 
will  not  fail  to  do  for  their  subsistence 
through  winter. 

BEES,  Queen,  Rearing  of. — Premising 
that  you  use  movable  frames,  make  a 
number  of  small  frames,  as  near  4  or  5 
inches  square  as  may  be,  to  just  fit  inside 
one  of  your  large  ones.  Fill  with  clean 
worker  comb — that  which  has  been  frozen 
is  the  best,  because  the  eggs  of  the  moth 
will  have  been  thus  destroyed  —  and  put 
the  large  frame  containing  these  small 
ones  in  the  middle  of  some  stock  with  a 
fertile  queen  from  which  you  wish  to 
breed.  Provide  also  some  small  boxes 
on  the  plan  of  a  simple  movable  frame 
hive,  with  loose  top  and  rabbeting  for  the 
frames,  and  just  the  size  to  accommodate 
three  or  four  of  them.  When  eggs  have 
been  deposited  in  the  combs,  set  up  one 
of  your  small  boxes  with  them  as  a  hive 
in  miniature,  and  confine  in  it  between  a 
pint  and  quart  of  bees.  They  will  imme- 
diately construct  queen  cells,  and  may 
then  be  opened.  In  this  way  any  num- 
ber of  queens  may  be  provided. 

BEES,  Foul-Brood Putrid  foul-brood 

is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  young 
brood  of  the  hive,  showing  itself  fully 
after  the  larvae  have  been  sealed  up.  It 
may  be  known  by  the  viscous,  gelatinous 
and  yeast-like  appearance  of  the  decom- 
posing brood,  the  unpleasant  odor  arising 
from  the  hive,  and  by  the  sunken  covers 
of  the  cells.  The  cause  of  foul-brood  has 
been,  until  recently,  involved  in  doubt, 
but  late  discoveries  in  Germany  have 
thrown  much  light  upon  its  origin.  Mr. 
Lamprecht  alleges  that  he  has  discovered 
the  cause  of  the  disease.  His  theory  is 
this :  "  The  chyme,  which  the  workers 
prepare  from  honey  and  pollen  by  partial 
digestion,  and  with  which  the  larvae  are 
fed,  contains  a  nitrogenous,  plastic,  for- 
mative substance,  from  which  all  the 
organs  and  tissues  of  the  larvae  are  de- 
rived and  composed ;  .  .  .  and  precisely 
because  of  this  its  complicated  composi- 
tion it  is  peculiarly  susceptible  of  rapid 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       317 


decomposition  when  exposed  to  air  and 
moisture;  that  is,  to  undergo  fermenta- 
tion and  putrefaction.  It  is  hence  obvious 
that  pollen,  even  though  having  under- 
gone only  partial  decomposition,  must 
affect  the  bodies  of  bees  and  larva?  differ- 
ently from  what  it  did  or  would  do  in  its 
natural  condition;  and  there  is  no  longer 
a  doubt  that  it  is  from  pollen,  thus  par- 
tially decomposed,  that  the  foul-brood 
originates.  That  it  can  readily  undergo 
decomposition  is  manifest.  Moisture, 
emanating  in  part  from  unsealed  honey, 
and  in  part  from  the  perspiration  of  the 
bees,  becomes  condensed  in  the  hive  from 
external  cold,  and  in  the  fall  and  toward 
spring  it  is  frequently  found  hanging  in 
drops  on  the  combs,  just  as  we  find  it 
condensed  on  the  windows  of  our  dwell- 
ing-houses. If  one  of  these  drops  falls 
into  a  cell  containing  pollen,  decomposi- 
tion of  the  latter  speedily  commences, 
and  is  then  communicated  by  the  bees  to 
the  pollen  in  the  other  cells;  and  the 
cause  of  foul-brood  is  hence  abundantly 
present  in  a  hive  thus  circumstanced." 

There  is  no  cure  for  this  disease  when 
it  has  once  obtained  headway.  Destruc- 
tion of  the  bees  and  honey  and  thorough 
purification  of  the  hive  is  the  only  remedy 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease.  As 
a  means  of  preventing  the  disease,  Dr. 
Preuss  gives  the  following  directions: 
Feed  no  fermenting  honey ;  feed  no  meal, 
especially  when  the  hive  is  threatened 
with  disease ;  destroy  carefully  every  par- 
ticle of  dead  and  moldering  matter :  and 
avoid  weakening  bees  during  the  brood- 
ing seasons,  so  that  they  will  not  be  able 
properly  to  maintain  the  heat  necessary 
for  the  development  of  the  brood. 

With  the  light  now  thrown  upon  the 


nature  of  this  disease  by  these  recent  dis- 
coveries, bee-keepers  may  be  able  to 
conquer  the  contagious  malady  whenever 
it  makes  its  appearance. 

BEES,  Ages  of. — The  queen  passes  the 
period  of  about  three  days  in  the  egg  and 
five  as  a  worm;  the  workers  then  close 
her  cell,  and  she  immediately  begins  to 
spin  her  cocoon,  which  takes  her  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  hours.  On  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  days,  and  perhaps  a 
part  of  the  twelfth  day,  she  seems  to  be 
exhausted  by  her  hard  labor.  She  now 
remains  in  almost  complete  repose;  she 
then  passes  four  or  five  days  as  a  nympha, 
and  on  the  fifteenth  to  the  sixteenth  day 
a  perfect  queen  is  attained.  Much  de- 
pends upon  the  strength  of  the  colony 
and  the  heat  of  the  season,  which  will 
vary  it  from  one  to  two  days. 

The  drone  passes  three  days  in  the  egg, 
and  about  six  in  the  worm,  and  changes, 
into  a  perfect  insect  on  the  twenty-fourth 
day  after  the  egg  is  laid.  Much  depends 
upon  the  strength  and  heat  of  the  colony, 
which  should  be  about  700  Fahrenheit 
tor  their  speedy  development.  They  lie 
in  rather  a  dilatory  state  for  several  days 
after  they  hatch  before  taking  wing. 

The  working  bee  spins  its  cocoon  in 
about  thirty-six  hours.  After  passing 
three  days  in  the  egg  in  this  state  of  pre- 
paration for  a  new  life,  it  gradually  under- 
goes a  great  change,  and  becomes  armed 
with  a  firmer  body,  with  scales  of  a  brown- 
ish color,  and  somewhat  fringed  with  light 
hairs.  On  its  belly  it  has  six  rings  or 
scales.  After  it  has  reached  the  twenty- 
first  day  of  existence — reckoning  from  the 
egg — it  comes  forth  from  the  cell  on  the 
twenty-first  to  the  twenty-second  day  a. 
perfect  insect,  and  is  termed  an  image. 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES, 


AND 


HOW   TO   MEET  THEM. 


As  accidents  are  constantly  liable  to 
occur,  the  importance  of  knowing  how  best 
to  meet  the  various  emergencies  that  may- 
arise  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  In  all 
cases,  and  under  all  circumstances,  the 
best  help  to  assist  a  party  in  this  trying 
moment  is  presence  of  mind. 

BITES.— See  Wounds. 

BITES,  Harvest  Bug.— The  best  reme- 
dy is  the  use  of  benzine,  which  immedi- 
ately kills  the  insect.  A  small  drop  ot 
tincture  of  iodine  has  the  same  effect. 

BITES  and  Stings  of  Insects — Such  as 
bees,  wasps,  hornets,  etc.,  although  gen- 
erally painful,  and  ofttimes  causing  much 
disturbance,  yet  are  rarely  attended  with 
fatal  results.  The  pain  and  swelling  may 
generally  be  promptly  arrested  by  bath- 
ing freely  with  a  strong  solution  of  equal 
parts  of  common  salt  and  baking  soda,  in 
warm  water;  or  by  the  application  of 
spirits  of  hartshorn;  or  of  volatile  lini- 
ment (one  part  of  spirits  of  hartshorn  and 
two  of  olive  oil).  In  the  absence  of  the 
other  articles,  warm  oil  may  be  used ;  or, 
if  this  is  not  at  hand,  apply  a  paste  made 
from  fresh  clay-earth.  If  the  sting  of  the 
insect  is  left  in  the  wound,  as  is  frequent- 
the  case,  it  should  always  be  extracted. 
If  there  is  faintness,  give  some  stimulant ; 
as,  a  table-spoonful  or  two  of  brandy  and 
water,  or  brandy  and  ammonia. 

BITES,  Mad  Dog.— i.  Take  immedi- 
ately warm  vinegar  or  tepid  water ;  wash 
the  wound  clean  therewith  and  then  dry 
it;  pour  upon  the  wound,  then,  ten  or 
twelve  drops  of  muriatic  acid.  Mineral 
acids  destroy  the  poison  of  the  saliva,  by 
which  means  the  evil  effects  of  the  latter 
are  neutralized.  2.  Many  think  that  the 
only  sure  preventive  of  evil  following  the 
bite  of  a  rabid  dog  is  to  suck  the  wound 


immediately,  before  the  poison  has  had 
time  to  circulate  with  the  blood.  If  the 
person  bit  cannot  get  to  the  wound  to 
suck  it,  he  must  persuade  or  pay  another 
to  do  it  for  him.  There  is  no  fear  of  any 
harm  following  this,  for  the  poison  enter- 
ing by  the  stomach  cannot  hurt  a  person. 
A  spoonful  of  the  poison  might  be  swal- 
lowed with  impunity,  but  the  person  who 
sucks  the  place  should  have  no  wound  op 
the  lip  or  tongue,  or  it  might  be  danger- 
ous. The  precaution  alluded  to  is  a  most 
important  one,  and  should  nevei  be 
omitted  prior  to  an  excision  and  the  ap- 
plication of  lunar  caustic  in  every  part, 
especially  the  interior  and  deep-seated 
portions.  No  injury  need  be  anticipated 
if  this  treatment  is  adopted  promptly  and 
effectively.  The  poison  of  hydrophobia 
remains  latent  on  an  average  six  weeks; 
the  part  heals  over,  but  there  is  a  pimple 
or  wound,  more  or  less  irritable ;  it  then 
becomes  painful,  and  the  germ,  whatever 
it  is,  ripe  for  dissemination  into  the  sys- 
tem, and  then  all  hope  is  gone.  Never- 
theless, between  the  time  of  the  bite  and 
the  activity  of  the  wound  previous  to  dis- 
semination, the  caustic  of  nitrate  of  silver 
is  a  sure  preventive;  after  that  it  is  as 
useless  as  all  the  other  means.  The  best 
mode  of  application  of  the  nitrate  of  sil- 
ver is  by  introducing  it  solidly  into  the 
wound. 

BITES,  Serpents. — The  poison  inserted 
by  the  stings  and  bites  of  many  venomous 
reptiles  is  so  rapidly  absorbed,  and  of  so 
fatal  a  description,  as  frequently  to  occa- 
sion death  before  any  remedy  or  antidote 
can  be  applied;  and  they  are  rendered 
yet  more  dangerous  from  the  fact  that 
these  wounds  are  inflicted  in  parts  of  the 
country  and  world  where  precautionary 


(3i8) 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       319 


measures  are  seldom  thought  of,  and 
generally  at  times  when  people  are  least 
prepared  to  meet  them.  1.  In  absence 
of  any  remedies,  the  first  best  plan  to 
.adopt  on  being  bitten  by  any  of  the 
poisonous  snakes  is  to  do  as  recommended 
above  in  Mad  Dog  Bites — viz.,  to  wash 
■off  the  place  immediately ;  if  possible, 
get  the  mouth  to  the  spot,  and  forcibly 
suck  out  all  the  poison,  first  applying  a 
ligature  above  the  wound  as  tightly  as 
can  be  borne.  2.  A  remedy  promulgated 
by  the  Smithsonian  Institute  is  to  take 
30  grs.  iodide  potassium,  30  grs.  iodine, 
1  oz.  water,  to  be  applied  externally  to 
the  wound  by  saturating  lint  or  batting — 
the  same  to  be  kept  moist  with  the  anti- 
dote until  the  cure  be  effected,  which  will 
be  in  one  hour,  and  sometimes  instantly. 
3.  An  Australian  physician  has  tried  and 
recommends  carbolic  acid,  diluted  and 
administered  internally  every  few  minutes 
until  recovery  is  certain.  4.  Another 
Australian  physician,  Professor  Halford, 
of  Melbourne  University,  has  discovered 
that  if  a  proper  amount  of  dilute  am- 
monia be  injected  into  the  circulation  of 
a  patient  suffering  from  snake-bite,  the 
curative  effect  is  usually  sudden  and  start- 
ling, so  that,  in  many  cases  men  have 
thus  been  brought  back,  as  it  were,  by 
magic,  from  the  very  shadow  of  death. 

BLEEDING  OF  WOUNDS.    See  Cuts. 

BLEEDING  AT  THE  NOSE.— 1.  Roll 
up  a  piece  of  paper,  and  press  it  under 
the  upper  lip.  2.  In  obstinate  cases  blow 
a  little  gum  Arabic  up  the  nostrils  through 
a  quill,  which  will  immediately  stop  the 
discharge ;  powdered  alum  is  also  good. 
3.  Pressure  by  the  finger  over  the  small 
artery  near  the  ala  (wing)  of  the  nose,  on 
the  side  where  the  blood  is  flowing,  is 
said  to  arrest  the  hemorrhage  immedi- 
ately. 

BLEEDING  FROM  THE  LUNGS.— A 
New  York  physician  has  related  a  case  in 
which  inhalation  of  very  dry  persulphate 
of  iron,  reduced  to  a  palpable  powder, 
entirely  arrested  bleeding  from  the  lungs, 
after  all  the  usual  remedies,  lead,  opium, 
etc.,  had  failed.  A  small  quantity  was 
administered  by  drawing  into  the  lungs 
every  hour  during  part  of  the  night  and 
following  day. 

BLEEDING  FROM  THE  BOWELS.— 
The  most  common  cause  of  this,  when 
not  a  complication   of  some  disease,  is 


hemorrhoids  or  piles.  Should  serious 
hemorrhage  occur,  rest  and  quiet,  and 
cold  water  poured  slowly  over  the  lower 
portion  of  the  belly,  or  cloths  wet  with 
cold  water,  or  better,  with  ice  water 
applied  over  the  belly  and  thighs,  and  to 
the  lower  end  of  the  bowels,  will  ordin- 
arily arrest  it.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  use  injections  of  cold  water, 
or  even  put  small  pieces  of  ice  in  the 
rectum. 

BLEEDING  FROM  THE  MOUTH.— 
This  is  generally  caused  by  some  injury 
to  the  cheeks,  gums  or  tongue,  but  it 
sometimes  occurs  without  any  direct  cause 
of  this  kind,  and  no  small  alarm  may  be 
caused  by  mistaking  it  for  bleeding  from 
the  lungs.  Except  when  an  artery  of 
some  size  is  injured,  bleeding  from  the 
mouth  can  generally  be  controlled  by 
gargling,  and  washing  the  mouth  with 
cold  water,  salt  and  water,  or  alum  and 
water,  or  some  persulphate  of  iron  may 
be  applied  to  the  bleeding  surface. 
Sometimes  obstinate  or  even  alarming 
bleeding  may  follow  the  pulling  of  a 
tooth.  The  best  remedy  for  this  is  to 
plug  the  cavity  with  lint  or  cotton  wet 
with  the  solution  of  persulphate  of  iron, 
and  apply  a  compress  which  may  be 
kept  in  place  by  closing  the  teeth  on  it. 

BLEEDING  FROM  THE  STOMACH— 
Vomiting  blood. — Hemorrhage  from  the 
stomach  is  seldom  so  serious  as  to  en- 
danger life ;  but  as  it  may  be  a  symptom 
of  some  dangerous  affection  it  is  always 
best  to  consult  a  physician  concerning  it. 
In  the  meantime,  as  in  all  other  varieties 
of  hemorrhage,  perfect  quiet  should  be 
preserved.  A  little  salt,  or  vinegar,  or 
lemon  juice,  should  be  taken  at  intervals, 
in  a  small  glass  of  fresh  cool  water,  or 
ice-water,  as  ice  may  be  swallowed  in 
small  pieces,  and  cloths  wet  with  ice- 
water,  or  pounded  ice  applied  over  the 
stomach. 

BLEEDING  FROM  VARICOSE 
VEINS. — Serious  and  even  fatal  hemor- 
rhage may  occur  from  the  bursting  of  a 
large  varicose  or  "  broken  "  vein.  Should 
such  an  accident  occur,  the  bleeding  may 
be  best  controlled,  until  proper  medical 
aid  can  be  procured,  by  a  tight  bandage, 
or  a  "  stick  tourniquet,"  remembering  that 
the  blood  comes  toward  the  heart  in  the 
veins,  and  from  it  in  the  arteries.  The 
best  thing  to  prevent  the  rupture  of  van- 


3*o 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 


cose  or  broken  veins  is  to  support  the 
limb  by  wearing  elastic  stockings,  or  a 
carefully  applied  bandage. 
BTJBNS  and  SCALDS.— There  is  no  class 

of  accidents  that  cause  such  an  amount 
of  agony,  and  none  which  are  followed 
with  more  disastrous  results. 

i.  By  putting  the  burned  part  under  cold 
water,  milk,  or  other  bland  fluid,  in- 
stantaneous and  perfect  relief  from  all 
pain  will  be  experienced.  On  withdraw- 
al, the  burn  should  be  perfectly  covered 
with  half  an  inch  or  more  of  common 
wheaten  flour,  put  on  with  a  dredging- 
box,  or  in  any  other  way,  and  allowed 
to  remain  until  a  cure  is  effected,  when 
the  dry,  caked  flour  will  fall  off,  or  can 
be  softened  with  water,  disclosing  a  beau- 
tiful, new  and  healthy  skin,  in  all  cases 
where  the  burns  have  been  superficial. 
2.  Dissolve  white  lead  in  flaxseed  oil  to 
the  consistency  of  milk,  and  apply  over 
the  entire  burn  or  scald  every  five  min- 
utes. It  can  be  applied  with  a  soft  feath- 
er. This  is  said  to  give  relief  sooner,  and 
to  be  more  permanent  in  its  effects,  than 
any  other  application.  3.  Make  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  alum  (four  ounces  to  a 
quart  of  hot  water).  Dip  a  cotton  cloth 
in  this  solution  and  apply  immediately  on 
the  burn.  As  soon  as  it  becomes  hot  or 
dry,  replace  it  by  another,  and  continue 
doing  so  as  often  as  the  cloth  dries, 
which  at  first  will  be  every  lew  minutes. 
The  pain  will  immediately  cease,  and  af- 
ter twenty-four  hours  of  this  treatment 
the  burn  will  be  healed,  especially  if  com- 
menced before  blisters  are  formed.  The 
astringent  and  drying  qualities  of  the 
alum  will  entirely  prevent  their  formation. 
4.  Glycerine,  five  ounces ;  white  of  egg, 
four  ounces;  tincture  of  arnica,  three 
ounces.  Mix  the  glycerine  and  white  of 
egg  thoroughly  in  a  mortar,  and  gradual- 
ly add  the  arnica.  Apply  freely  on  linen 
rags  night  and  morning,  washing  pre- 
viously with  warm  castile  soap-suds.  5. 
Take  one  drachm  of  finely  powdered 
alum,  and  mix  thorougly  with  the  white 
of  two  eggs  and  one  teacup  of  fresh  lard; 
spread  on  a  cloth,  and  apply  to  the 
parts  burnt.  It  gives  almost  instant  re- 
lief from  pain,  and,  by  excluding  the  air, 
prevents  excessive  inflammatory  action. 
The  application  should  be  changed  at 
least  once  a  day.  6.  M.  Joel,  of  the 
Children's  Hospital,  Lausanne,  finds  that 


a  tepid  bath,  containing  a  couple  ot 
pinches  of  sulphate  of  iron,  gives  imme- 
diate relief  to  young  children  who  have 
been  extensively  burned.  In  a  case  of  a 
child  four  years  old,  a  bath  repeated 
twice  a  day — twenty  minutes  each  bath — 
the  suppuration  decreased,  lost  its  odor,, 
and  the  little  sufferer  was  soon  convales- 
cent. 7.  For  severe  scalding,  carbolic 
acid  has  recently  been  used  with  marked 
benefit.  It  is  to  be  mixed  with  thirty 
parts  of  the  ordinary  oil  of  lime  water  to 
one  part  of  the  acid.  Linen  rags  satu- 
rated in  the  carbolic  emulsion  are  to  be 
spread  on  the  scalded  parts,  and  kept 
moist  by  frequently  smearing  with  a 
feather  dipped  in  the  liquid.  Two  ad- 
vantages of  this  mode  of  treatment  are, 
the  exclusion  of  air,  and  the  rapid  heal- 
ing by  a  natural  restorative  action  with- 
out the  formation  of  pus,  thus  preserving 
unmarred  the  personal  appearance  of  the 
patient — a  matter  of  no  small  importance 
to  some  people. 

CHOKING. — In  case  of  choking,  a  vi- 
olent slap  with  the  open  hand  between 
the  shoulders  of  the  sufferer  will  often 
effect  a  dislodgment.  In  case  the  accident 
occurs  with  a  child,  and  the  slapping 
process  does  not  afford  instant  relief,  it 
should  be  grasped  by  the  feet,  and  placed 
head  downwards,  and  the  slapping  be- 
tween the  shoulders  renewed;  but  in  case 
this  induces  violent  suffocative  paroxysms 
it  must  not  be  repeated.  If  the  substance, 
whatever  it  may  be,  has  entered  the 
wind-pipe,  and  the  coughing  and  invert- 
ing the  body  fails  to  dislodge  it,  it  is  prob- 
able that  nothing  but  cutting  open  the 
wind-pipe  will  be  of  any  avail ;  and  for 
this  the  services  of  a  surgeon  should  al- 
ways be  procured.  If  food  has  stuck  in 
the  throat  or  gullet,  the  forefinger  should 
be  immediately  introduced ;  and  if  lodged 
at  the  entrance  of  the  gullet,  the  sub- 
stance may  be  reached  and  extracted, 
possibly,  with  the  forefinger  alone,  or 
may  be  seized  with  a  pair  of  pincers,  if  at 
hand,  or  a  curling  tongs,  or  anything  of 
the  kind.  This  procedure  may  be  facili- 
tated by  directing  the  person  to  put  the 
tongue  well  out,  in  which  position  it  may 
be  retained  by  the  individual  himself,  or 
a  bystander  by  grasping  it,  covered  with 
a  handkerchief  or  towel.  Should  this 
fail,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  excite 
retching  or  vomiting  by  passing  the  fin- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ger  to  the  root  of  the  tongue,  in  hopes 
that  the  offending  substance  may  in  this 
way  be  dislodged ;  or  it  may  possibly  be 
effected  by  suddenly  and  unexpectedly 
dashing  in  the  face  a  basin  of  cold  water, 
the  shock  suddenly  relaxing  the  muscular 
spasm  present,  and  the  involuntary  gasp 
at  the  same  time  may  move  it  up  or 
down.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  as  each 
instant's  delay  is  of  vital  importance  to  a 
choking  man,  seize  a  fork,  a  spoon,  a 
pen-holder,  pencil,  quill,  or  anything 
suitable  at  hand,  and  endeavor  to  push 
the  article  down  the  throat.  If  it  be  low 
down  in  the  gullet,  and  other  means  fail, 
its  dislodgment  may  sometimes  be  effect- 
ed by  dashing  cold  water  on  the  spine, 
or  vomiting  may  be  induced  by  an  emetic 
of  sulphate  of  zinc  (twenty  grains  in  a 
couple  of  table-spoonfuls  of  warm  water), 
or  of  common  salt  and  mustard  in  like 
manner,  or  it  may  be  pushed  into  the 
stomach  by  extemporizing  a  probang,  by 
fastening  a  small  sponge  to  the  end  ot  a 
stiff  slip  of  whale-bone.  If  this  cannot 
be  done,  a  surgical  operation  will  be  ne- 
cessary. Fish  bones  or  other  sharp  sub- 
stances, when  they  cannot  be  removed  by 
the  finger  or  forceps,  may  sometimes  be 
dislodged  by  swallowing  some  pulpy 
mass,  as  masticated  bread,  etc.  Irregu- 
lar-shaped substances,  a  plate  with  artifi- 
cial teeth  for  instance,  can  ordinarily  on- 
ly be  removed  by  surgical  interference. 

COLIC. — Use  a  hot  fomentation  over  the 
abdomen,  and  a  small  quantity  of  gin- 
ger, peppermint  or  common  tea.  If  not 
relieved  in  a  few  minutes,  then  give  an 
injection  of  a  quart  of  warm  water  with 
twenty  or  thirty  drops  of  laudanum,  and 
repeat  it  if  necessary.  A  half  teaspoon- 
ful  of  chloroform,  in  a  table-spoonful  of 
sweetened  water,  with  or  without  a  few 
drops  of  spirits  of  lavender  or  essence  of 
peppermint,  will  often  give  prompt  relief. 

CONVULSIONS.— In  small  children 
convulsions  frequently  happen  from  teeth- 
ing, sometimes  from  worms  or  from  some 
irritating  substance  within  the  stomach  or 
bowels,  and  sometimes  from  some  affec- 
tion of  the  brain. 

When  a  child  has  convulsions  place  it 
immediately  in  a  warm  or  hot  bath,  and 
sponge  its  head  with  cold  water.  Then 
apply  a  hot  mustard  plaster  to  the  wrists, 
ankles  and  soles  of  the  feet,  or,  in  case  a 
plaster  cannot  be  obtained,  apply  a  cloth 
21 


wrung  out  of  hot  mustard  water.  Allow 
these  to  remain  until  the  skin  reddens, 
and  use  care  that  the  same  do  not  blister. 
After  the  fit  has  subsided,  use  great  care 
against  its  return  by  attention  to  the 
cause  which  gave  rise  to  it. 

Convulsions  in  adults  must  be  treated 
in  accordance  with  the  manner  which 
gave  rise  to  them.  During  the  attack 
great  care  should  be  given  that  the  party 
does  not  injure  himself,  and  the  best  pre- 
ventive is  a  cork  or  a  soft  piece  of  wood,, 
or  other  suitable  substance,  should  be 
placed  between  the  teeth  to  prevent  biting 
the  tongne  and  cheeks;  tight  clothing- 
must  be  removed  or  loosened;  mustard- 
poultices  should  be  applied  to  the  ex- 
tremities and  over  the  abdomen ;  abund- 
ance of  fresh  air  should  be  secured  by 
opening  windows  and  doors,  and  prevent- 
ing unnecessary  crowding  of  persons 
around;  cold  water  may  be  dashed  on 
the  face  and  chest ;  and  if  there  be  ple- 
thora, with  full  bounding  pulse,  with 
evidence  of  cerebral  or  other  internal 
congestion,  the  abstraction  of  a  few 
ounces  of  blood  may  be  beneficial. 

CRAMP. — Spasmodic    or    involuntary 
contractions  of  the  muscles,  generally  of 
the  extremities,  accompanied  with   great 
pain.     The  muscles  of  the  legs  and  feet 
are  those  most  commonly  affected  with- 
cramp,   especially   after   great    exertion. 
The  best   treatment    is   immediately   to  ■ 
stand  upright,  and  to  well  rub  the  part 
with  the  hand.     The  application  of  strong 
stimulants,  as  spirits  of  ammonia,  or  of 
anodynes,  as  opiate  liniments,  has  been 
recommended.     When  cramp  occurs  in 
the  stomach,  a  teaspoonful  of  sal  volatile 
in   water,   or  a  dram   glassful   of  good 
brandy,  should  be  swallowed  immediately. 
When  cramp  comes  on  during  cold  bath- 
ing, the  limb  should  be  thrown  out  as- 
suddenly  and  violently  as  possible,  which-' 
will  generally  remove  it,  care  being  also* 
taken  not  to  become  flurried  nor  fright- 
ened, as  presence  of  mind  is  very  essen- 
tial to  personal  safety  on  such  an  occasion. 
A  common  cause  of  cramp  is  indigestion, ; 
and  the  use  of  acescent  liquors;    these 
should  be  avoided. 

CUTS.— In  case  the  flow  of  blood  is 
trifling,  stop  the  bleeding  by  bringing  the 
edges  of  the  wound  together.  If  the 
flow  of  blood  is  great,  of  a  bright  vermil- 
lion  color,  and  flows  in  spirts  or  with  a^ 


322 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 


jerk,  an  artery  is  severed,  and  at  once 
should  pressure  be  made  on  the  parts  by 
the  finger  (between  the  cut  and  the  heart), 
until  a  compress  is  arranged  by  a  tight 
ligature  above  the  wounded  part.  Then 
the  finger  may  be  taken  off,  and  if  the 
blood  still  flows,  tighten  the  handker- 
chief, or  other  article  that  forms  the 
ligature,  until  it  ceases.  If  at  this  point 
ithe  attendance  of  a  physician  or  surgeon 
cannot  be  secured,  take  strong  silk  thread, 
or  wax  together  three  or  four  threads, 
and  cut  them  into  lengths  of  about  a  foot 
long.  Wash  the  parts  with  warm  water, 
and  then  with  a  sharp  hook  or  small  pair 
of  pincers  in  your  hand,  fix  your  eye 
steadfastly  upon  the  wound,  and  directing 
the  ligature  to  be  slightly  released,  you 
will  see  the  mouth  of  the  artery  from 
which  the  blood  springs.  At  once  seize 
it,  draw  it  out  a  little,  while  an  assistant 
passes  a  ligature  round  it,  and  ties  it  up 
tight  with  a  double  knot.  In  this  way 
take  up  in  succession  every  bleeding 
vessel  you  can  see  or  get  hold  of.  If  the 
wound  is  too  high  up  in  a  limb  to  apply 
the  ligature,  do  not  lose  your  presence  of 
mind.  If  it  is  the  thigh,  press  firmly  on 
the  groin;  if  in  the  arm,  with  the  hand- 
ed or  ring  of  a  common  door-key  make 
pressure  above  the  collar-bone,  and  about 
its  middle,  against  its  first  rib,  which  lies 
under  it.  The  pressure  should  be  con- 
tinued until  assistance  is  procured  and 
the  vessel  tied  up.  If  the  wound  is  on 
the  face,  or  other  place  where  pressure 
•cannot  effectually  be  made,  place  a  piece 
of  ice  directly  over  the  wound,  allowing 
it  to  remain  there  until  the  blood  coagu- 
lates, when  it  may  be  removed,  and  a 
■compress  and  bandage  be  applied. 

After  the  bleeding  is  arrested  the  sur- 
rounding blood  should  be  cleared  away, 
as  well  as  any  extraneous  matter;  then 
bring  the  sides  of  the  wound  into  contact 
throughout  the  whole  depth,  in  order 
that  they  may  grow  together  as  quickly 
as  possible,  retaining  them  in  their  posi- 
tion by  strips  of  adhesive  plaster.  If  the 
•wound  be  deep  and  extensive,  the  wound 
itself  and  the  adjacent  parts  must  be 
supported  by  proper  bandages.  The 
position  of  the  patient  should  be  such  as 
will  relax  the  skin  and  muscles  of  the 
wounded  part.  Rest,  low  and  unstimu- 
lating  diet,  will  complete  the  requirements 
necessary  to  a  speedy  recovery. 


DEATH,  How  to  Distinguish.  —  As  *, 
many  instances  occur  of  parties  being  I 
buried  alive,  they  being  to  all  appearance  ( 
dead,  the  great  importance  of  knowing 
how  to  distinguish  real  from  imaginary  1 
death  need  not  be  explained.  The  ap-  [ 
pearances  which  mostly  accompany  death,  ' 
are  an  entire  stoppage  of  breathing,  of 
the  heart's  action ;  the  eye-lids  are  partly 
closed,  the  eyes  glassy,  and  the  pupils 
usually  dilated;  the  jaws  are  clenched, 
the  fingers  partially  contracted,  and  the 
lips  and  nostrils  more  or  less  covered 
with  frothy  mucus,  with  increasing  pallor 
and  coldness  of  surface,  and  the  muscles 
soon  become  rigid  and  the  limbs  fixed  in 
their  positions.  But  as  these  same  con- 
ditions may  also  exist  in  certain  other 
cases  of  suspended  animation,  great  care 
should  be  observed,  whenever  there  is 
the  least  doubt  concerning  it,  to  prevent 
the  unnecessary  crowding  of  the  room  in 
which  the  corpse  is  in,  or  of  parties 
crowding  around  the  body ;  nor  should 
the  body  be  allowed  to  remain  lying  on 
the  back  without  the  tongue  being  so 
secured  as  to  prevent  the  glottis  or  orifice 
of  the  windpipe  being  closed  by  it ;  nor 
should  the  face  be  closely  covered ;  nor 
rough  usage  of  any  kind  be  allowed.  In 
case  there  is  great  doubt,  the  body 
should  not  be  allowed  to  be  inclosed  in 
the  coffin,  and  under  no  circumstances 
should  burial  be  allowed  until  there  are 
unmistakable  signs  of  decomposition. 

Of  the  numerous  methods  proposed  as 
signs  for  real  death,  we  select  the  follow- 
ing: i.  So  long  as  breathing  continues, 
the  surface  of  a  mirror  held  to  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  will  become  dimmed  with 
moisture.  2.  If  a  strong  thread  or  small 
cord  be  tied  tightly  around  the  finger  of 
a  living  person,  the  portion  beyond  the 
cord  or  thread  will  become  red  and  swol- 
len— if  dead,  no  change  is  produced.  3. 
If  the  hand  of  a  living  person  is  held 
before  a  strong  light  a  portion  of  the  mar- 
gin or  edges  of  the  fingers  is  translucent 
—if  dead,  every  part  of  it  is  opaque.  4. 
A  coal  of  fire,  a  piece  of  hot  iron,  or  the 
flame  of  a  candle,  applied  to  the  skin,  if 
life  remains,  will  blister — if  dead,  it  will 
merely  sear.  5.  A  bright  steel  needle 
introduced  and  allowed  to  remain  for  half 
an  hour  in  living  flesh  will  be  still  bright 
— if  dead,  it  will  be  tarnished  by  oxyda- 
tion.     6.  A  few  drops  of   a  solution  of 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


atropia  (two  grains  to  one-half  ounce  of 
water)  introduced  into  the  eye,  if  the  per- 
son is  alive,  will  cause  the  pupils  to  di- 
late— if  dead,  no  effect  will  be  produced. 
7.  If  the  pupil  is  already  dilated,  and  the 
person  is  alive,  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of 
the  calabar  bean  will  cause  it  'to  contract 
— if  dead,  no  effect  will  be  produced. 

DISLOCATIONS.— These  injuries  can 
mostly  be  easily  recognized:  1.  By  the 
deformity  that  the  dislocation  gives  rise 
to  by  comparing  the  alteration  in  shape 
with  the  other  side  of  the  body.  2.  Loss 
of  some  of  the  regular  movements  of  the 
joints.  3.  In  case  of  dislocation,  surgical 
aid  should  be  procured  at  once.  While 
waiting  the  arrival  of  a  physician  the  in- 
jured portion  should  be  placed  in  the  po- 
sition most  comfortable  to  the  patient, 
and  frequent  cold  bathing,  or  cloths 
wrung  out  of  cold  water,  applied  to  the 
parts  affected,  so  as  to  relieve  suffering 
and  prevent  inflammation. 

DROWNED,  to  Restore  Persons,  Ap- 
parently.— In  the  treatment  of  cases  of 
apparent  death,  either  from  drowning  or 
suffocation,  no  time  is  to  be  lost.  Every 
moment  is  precious,  and  what  is  done 
must  be  done  prompdy  and  energetically. 

Send  for  blankets  and  dry  clothing, 
and  instantly  and  on  the  spot  proceed  to 
treat  the  patient,  keeping  off  the  crowd 
which  frequently  surrounds  in  such  cases, 
and  give  the  patient  all  the  fresh  air  pos- 
sible, exposing  the  face,  neck  and  chest 
to  the  wind,  except  in  severe  weather,  re- 
moving all  clothing  from  the  neck  and 
chest,  and  also  the  suspenders,  if  a  man. 
Remember  the  points  to  be  aimed  at  are, 
first  and  immediately,  the  restoration  of 
breathing,  and  secondly,  when  breathing 
is  restored,  the  promotion  of  warmth  and 
circulation.  If  you  promote  warmth  and 
■circulation  beyond  drying  the  skin  and 
removing  the  wet  clothing  before  you  re- 
store the  natural  breathing,  restoration  of 
life  will  be  engendered. 

To  restore  breathing,  cleanse  the  mouth 
and  nostrils,  place  the  patient  gently  on 
the  ground  or  floor  with  the  face  down- 
ward for  a  moment,  putting  one  of  the 
arms  under  his  forehead,  by  which  posi- 
tion all  fluids  will  more  readily  escape 
from  the  mouth,  and  the  tongue  will  fall 
forward,  leaving  the  entrance  into  the 
wind-pipe  free;  draw  forth  the  patient's 
tongue  and  keep  it  forward  by  passing  an 


elastic  band  over  the  tongue  and  under 
the  chin,  or  a  piece  of  string  or  tape  may 
be  used  for  the  same  purpose ;  assist  this 
operation  by  wiping  and  cleansing  the 
mouth.  If  satisfactory  breathing  should 
now  commence,  use  the  treatment  de- 
scribed below  to  promote  warmth  and 
circulation ;  but  if  there  should  be  only 
slight  breathing,  or  no  breathing,  or  if 
the  breathing  fail,  then  excite  breathing 
by  turning  the  patient  on  one  side,  sup- 
porting the  head  and  exciting  the  nostrils 
with  snuff  or  hartshorn,  if  at  hand,  or 
tickling  the  throat  with  a  feather,  etc. 
Rub  the  face  and  chest  warm,  and  dash 
cold  water,  or  better  still,  alternately 
warm  and  cold  water,  on  the  face  and 
chest.  If  still  no  success  follows,  lose 
not  a  moment,  but  instantly  proceed  to 
imitate  breathing.  Replace  the  patient 
on  the  face,  raising  and  supporting  the 
chest  well  on  a  folded  coat  or  other  firm 
pillow,  letting  one  person  attend  solely 
to  the  movements  of  the  head,  keeping 
a  hand  under  it;  then  turn  the  body 
gently  on  the  side  and  a  little  beyond, 
and  then  on  the  face  again,  repeating 
these  movements  cautiously,  efficiently 
and  perseveringly,  every  four  or  five  sec- 
onds, occasionally  varying  the  side.  By 
placing  the  body  on  the  face,  the  weight 
of  it  forces  the  air  out,  and  when  turned 
on  the  side  and  the  pressure  removed,  the 
air  is  enabled  to  enter  the  chest.  On 
each  occasion  that  the  body  is  replaced 
on  the  face,  make  uniform  but  efficient 
pressure  on  the  back,  between  and  below  . 
the  shoulder  blades,  but  taking  away  the 
pressure  immediately  the  body  is  turned 
on  the  side  again.  The  result  of  this 
treatment  will  be,  if  not  too  late,  to  pro- 
duce natural  breathing,  and  consequently 
life.  Whilst  the  above  operations  are  be- 
ing carried  on,  let  the  patient's  hands  and 
feet  be  dried,  and  as  soon  as  blankets  or 
dry  clothing  can  be  procured,  strip  the 
body  and  cover  with  the  blankets  and 
continue  the  operation  as  described,  which 
must  continue  steadily  and  uninterrupt- 
edly. 

If,  however,  these  efforts  should  not 
prove  successful  in  from  three  to  four 
minutes,  proceed  to  produce  breathing  in 
the  method  recommended  by  Dr.  Sylves- 
ter, as  follows :  Place  the  patient  on  the 
back  on  a  flat  surface,  inclined  a  little 
upward  from  the  feet,  supporting  the  head 


;24 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 


and  shoulders  on  a  small  firm  cushion,  as 
a  folded  coat,  placed  under  the  shoulder 
blades.  Keep  the  tongue  still  projecting 
as  before  directed ;  then  let  an  operator 
stand  at  the  patient's  head,  grasp  the 
arms  just  above  the  elbows,  and  draw  the 
arms  gently  and  steadily  upwards  until 
they  meet  above  the  patient's  head  (this 
is  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  air  into  the 
lungs),  and  keep  the  arms  in  this  position 
for  two  seconds.  Then  turn  down  the  pa- 
tient's arms,  and  press  them  gently  and 
firmly  for  two  seconds  against  the  sides 
of  the  chest ;  repeat  these  measures  alter- 
nately, deliberately  and  perseveringly, 
about  fifteen  times  a  minute,  until  a  natu- 
ral effort  to  breathe  is  perceived,  when 
you  may  immediately  cease  and  proceed 
at  once  to  induce  warmth  and  circulation. 
Commence  rubbing  the  limbs  upwards, 
with  a  firm,  grasping  pressure  and  ener- 
gy, using  handkerchiefs,  flannels,  etc. 
Continue  the  friction  under  the  blankets, 
or  even  over  the  dry  clothing,  if  that  has 
been  put  on.  Promote  the  warmth  of  the 
body  with  hot  flannels  or  hot  bricks,  or 
bottles  filled  with  hot  water  and  placed 
under  the  arm-pits,  between  the  thighs, 
and  at  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Be  careful 
not  to  expose  the  patient  to  any  draught, 
but  let  the  room  be  well  ventilated.  On 
restoration  to  life,  a  teaspoonful  of  warm 
water  should  be  given,  and  when  power 
of  swallowing  has  returned,  small  quanti- 
ties of  wine,  warm  spirits  and  water,  or 
coffee  should  be  administered.  Keep  the 
patient  in  bed,  and  any  disposition  to 
sleep  should  be  encouraged.  In  carry- 
ing out  the  above  treatment,  avoid  rough 
usage,  be  careful  to  keep  the  tongue  out, 
and  do  not  desist  in  your  treatment  until 
all  hope  and  chance  are  gone,  for  persons 
have  been  restored  by  the  above  treat- 
ment after  many  hours'  perseverance. 

The  following  are  the  rules  for  .the  re- 
storation of  persons  apparently  dead 
from  drowing,  given  by  Dr.  Benjamin 
Howard,  of  New  York  city,  and  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Health,  of  the  city  of  New  York: 

i.  Unless  in  danger  of  freezing,  never 
move  the  patient  from  the  spot  where 
first  rescued,  nor  allow  bystanders  to 
screen  off  the  fresh  air,  but  instantly  wipe 
clean  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  rip  and  re- 
move all  clothing  to  a  little  below  the 
waist,  rapidly  rub  and  dry  the  exposed 


part,  and  give  two  quick,  smarting  slaps; 
on  the  stomach  with  your  open  hand. 
If  this  does  not  succeed  immediately,, 
proceed  according  to  the  following  rules 
to  perform  artificial  breathing: 

2.  Turn  the  patient  on  his  face,  a 
large  bundle  of  tightly-rolled  clothing 
being  placed  beneath  his  stomach,  and 
press  heavily  over  it  upon  the  spine  for 
half  a  minute. 

3.  Turn  the  patient  quickly  again  on 
his  back ;  the  roll  of  clothing  being  so 
placed  beneath  it  as  to  make  the  short- 
ribs  bulge  prominently  forward,  and  raise 
them  a  little  higher  than  the  level  of  the 
mouth.  Let  some  bystanders  hold  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  out  of  one  corner  of 
the  mouth  with  a  dry  handkerchief,  and 
hold  both  hands  of  the  patient  together, 
the  arms  being  stretched  forcibly  back 
above  the  head. 

4.  Kneel  astride  the  patient's  hips,  and 
with  your  hands  resting  on  his  stomach, 
spread  out  your  fingers  so  that  you  can 
grasp  the  waist  about  the  short-ribs. 
Now  throw  all  your  weight  steadily  for- 
ward upon  your  hands,  while  you  at  the 
same  time  squeeze  the  ribs  deeply,  as  if 
you  wished  to  force  everything  in  the 
chest  upwards  out  of  the  mouth.  Con- 
tinue this  while  you  can  slowly  count — 
one — two — three ;  then  suddenly  let  go,, 
with  a  final  push,  which  springs  you  back 
to  your  first  kneeling  position.  Remain 
erect  upon  your  knees  while  you  can 
count — one — two ;  then  throwyour  weight 
forward  again  as  before,  repeating  the  en- 
tire motions — at  first  about  four  or  five 
times  a  minutes,  increasing  the  rate  grad- 
ually to  about  fifteen  times  a  minute,  and 
continuing  with  the  same  regularity  of 
time  and  motion  as  is  observed  in  the 
natural  breathing  which  you  are  imitat- 
ing. 

5.  Continue  this  treatment,  though  ap- 
parently unsuccessful,  for  two  hours,  or 
until  the  patient  begins  to  breathe ;  and 
for  a  while  after  this,  help  him  by  well- 
timed  pressure  to  deepen  his  first  gasps, 
into  full,  deep  breaths ;  while  the  friction 
of  the  limbs,  which  should,  if  possible, 
have  been  kept  up  during  the  entire  pro- 
cess, is  now  further  increased. 

6.  As  soon  as  the  breathing  has  be- 
come perfectly  natural,  strip  the  patient 
rapidly  and  completely.  Wrap  him  in 
blankets   only.     Put  him  in  bed  in  a. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       32; 


room  comfortably  warm,  but  with  a  free 
circulation  of  fresh  air,  and,  except  for 
the  administration  of  internal  treatment, 
let  him  have  perfect  rest.  Give  him  a 
little  hot  brandy  and  water,  or  other 
stimulant  at  hand,  every  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  for  the  first  hour,  and  as  often 
thereafter  as  may  seem  expedient. 

EARS,  Foreign  Bodies  in. — Great  care 
should  be  taken  in  removing  foreign 
bodies  from  the  ear,  as  serious  injury 
may  be  inflicted.  Most  foreign  bodies, 
especially  those  of  small  size,  can  be 
easily  removed  by  the  use  of  a  syringe 
with  warm  water,  and  in  most  cases  no 
other  means  should  be  used.  Should  the 
first  efforts  fail,  repeat  the  operation.  A 
syringe  throwing  a  moderately  small  and 
continuous  stream  is  best  adapted  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  removal  may  generally 
be  facilitated  by  inclining  the  ear  down- 
ward while  using  the  syringe.  Severe  in- 
flammation may  be  excited,  and  serious 
injury  done,  by  rash  attempts  to  seize  a 
foreign  body  in  the  ear,  with  a  forceps  or 
tweezers,  or  trying  to  pick  it  out  with  a 
pin  or  needle,  or  with  an  ear-scoop. 
Should  it  be  necessary  from  any  cause  to 
use  instruments,  great  care  should  be  ob- 
served, and  but  very  little  force  exerted. 
It  has  lately  been  recommended,  when 
foreign  bodies  cannot  be  removed  by  sy- 
ringing the  ear,  to  introduce  a  small 
brush  or  swab  of  frayed  linen  or  muslin 
cloth,  or  a  bit  of  sponge,  moistened  with 
a  solution  of  glue,  and  keep  it  in  contact 
with  the  foreign  body  until  the  glue  ad- 
heres, when  the  body  may  be  easily  re- 
moved. 

EAR,  Insects  in  the. — Insects  in  the 
ear  may  be  easily  killed  by  pouring  oil  in 
the  ear,  after  which  remove  by  syringing. 
(See  Ear,  Foreign  Bodies  in.) 

EAR,  Wax,  Hardened,  to  Remove. — 
Hardened  ear  wax  may  be  softened  by 
dropping  into  the  ear  some  oil  or  glyc- 
erine, and  then  syringing.  (See  Ear, 
Foreign  Bodies  in.) 

EYE,  Foreign  Bodies  in.  —  To  remove 
small  particles  from  the  eye,  .unless  they 
have  penetrated  the  globe,  or  become 
fixed  in  the  conjunctiva,  do  as  follows : 

Grasp  the  upper  lid  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger,  lift  it  from  the  eyeball, 
and  having  drawn  it  down  as  far  as  possi- 
ble outside  the  lower  lid,  let  it  slide  slowly 
back  to  its  place,  resting  upon  the  lower 


lid  as  it  goes  back;  and  then  wipe  the 
edges  of  the  lids  with  a  soft  handkerchief 
to  remove  the  foreign  subtance.  This 
may  be  repeated  a  number  of  times,  if 
necessary,  without  injury.  Should  this 
means  fail,  evert  the  lids  and  remove  the 
foreign  substance  by  touching  it  lightly 
with  a  fold  of  the  handkerchief,  or  with 
the  point  of  a  roll  of  paper  made  like  a 
candle-lighter;  or,  if  necessary,  with  a 
small  pair  of  forceps.  A  drop  of  sweet 
oil  instilled  in  the  eye,  while  perfectly 
harmless,  provokes  a  flow  of  tears  that 
will  frequently  wash  away  any  light  sub- 
stance. 

Bits  of  metal,  sharp  pieces  of  sand,  etc., 
sometimes  penetrate  the  globe  of  the  eye, 
and,  unless  removed,  may  excite  so  much 
inflammation  as  to  destroy  the  eye.  They 
should  be  removed  by  a  competent 
surgeon. 

FAINTING. — Lay  the  person  who  has 
fainted  in  a  current  of  air,  or  in  such  a 
position  that  the  air  from  an  open  win- 
dow or  door  will  have  full  play  upon  the 
face.  Do  not  allow  parties  to  crowd 
closely  around,  but  give  the  sufferer  plenty 
of  room.  Recovery  will  take  place  in  a 
few  minutes.  The  clothes  also  may  be 
opened,  and  cold  water  sprinkled  upon 
the  face,  hands  and  chest;  and  some 
pungent  substance,  as  smelling  salts,  cam- 
phor, aromatic  vinegar,  etc.,  may  be 
applied  to  the  nostrils ;  and  as  soon  as 
able  to  swallow,  a  little  fresh  water,  or 
spirits  and  water,  may  be  given.  Persons 
who  faint  easily  should  avoid  crowded 
rooms  and  places  where  the  air  is  close. 

FITS. — See  Convulsions. 

FIRE,  Clothing  on.  —  If  a  woman's 
clothes  catch  on  fire,  let  her  instantly  roll 
herself  over  and  over  on  the  ground.  In 
case  any  one  be  present,  let  them  throw 
her  down  and  do  the  like,  and  then  wrap 
her  up  in  a  table-cloth,  rug,  coat,  or  the 
first  woolen  article  that  can  be  found. 

FRACTURES.  —  As  we  can  only  give 
general  rules  for  treating  the  various  frac- 
tures, we  would  advise  any  one  suffering 
from  such,  to  immediately  apply  to  the 
nearest  surgeon,  and  not  rely  upon  an 
inexperienced  party. 

FROST-BITE.  —  Place  the  party  suffer- 
ing in  a  room  without  fire,  and  rub  the 
frozen  or  frosted  parts  with  snow,  or  pour 
ice-water  over  them  until  sensation  be- 
gins to  return.    As  soon  as  a  stinging 


326 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 


pain  is  felt,  and  a  change  of  color  appears, 
then  cease  the  rubbing,  and  apply  cloths 
wet  with  ice-water,  and  subsequently  if 
active  inflammation  follow,  and  suppura- 
tion result,  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in 
water,  one  part  to  thirty,  should  be  ap- 
plied. If  mortification  set  in,  amputation 
is  generally  necessary. 

Where  persons  suffer  from  the  consti- 
tutional effects  of  cold,  hot  stimulants 
should  be  given  internally,  and  the  body 
rubbed  briskly  with  the  hands  -and  warm 
flannel. 

GUNSHOT  WOUNDS.— See  Wounds. 

HANGING,  Apparent  Death  from.  — 
Persons  found  hanging  should  be  cut 
down  immediately  and  the  cord  removed 
from  the  neck,  and  similar  means  em- 
ployed to  re-establish  breathing,  as  in 
cases  of  drowning  or  suffocation  from 
other  causes,  except  that  the  head  should 
be  kept  somewhat  raised  to  assist  in  re- 
lieving the  congestion  ot  the  brain  and 
its  membranes  which  always  results.  (See 
Asphyxia.) 

INSECT  BITES. —  See  Bites  and 
Stings. 

POISONS,  and  their  Antidotes.— When 
a  person  has  taken  poison,  the  first  thing 
to  do  is  to  compel  the  patient  to  vomit, 
and  for  that  purpose  give  any  emetic  that 
can  be  most  readily  and  quickly  obtained, 
and  which  is  prompt  and  energetic,  but 
safe  in  its  action.  For  this  purpose, 
there  is,  perhaps,  nothing  better  than  a 
large  teaspoonful  of  ground  mustard  in  a 
tumblerful  of  warm  water,  and  it  has  the 
advantage  of  being  almost  always  at  hand. 
If  the  dry  mustard  is  not  to  be  had,  use 
mixed  mustard  from  the  mustard  pot.  Its 
operation  may  generally  be  facilitated  by 
the  addition  of  a  like  quantity  of  com- 
mon table-salt.  If  the  mustard  is  not  at 
hand,  give  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of 
powdered  alum  in  syrup  or  molasses,  and 
give  freely  of  warm  water  to  drink;  or 
give  ten  to  twenty  grains  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  (white  vitriol),  or  twenty  to  thirty 
grains  of  ipecac,  with  one  or  two  grains 
of  tartar  emetic,  in  a  large  cup  of  warm 
water,  and  repeat  every  ten  minutes  until 
three  or  four  doses  are  given,  unless  free 
vomiting  is  sooner  produced. 

After  vomiting  has  taken  place,  large 
draughts  of  warm  water  should  be  given 
the  patient,  so  that  the  vomiting  will  con- 
tinue until  the  poisonous  substances  have 


been  thoroughly  evacuated,  and  then  suit- 
able antidotes  should  be  given.  If  vomit- 
ing cannot  be  produced,  the  stomach- 
pump  should  be  used. 

When  it  is  known  what  particular  kind 
of  poison  has  been  swallowed,  then  the 
proper  antidote  for  that  poison  should  be 
given,  but  when  this  cannot  be  ascertain- 
ed, as  is  often  the  case,  give  freely  of 
equal  parts  of  calcined  magnesia,  pulver- 
ized charcoal,  and  sesquioxide  of  iron,  in 
sufficient  quantity  of  water.  This  is  a 
very  harmless  mixture,  and  is  likely  to  be 
of  great  benefit,  as  the  ingredients,  though 
very  simple,  are  antidotes  for  the  most 
common  and  active  poisons. 

In  case  this  mixture  cannot  be  obtain- 
ed, the  stomach  should  be  soothed  and 
protected  by  the  free  administration  of 
demulcent,  mucilaginous,  or  oleaginous 
drinks,  such  as  the  whites  of  eggs,  milk, 
mucilage  of  gum  arabic,  or  slippery  elm 
bark,  flaxseed  tea,  starch,  wheat  flour,  or 
arrow-root  mixed  in  water,  linseed  or 
olive  oil,  or  melted  butter  or  lard.  Sub- 
sequently the  bowels  should  be  moved  by 
some  gentle  laxative,  as  a  tablespoonful 
or  two  of  castor  oil,  or  a  teaspoonful  of 
calcined  magnesia;  and  pain  or  other 
evidence  of  inflammation  must  be  relieved 
by  the  administration  of  a  few  drops  of 
laudanum,  and  the  repeated  application 
of  hot  poultices,  fomentations  and  mustard 
plasters. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the 
articles  that  may  give  rise  to  poisoning, 
most  commonly  used,  and  their  antidote : 

ACIDS,  MINERAL— Sulphuric  Acid 
(Oil  of  Vitriol),  Nitric  Acid  (Aquafortis), 
Muriatic  Acid  (Spirits  of  Salts). 

Symptoms. — Acid  burning  taste  in  the 
mouth,  acute  pain  in  the  throat,  stomach, 
and  bowels;  frequent  vomiting,  gen- 
erally bloody,  mouth  and  lips  excoriated, 
shrivelled,  white  or  yellow;  hiccough, 
copious  stools,  more  or  less  bloody,  with 
great  tenderness  in  the  abdomen;  difficult 
breathing,  irregular  pulse,  excessive  thirst, 
while  drink  increases  the  pain  and  rarely 
remains  in  the  stomach;  frequent  but 
vain  efforts  to  urinate;  cold  sweats,  alter- 
ed countenance;  convulsions  generally 
preceding  death.  Nitric  acid  causes  yel- 
low stains;  sulphuric  acid,  black  ones. 

Treatment. — Mix  calcined  magnesia 
in  milk  or  water  to  the  consistence  of 
cream,  and  give  freely  to  drink  a  glass 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR.  THE  PEOPLE.       327 


full  every  couple  of  minutes,  if  it  can  be 
swallowed.  Common  soap  (hard  or  soft), 
chalk,  whiting,  or  even  mortar  from  the 
wall  mixed  in  water,  may  be  given,  until 
magnesia  can  be  obtained.  Promote 
vomiting  by  tickling  the  throat,  if  neces- 
sary, and  when  the  poison  is  got  rid  of, 
flaxseed  or  elm  tea,  gruel,  or  other  mild 
drinks.  The  inflammation  which  always 
follows  wants  good  treatment  to  save  the 
patient's  life. 

ACIDS,  VEGETABLE— Acetic,  Citric, 
Oxalic,  Tartaric. 

Symptoms. — Intense  burning  pain  of 
mouth,  throat  and  stomach;  vomiting 
blood  which  is  highly  acid,  violent  purging, 
collapse,  stupor,  death. 

Oxalic  Acid  is  frequently  taken  in  mis- 
take for  Epsom  salts,  to  which  in  shops  it 
often  bears  a  strong  resemblance. 

Treatment.  —  Give  chalk  or  mag- 
nesia in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  or  large 
draughts  of  lime  water.  If  these  are  not 
at  Viand,  scrape  the  wall  or  ceiling,  and 
give  the  scrapings,  mixed  with  water. 

ACID.PRUSSIC,  or  HYDROCYANIC— 
Laurel  Water,  Cyanide  of  Potassium,  Bit- 
ter Almond  Oil,  etc. 

Symptoms. — In  large  doses  almost  in- 
variably instantaneously  fatal;  when  not 
immediately  fatal,  sudden  loss  of  sense 
and  control  of  the  voluntary  muscles ;  the 
odor  of  the  poison  generally  susceptible 
on  the  breath. 

Treatment. — Chlorine,  in  the  form  of 
chlorine  water,  in  doses  of  from  one  to 
four  fluid  drachms,  diluted.  Weak  solu- 
tion of  chloride  lime  or  soda;  water  of 
ammonia  (spirits  of  hartshorn)  largely  di- 
luted may  be  given  and  the  vapor  of  it 
cautiously  inhaled.  Cold  affusion,  and 
chloroform  in  half  to  teaspoonful  doses  in 
glycerine  or  mucilage,  repeated  every  few 
minutes  until  the  symptoms  are  amelior- 
ated.    Artificial  respiration. 

ACONITE— Monkshood,  Wolfsbane. 

Symptoms. — Numbness  and  tingling  in 
the  mouth  and  throat,  and  afterwards  in 
other  portions  of  the  body,  with  sore 
throat,  pain  over  the  stomach  and  vomit- 
ing; dimness  of  vision,  dizziness,  great 
prostration,  loss  of  sensibility  and  de- 
lirium. 

Treatment. — An  emetic  and  then 
brandy  in  table-spoonful  doses,  in  ice- 
water,  every  half  hour ;  spirits  of  ammo- 
nia in  half  teaspoonful  doses  in  like  man- 


ner ;  the  cold  douche  over  the  head  and 
chest,  warmth  to  the  extremities,  etc. 

ALKALIES  and  their  SALTS— Con- 
centrated Lye,  Woodash  Lye,  Caustic  Pot- 
ash, Ammonia,  Hartshorn. 

Symptoms. — Caustic,  acrid  taste,  ex- 
cessive heat  in  the  throat,  stomach,  and 
intestines;  vomiting  of  bloody  matter, 
cold  sweats,  hiccough,  purging  of  bloody 
stools. 

Treatment. — The  common  vegetable 
acids.  Common  vinegar  being  always  at 
hand,  is  most  frequently  used.  The  fixed 
oils,  as  castor,  flaxseed,  almond,  and  olive 
oils  form  soaps  with  the  alkalies,  and  thus 
also  destroy  their  caustic  effect.  They 
should  be  given  in  large  quantity. 

ALCOHOL,  BRANDY,  and  other  Spirit- 
uous Liquors. 

Symptoms. — Confusion  of  thought,  in- 
ability to  walk  or  stand,  dizziness,  stupor, 
highly  flushed  or  pale  face,  noisy  breath- 
ing. 

Treatment.  —  After  emptying  the 
stomach,  pour  cold  water  on  the  head 
and  back  of  the  neck,  rub  or  slap  the 
wrists  and  palm,  and  the  ankles  and  soles 
of  the  feet,  and  give  strong,  hot  coffee,  or 
aromatic  spirits  of  hartshorn,  in  teaspoon- 
ful doses  in  water.  The  warmth  of  the 
body  must  be  sustained. 

ANTIMONY  and  its  Preparations — 
Tartar  Emetic,  Antimonial  Wine,  Kerme's. 
Mineral. 

Symptoms.  —  Faintness  and  nausea, 
soon  followed  by  most  painful  and  con- 
tinued vomiting,  severe  diarrhoea,  con- 
striction and  burning  sensation  in  the 
throat,  cramps  or  spasmodic  twitchings, 
with  symptoms  of  nervous  derangement, 
and  great  prostration  of  strength,  often 
terminating  in  death. 

Treatment. — If  vomiting  has  not  been 
produced,  it  should  be  effected  by  tickling 
the  fauces,  and  administering  copious 
draughts  of  warm  water.  Astringent  in- 
fusions, such  as  of  gall,  oak  bark,  Peruv- 
ian bark,  act  as  antidotes,  and  should  be 
given  promptly.  Powdered  yellow  bark 
may  be  used  until  the  infusion  is  prepared, 
or  very  strong  green  tea  should  be  given. 
To  stop  the  vomiting,  should  it  con- 
tinue, blister  over  the  stomach  by  apply- 
ing a  cloth  wet  with  strong  spirits  of 
hartshorn,  and  then  sprinkle  on  the  one- 
eighth  to  one-fourth  of  a  grain  of  mor- 
phia. 


3* 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 


ARSENIC  and  its  Preparations— Eats- 
bane,  Powler's  Solution,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Generally  within  an  hour 
pain  and  heat  are  felt  in  the  stomach, 
soon  followed  by  vomiting,  with  a  burn- 
ing dryness  of  the  throat  and  great  thirst; 
the  matters  vomited  are  generally  colored, 
either  green,  yellow,  or  brownish,  and 
sometimes  bloody.  Diarrhoea  or  dysen- 
tery ensues,  while  the  pulse  becomes  small 
and  rapid,  yet  irregular.  Breathing  much 
oppressed;  difficulty  in  vomiting  may 
occur,  while  cramps,  convulsions,  or  even 
paralysis  often  precede  death,  which  some- 
times takes  place  within  five  or  six  hours 
after  arsenic  has  been  taken. 

Treatment. — Give  a  prompt  emetic, 
and  then  hydrate  of  peroxide  of  iron  (re- 
cently prepared)  in  table-spoonful  doses 
every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  until  the 
urgent  symptoms  are  relieved.  In  the 
absence  of  this,  or  while  it  is  being  pre- 
pared, give  large  draughts  of  new  milk 
and  raw  eggs,  limewater  and  oil,  melted 
butter,  magnesia  in  a  large  quantity  of 
water,  or  even  if  nothing  else  is  at  hand, 
.flour  and  water,  always,  however,  giving 
.an  emetic  the  first  thing,  or  causing  vomit- 
ing by  tickling  the  throat  with  a  feather, 
<tc.  The  inflammation  of  the  stomach 
-which  follows  must  be  treated  by  blisters, 
hot  fomentations,  mucilaginous  drinks, 
etc.  etc. 

BELLADONNA  or  DEADLY  NIGHT- 
SHADE. 

Symptoms. — Dryness  of  the  mouth  and 
throat,  great  thirst,  difficulty  of  swallow- 
ing, nausea,  dimness,  confusion  or  loss  of 
vision,  great  enlargement  of  the  pupils, 
dizziness,  delirium  and  coma. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  known  anti- 
dote. Give  a  prompt  emetic  and  then 
reliance  must  beplaced  on  continual  stimu- 
lation with  brandy,  whisky,  etc.,  and  to 
necessary  artificial  respiration.  Opium 
and  its  preparations,  as  morphia,  lauda- 
num, etc.,  are  thought  by  some,  to  coun- 
teract the  effect  of  belladonna,  and  may 
be  given  in  small  and  repeated  doses,  as 
also  strong  black  coffee  and  green  tea. 

BLUE  VITRIOL,  or  Bine  Stone.— See 
Copperas. 

CANTHARIDES  (Spanish  or  Blistering 
Ely)  and  Modern  Potato  Bug. 

Symptoms. — Sickening  odor  of  the 
breath,  sour  taste,  with  burning  heat  in 
the   throat,   stomach,   and  bowels;    fre- 


quent vomiting,  often  bloody ;  copious 
bloody  stools,  great  pain  in  the  stomach, 
with  burning  sensation  in  the  bladder  and 
difficulty  to  urinate,  followed  with  terrible 
convulsions,  delirium  and  death. 

Treatment.  —  Excite  vomiting  by 
drinking  plentifully  of  sweet  oil  or  other 
wholesome  oils,  sugar  and  water,  milk,  or 
slippery  elm  tea;  give  injections  of  castor 
oil  and  starch,  or  warm  milk.  The  in- 
flammatory symptoms  which  generally 
follow  must  be  treated  by  a  medical  man. 
Camphorated  oil  or  camphorated  spirits 
should  be  rubbed  over  the  bowels,  stom- 
ach, and  thighs. 

CAUSTIC  POTASH.— See  Alkalies. 

COBALT,  or  Fly  Powder. 

Symptoms. — Heat  and  pain  in  the 
throat  and  stomach,  violent  retching  and 
vomiting,  cold  and  clammy  skin,  small 
and  feeble  pulse,  hurried  and  difficult 
breathing,  diarrhoea,  etc 

Treatment. — An  emetic,  followed  by 
the  free  administration  of  milk,  eggs, 
wheat-flour  and  water,  and  mucilaginous 
drinks. 

COPPER— Bine  Vitriol,  Verdigris,  or 
Pickles  or  Food  Cooked  in  Fonl  Copper 
Vessels. 

Symptoms. — General  inflammation  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  suppression  of  urine, 
hiccough,  a  disagreeable  metallic  taste, 
vomiting,  violent  colic,  excessive  thirst, 
sense  of  tightness  of  the  throat,  anxiety, 
faintness,  and  giddiness,  and  cramps  and 
convulsions  generally  precede  death. 

Treatment. — Large  doses  of  simple 
syrup  as  warm  as  can  be  swallowed,  until 
the  stomach  rejects  the  amount  it  con- 
tains. The  whites  of  eggs  and  large 
quantities  of  milk.  Hydrated  peroxide 
of  iron. 

COPPERAS.— See  Iron. 

CREOSOTE— Carbolic  Acid. 

Symptoms. — Burning  pain,  acrid,  pun- 
gent taste,  thirst,  vomiting,  purging,  etc. 

Treatment. — An  emetic,  and  the  free 
administration  of  albumen,  as  the  whites 
of  eggs,  or  in  the  absence  of  these,  milk, 
or  flour  and  water. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE.— See  Mer- 
cury. 

DEADLY  NIGHT-SHADE.— See  Bel- 
ladonna. 

FOX-GLOVE,  or  Digitalis. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  strength,  feeble, 
fluttering  pulse,  faintness,    nausea,   and 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       3*9 


Tomiting  and  stupor;  cold  perspiration, 
■dilated  pupils,  sighing,  irregular  breath- 
ing, and  sometimes  convulsions. 

Treatment.  —  After  vomiting,  give 
trandy  and  ammonia  in  frequently  re- 
peated doses,  apply  warmth  to  the  ex- 
tremities, and  if  necessary  resort  to 
artificial  respiration. 

GASES — Carbonic  Acid,  Chlorine,  Cyan- 
ogen, Hydrosulphuric  Acid,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Great  drowsiness,  diffi- 
cult respiration,  features  swollen,  face 
blue  as  in  strangulation. 

Treatment.  —  Artificial  respirations, 
•cold  douche,  frictions  with  stimulating 
substances  to  the  surface  of  the  body. 
Inhalation  of  steam  containing  prepara- 
tions of  ammonia.  Cupping  from  nape 
■of  neck.     Internal  use  of  chloroform. 

GREEN  VITRIOL.    See  Iron. 

HELLEBORE,  or  Indian  Poke. 

Symptoms.  —  Violent  vomiting  and 
purging,  bloody  stools,  great  anxiety, 
tremors,  vertigo,  fainting,  sinking  of  the 
pulse,  cold  sweats,  and  convulsions. 

Treatment. — Excite  speedy  vomiting 
by  large  draughts  of  warm  water,  molasses 
and  water,  tickling  the  throat  with  the 
iinger  or  a  feather,  and  emetics;  give 
•oily  and  mucilaginous  drinks,  oily  purga- 
tives, and  clysters,  acids,  strong  coffee, 
•camphor,  and  opium. 

HEMLOCK  (Coninm). 

Symptoms. — Dryness  of  the  throat, 
tremors,  dizziness,  difficulty  of  swallowing, 
prostration  and  faintness,  limbs  power- 
less or  paralyzed,  pupils  dilated,  pulse 
Tap  id  and  feeble;  insensibility  and  con- 
vulsions sometimes  precede  death. 

Treatment. — Empty  the  stomach  and 
give  brandy  in  tablespoonful  doses,  with 
half  teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  ammonia, 
frequently  repeated,  and  if  much  pain 
and  vomiting,  give  bromide  of  ammonium 
in  five-grain  doses  every  half  hour.  Arti- 
■ficial  respiration  may  be  required. 

HENBANE  or  HYOSCYAMUS. 

Symptoms. — Muscular  twitching,  in- 
ability to  articulate  plainly,  dimness  of 
vision  and  stupor;  later,  vomiting  and 
purging,  small,  intermittent  pulse,  con- 
vulsive movement  of  the  extremities,  and 
•coma. 

Treatment. — Similar  to  Opium  Pois- 
oning, which  see. 

IODINE. 

Symptoms. — Burning  pain    in   throat, 


lacerating  pain  in  the  stomach,  fruitless 
effort  to  vomit,  excessive  tenderness  of 
the  epigastrium. 

Treatment. — Free  emesis,  prompt  ad- 
ministration of  starch,  wheat  flour,  or 
arrowroot,  beat  up  in  water. 

LEAD — Acetate  of  Lead,  Sugar  of 
Lead,  Dry  White  Lead,  Red  Lead,  Lith- 
arge, or  Pickles,  Wine,  or  Vinegar, 
sweetened  by  Lead. 

Symptoms.  —  When  taken  in  large 
doses,  a  sweet  but  astringent  metallic 
taste  exists,  with  constriction  in  the 
throat,  pain  in  the  region  of  the  stomach, 
painful,  obstinate,  and  frequently  bloody 
vomitings,  hiccough,  convulsions  or 
spasms,  and  death.  When  taken  in  small 
but  long-continued  doses,  it  produces 
colic,  called  painter's  colic;  great  pain, 
obstinate  constipation,  and  in  extreme 
cases  paralytic  symptoms,  especially  wrist- 
drop, with  a  blue  line  along  the  edge  of 
the  gums. 

Treatment.  —  To  counteract  the 
poison,  give  alum  in  water,  one  and  a 
half  ounce  to  a  quart;  or,  better  still, 
Epsom  salts  or  Glauber  salts,  an  ounce 
of  either  in  a  quart  of  water;  or  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  a  teaspoonful  to  a  quart 
of  water.  If  a  large  quantity  of  sugar  of 
lead  has  been  recently  taken,  empty  the 
stomach  by  an  emetic  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  (one  drachm  in  a  quart  of  water), 
giving  one-fourth  to  commence,  and  re- 
peating smaller  doses  until  free  vomiting 
is  produced;  castor  oil  should  be  given 
to  clear  the  bowels,  and  injections  of  oil 
and  starch  freely  administered.  If  the 
body  is  cold,  use  the  warm  bath. 

MEADOW  SAFFRON.— See  Bella- 
donna. 

LAUDANUM. — See  Opium. 

LUNAR  CAUSTIC— See  Silver. 

LOBELIA,  Indian  Poke. 

Symptoms. — Excessive  vomiting  and 
purging,  pains  in  the  bowels,  contraction 
of  the  pupils,  delirium,  coma  and  convul- 
sions. 

Treatment. — Mustard  over  the  stom- 
ach, and  brandy  and  ammonia. 

MERCURY. — Corrosive  Sublimate  (bug 
poisons  frequently  contain  this  poison), 
Red  Precipitate,  Chinese  or  English  Ver- 
million. 

Symptoms. — Acrid,  metallic  taste  in 
the  mouth,  immediate  constriction  and 
burning  in  the  throat,  with  anxiety  and 


33° 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 


tearing  pains  in  both  stomach  and  bowels, 
•sickness,  and  vomiting  of  various  colored 
fluids,  and  sometimes  bloody  and  profuse 
diarrhoea,  with  difficulty  and  pain  in  uri- 
nating; pulse  quick,  small  and  hard; 
faint  sensations,  great  debility,  difficult 
breathing,  cramps,  cold  sweats,  syncope 
nad  convulsions. 

Treatment. — If  vomiting  does  not  al- 
ready exist,  emetics  must  be  given  imme- 
diately, albumen  of  eggs  in  continuous 
large  doses,  and  infusion  of  catechu  af- 
terwards, sweet  milk,  mixtures  of  flour 
and  water  in  successive  cupfuls,  and  to 
check  excessive  salivation  put  a  half 
ounce  of  chlorate  of  potash  in  a  tumbler 
of  water,  and  use  freely  as  a  gargle,  and 
swallow  a  tablespoonful  every  hour  or 
two. 

MONKSHOOD.— See  Arnica. 

MORPHINE.— See  Opium. 

NITRATE  OF  SILVER  (Lunar  Caustic.) 

Symptoms. — Intense  pain  and  vomit- 
ing and  purging  of  blood ;  mucus  and 
sheds  of  mucous  membranes;  and  if 
these  stand  they  become  dark. 

Treatment. — Give  freely  of  a  solution 
of  common  salt  in  water,  which  decom- 
poses the  poison,  and  afterwards  flax- 
seed or  elm  bark  tea,  and  after  a  while  a 
dose  of  castor  oil. 

NTJX  VOMICA.— See  Strychnine. 

OPIUM  and  all  its  Preparations — Mor- 
phine, Laudanum,  Paregoric,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Giddiness,  drowsiness,  in- 
creasing to  stupor,  and  insensibility; 
pulse  usually,  at  first,  quick  and  irregular, 
and  breathing  hurried,  and  afterwards 
pulse  slow  and  feeble  and  respiration  slow 
and  noisy ;  the  pupils  are  contracted,  and 
the  eyes  and  face  congested,  and  later,  as 
death  approaches,  the  extremities  become 
cold,  the  surface  is  covered  with  cold, 
clammy  perspiration,  and  the  sphincters 
relax.  The  effects  of  opium  and  its  prep- 
arations, in  poisonous  doses,  appear  in 
from  a  half  to  two  hours  from  its  admin- 
istration. 

Treatment. — Empty  the  stomach  im- 
mediately with  an  emetic  or  with  the 
stomach  pump.  Then  give  very  strong 
coffee  without  milk ;  put  mustard  plasters 
on  the  wrists  and  ankles;  use  the  cold 
douche  to  the  head  and  chest,  and  if  the 
patient  is  cold  and  sinking  give  brandy, 
or  whisky  and  ammonia.  Belladonna  is 
thought  by  many  to  counteract  the  poi- 


sonous effects  of  opium,  and  may  be 
given  in  doses  of  half  to  a  tea-spoonful 
of  the  tincture,  or  two  grains  of  the 
extract,  every  twenty  minutes,  until  some 
effect  is  observed  in  causing  the  pupils  to- 
expand.  Use  warmth  and  friction,  and 
if  possible  prevent  sleep  for  some  hours, 
for  which  purpose  the  patient  should  be 
walked  about  between  two  persons,  and  if 
necessary  a  bunch  of  switches  may  be 
freely  used.  Finally,  as  a  last  resort,  use 
artificial  respiration,  and  a  persistence  in 
it  will  sometimes  be  rewarded  with  suc- 
cess in  apparently  hopeless  cases.  Gal- 
vanism should  also  be  tried. 

OXALIC  ACID.— See  Acids. 

PHOSPORUS— Found  in  Lucifer  Match- 
es and  some  Rat  Poisons. 

Symptoms. — Symptoms  of  irritant  poi- 
soning; pain  in  the  stomach  and  bowels; 
vomiting ;  diarrhoea ;  tenderness  and  ten- 
sion of  the  abdomen. 

Treatment. —  An  emetic  is  to  be 
promptly  given;  copious  draughts  con- 
taining magnesia  in  suspension;  mucilag- 
inous drinks.  General  treatment  for  in- 
flammatory symptoms. 

POISONOUS  FISH. 

Symptoms. — In  an  hour  or  two — often 
in  much  shorter  time — after  the  fish  has 
been  eaten,  a  weight  at  the  stomach 
comes  on,  with  slight  vertigo  and  head- 
ache ;  sense  of  heat  about  the  head  and 
eyes;  considerable  thirst,  and  often  an 
eruption  of  the  skin. 

Treatment. — After  full  vomiting,  an 
active  purgative  should  be  given  to  re- 
move any  of  the  noxious  matter  from  the 
intestines.  Vinegar  and  water  may  be 
drunk  after  the  above  remedies  have  op- 
erated, and  the  body  may  be  sponged 
with  the  same.  Water  made  very  sweet 
with  sugar,  with  aromatic  spirits  of  am- 
monia added,  may  be  drunk  freely  as  a 
corrective.  A  solution  of  chlorate  of 
potash,  or  of  alkali,  the  latter  weak,  may 
be  given  to  obviate  the  effects  of  the  poi- 
son. If  spasms  ensue  after  evacuation, 
laudanum  in  considerable  doses  is  nec- 
essary. If  inflammation  should  occur, 
combat  in  the  usual  way. 

POISONOUS  MUSHROOMS. 

Symptoms. — Nausea,  heat  and  pains  in 
the  stomach  and  bowels;  vomiting  and 
purging;  thirst;  convulsions  and  faint- 
ings ;  pulse  small  and  frequent ;  dilated 
pupil  and  stupor ;  cold  sweaths  and  death.. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       331 


Treatment — .The  stomach  and  bow- 
els are  to  be  cleared  by  an  emitic  of 
ground  mustard  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  follow- 
ed by  frequent  doses  of  Glauber  or  Epsom 
salts,  and  large  stimulating  clysters.  Af- 
ter the  poison  is  evacuated,  ether  may  be 
given  with  small  quantities  of  brandy  and 
water.  But  if  inflammatory  symptoms 
manifest  themselves,  such  stimuli  should 
should  be  avoided,  and  these  symptoms 
appropriately  treated. 

POTASH.— See  Alkali. 

PRUSSIC  ACID,  Hydrocyanic  —  See 
Acids. 

POISON  IVY. 

SYMPTOMs.-Contact  with,  and  with  many 
persons  the  near  approach  to  the  vine  gives 
rise  to  violent  erysipelatous  inflammation, 
especially  of  the  face  and  hands,  attend- 
ed with  itching,  redness,  burning  and 
swelling,  with  watery  blisters. 

Treatment. — Give  saline  laxatives, 
and  apply  weak  lead  water  and  lauda- 
num, or  limewater  and  sweet  oil,  or 
bathe  the  parts  freely  with  spirits  of  nitre. 
Anointing  with  oil  will  prevent  poisoning 
from  it. 

SALTPETRE,  Nitrate  of  Potash. 

Symptoms. — Only  poisonous  in  large 
quantities,  and  then  causes  nausea,  pain- 
ful vomiting,  purging,  convulsions,  faint- 
ness,  feeble  pulse,  cold  feet  and  hands, 
with  tearing  pains  in  stomach  and 
bowels. 

Treatment. — Treat  just  as  is  directed 
for  arsenic,  for  there  is  no  antidote 
known ;  and  emptying  the  stomach  and 
bowels  with  mild  drinks  must  be  relied 
on. 

SAVLNE. 

Symptoms. — Sharp  pains  in  the  bowels, 
hot  skin,  rapid  pulse,  violent  vomiting 
and  sometimes  purging,  with  great  pros- 
tration. 

Treatment. — Mustard  and  hot  fomen- 
tations over  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and 
ice  only  allowed  in  the  stomach  until  the 
inflammation  ceases.  If  prostration  comes 
on,  food  and  stimulants  must  be  given  by 
injection. 

STRAMONIUM,  Thorn-apple  or  James- 
town Weed. 

Symptoms. — Vertigo,  headache,  per- 
version of  vision,  slight  delirium,  sense  of 
suffocation,  disposition  to  sleep,  bowels 
relaxed  and  all  secretions  augmented. 

Treatment. — Same  as  Belladonna. 


STRYCHNINE  and  NUX  VOMICA. 

Symptoms. — Muscular  twitchings,  con- 
striction of  the  throat,  difficult  breathing 
and  oppression  of  the  chest;  violent  mus- 
cular spasms  then  occur,  continuous  in 
character  like  lock-jaw,  with  the  body 
bent  backwards,  sometimes  like  a  bow. 

Treatment. — Give,  if  obtainable,  one 
ounce  or  more  of  bone  charcoal  mixed 
with  water,  and  follow  with  an  active 
emetic;  then  give  chloroform  in  teaspoon- 
ful  doses,  in  flour  and  water  or  glycerine,, 
every  few  minutes  while  the  spasms  last, 
and  afterwards  brandy  and  stimulants, 
and  warmth  of  the  extremities  if  neces- 
sary. Recoveries  have  followed  the  free 
and  prompt  administration  of  oils  or 
melted  butter  or  lard.  In  all  cases  empty 
the  stomach  if  possible. 

SULPHATE  of  ZINC,  White  Vitrol.— 
See  Zinc. 

TIN,  Chloride  of  Tin,  Solution  of  Tin, 
(Used  by  Dyers),  Oxide  of  Tin  or  Putty 
Powder. 

Symptoms. — Vomiting,  pains  in  the- 
stomach,  anxiety,  restlessness,  frequent 
pulse,  delirium,  etc. 

Treatment. — Empty  the  stomach,  and 
give  whites  of  eggs  in  water,  milk  in 
large  quantities,  or  flour  beaten  up  in 
water,  with  magnesia  or  chalk. 

TARTAR  EMETIC— See  Antimony. 

TOBACCO. 

Symptoms. — Vertigo,  stupor,  fainting, 
nausea,  vomiting,  sudden  nervous  debili- 
ty, cold' sweat,  tremors,  and  at  times  fatal 
prostration. 

Treatment.  —  After  the  stomach  is. 
empty  apply  mustard  to  the  abdomen, 
and  to  the  extremities,  and  give  strong 
coffee  with  brandy  and  other  stimulants, 
with  warmth  to  the  extremities. 

ZINC,  Oxide  of  Zinc,  Sulphate  of  Zinc,. 
White  Vitrol,  Acetate  of  Zinc. 

Symptoms. — Violent  vomiting,  astrin- 
gent taste,  burning  pain  in  the  stom- 
ach, pale  countenance,  cold  extremities, 
dull  eyes,  fluttering  pulse.  Death  sel- 
dom ensues,  in  consequence  of  the  emetic 
effect. 

Treatment. — The  vomiting  naay  be 
relieved  by  copious  draughts  of  warm 
water.  Carbonate  of  soda,  administered 
in  solution,  will  decompose  the  sulphate 
of  zinc.  Milk  and  albumen  also  act  as. 
antidotes.  General  principles  to  be  ob- 
served in  the  subsequent  treatment. 


332 


ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES. 


WOORARA. 

Symptoms. — When  taken  into  the 
^rtomach  it  is  inert;  when  absorbed  through 
a  wound,  it  causes  sudden  stupor  and  in- 
sensibility, frothing  at  the  mouth  and 
speedy  death. 

Treatment. — Suck  the  wound  imme- 
diately, or  cut  it  out  and  tie  a  cord 
around  the  limb  between  the  wound  and 
the  heart.  Apply  iodine,  or  iodide  of  po- 
tassium, and  give  it  internally,  and  try 
artificial  respiration. 

SCALDS. — See  Burns  and  Scalds. 

SPRAINS. — The  portions  most  fre- 
quently implicated  are  the  wrist  and  an- 
kle ;  no  matter  which  portion  it  may  be 
however,  rest  and  quietness  is  a  very  im- 
portant part  of  the  treatment,  and,  when 
possible,  in  an  elevated  position.  If  the 
wrist  is  sprained,  it  should  be  carried  in  a 
sling;  if  the  ankle,  it  should  be  supported 
on  a  couch  or  stool.  Cold  lotions  (See 
Bruises)  should  be  freely  applied,  and 
irrigation  by  pouring  water  from  a  pitcher 
or  tea-kettle  resorted  to  several  times  a 
day  to  prevent  inflammation.  Later, 
frictiops  with  opedeldoc,  or  with  some 
stimulating  liniment,  and  supporting  the 
parts  by  pressure  made  with  a  flannel 
roller,  or  laced  stocking  when  the  ankle 
is  involved,  will  be  useful  to  restore  tone; 
or  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  properly  ap- 
plied will  be  useful  for  the  same  purpose. 
Recovery  from  severe  sprains  is  always 
tedious.  It  is  an  old  saying  "that  a  bad 
sprain  is  worse  than  a  broken  bone." 

STINGS  of  BEES  and  WASPS.— See 
Bites  and  Stings. 

SUFFOCATION,  from  Noxious  Gases, 
Foul  Air,  Fire,  Damp,  Etc. — Remove  to 
fresh  air  and  dash  cold  water  over  the 


head,  neck  and  chest;  carefully  apply 
hartshorn,  or  smelling  salts  to  the  nos- 
trils, and  when  the  breathing  is  feeble  or 
has  ceased,  resort  immediately  to  artifi- 
cial respiration  (See  Asphyxia  and 
Drowning).  Keep  up  the  warmth  ot 
the  body,  and  as  soon  as  the  patient  can 
swallow,  give  stimulants  in  small  quanti- 
ties. 

SUNSTROKE,  Heat  Apoplexy.— This 
is  caused  by  long  exposure  in  great  heat, 
especially  when  accompanied  with  great 
fatigue  and  exhaustion.  Though  gen- 
erally happening  from  exposure  to  the 
sun's  rays,  yet  precisely  similar  effects 
may  be  and  are  produced  from  any  un- 
due exposure  to  great  and  exhaustive 
heat,  such  as  workmen  are  exposed  to  in 
foundries,  gas  factories,  bakeries,  and 
other  similar  employments.  Its  first 
symptom  is  pain  in  the  head  and  dizzi- 
ness, quickly  followed  by  loss  of  con- 
sciousness, and  resulting  in  complete 
prostration ;  sometimes,  however,  the  at- 
tack is  sudden,  as  in  apoplexy.  The 
head  is  generally  burning  hot,  the  face 
dark  and  swollen,  the  breathing  labored 
and  snoring,  and  the  feet  and  hands 
cold.  Remove  the  patient  at  once  to  a 
cool  and  shady  place,  and  lay  him  down 
with  his  head  a  little  raised;  apply  ice 
or  iced  water  to  the  head  and  face;  loosen 
all  cloths  around  the  neck  or  waist ;  bathe 
the  chest  with  cold  water,  apply  mus- 
tard plasters,  or  cloths  wetted  with  tur- 
pentine, to  the  calves  and  soles  of  the 
feet,  and  as  soon  as  the  patient  can  swal- 
low, give  weak  brandy  or  whisky  and 
water. 

THROAT,  Foreign  Bodies  in. — See 
Choking. 


HOME    DOCTOR. 


ASTHMA. — Take  hyssop  water  and 
poppy  water,  of  each  ten  ounces;  oxymel 
of  squills,  six  ounces;  syrup  of  maiden 
hair,  two  ounces.  Take  one  spoonful 
when  you  find  any  difficulty  in  breathing. 

AGUE  in  the  Breast. — Take  one  part 
of  gum  camphor,  two  parts  yellow  bees- 
wax, three  parts  clean  lard ;  let  all  melt 
slowly,  in  any  vessel  [earthen  best],  on 
stove.  Use  either  cold  or  warm;  spread 
very  thinly  on  cotton  or  linen  cloths,  cov- 
ering those  with  flannel.  No  matter  if 
the  breast  is  broken,  it  will  cure  if  per- 
severed in.  Do  not,  no  matter  how  pain- 
ful, cease  from  drawing  milk  from  the 
breast  that  is  affected. 

AGUE,  Mixture. — Mix  twenty  grains 
quinine  with  one  pint  diluted  gin  or  port 
wine,  and  add  ten  grains  subcarbonate  of 
iron.  Dose,  a  wine-glass  each  hour  until 
the  ague  is  broken,  and  then  two  or  three 
times  a  day  until  the  whole  has  been  used. 

2.  Take  Peruvian  bark,  two  ounces; 
wild  cherry  tree  bark,  one  ounce;  cinna- 
mon, one  drachm;  powdered  capsicum, 
one  teaspoonful ;  sulphur,  one  ounce ;  port 
wine,  two  quarts.  Let  it  stand  a  day  or 
two.  Dose,  a  wine  glassful  every  two  or 
three  hours  until  the  disease  is  broken, 
and  then  two  or  three  times  a  day  until 
all  is  taken. 

ANKLE,  Sprained. — Wash  the  ankle 
frequently  with  cold  salt  and  water,  which 
is  far  better  than  warm  vinegar  or  decoc- 
tions of  herbs.  Keep  your  foot  as  cold 
as  possible  to  prevent  inflammation,  and 
sit  with  it  elevated  on  a  cushion.  Live 
on  very  low  diet,  and  take  every  day  some 
cooling  medicine.  By  obeying  these 
directions  only,  a  sprained  ankle  has  been 
cured  in  a  few  days. 

APOPLEXY.— Occurs  only  in  the  cor- 
pulent or  obese,  and  the  gross  or  high 
livers.  To  treat,  raise  the  head  to  a 
nearly  upright  position ;  unloose  all  tight 
clothes,  strings,  etc.,  and  apply  cold  water 
to  the  head  and  waim  water   and  warm 


clothes  to  the  feet.  Have  the  apartment 
cool  and  well  ventilated.  Give  nothing 
by  the  mouth  until  the  breathing  is 
relieved,  and  then  only  draughts  of  cold 
water. 

BALDNESS,  Preparation  for  the  Cure 
of. — Rum,  one  pint ;  alchohol,  one  ounce; 
distilled  water,  one  ounce;  tincture  of" 
cantharides,  a  half  drachm ;  carbonate  of 
potash,  a  half  drachm ;  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, one  drachm.  Mix  the  liquids 
after  having  dissolved  the  salts,  and  filter. 
After  the  skin  of  the  head  has  been  wetted 
with  this  preparation  for  several  minutes, 
it  should  be  washed  with  water. 

BILIOUS,  Colic. — Mix  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  Indian  meal,  in  half  a  pint  of  cold 
water ;  drink  it  at  two  draughts. 

BILIOUS,  Complaints.— Take  the  root 
and  branch  of  dandelion,  and  steep  it  in 
soft  water  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to^ 
extract  all  the  essence ;  then  strain  the 
liquor  and  simmer  until  it  becomes  quite 
thick.  Dose,  from  one  to  three  glasses  a 
day  may  be  taken  with  good  effect. 

BLACKBERRY  CORDIAL.— To  one 
quart  blackberry  juice  add  one  pound 
white  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  each  cloves, 
allspice,  cinnamon,  and  nutmeg.  Boil  to- 
gether fifteen  minutes,  and  add  a  wine 
glass  of  whisky,  brandy,  or  rum.  Bottle 
while  hot,  cork  tight,  and  seal.  Used  in 
diarrhea  and  dysentery.  Dose,  a  wine- 
glassful  for  an  adult,  half  that  quantity 
for  a  child.  It  can  be  taken  three  or  four 
times  a  day,  if  the  case  is  severe. 

BLISTERS.— On  the  feet  occasioned 
by  walking,  are  cured  by  drawing  a 
needleful  of  worsted  thread  through 
them  :  clip  it  off  at  both  ends,  and  leave  it 
till  the  skin  peals  off. 

BLOOD,  Raising. — Make  a  tea  of  white 
oak  bark,  and  drink  freely  during  the 
day ;  or  take  half  a  pound  of  yellow  dock 
root,  boil  in  new  milk,  say  one  quart ; 
drink  one  gill  three  times  a  day ;  and  take 
one  pill  of  white  pine  pitch  every  day,  to- 


(333) 


w 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


BLOOD,  How  to  Stop.— Take  the  fine 
■dust  of  tea,  or  the  scrapings  of  the  inside 
•of  tanned  leather.  Bind  it  upon  the 
wound  closely,  and  blood  will  soon  cease 
to  flow. 

BOLLS. — Make  a  poultice  of  ginger  and 
flour,  and  lay  it  on  the  boil.  This  will 
soon  draw  it  to  a  head. 

BOWELS,  Swelled,  in  Children.— Bathe 
the  stomach  of  the  child  with  catnip 
steeped,  mixed  with  fresh  butter  and 
sugar. 

CHILBLAINS.  —  Mr.  Fergus  recom- 
mends sulphurous  acid  in  this  affection. 
It  should  be  applied  with  a  camel's  hair 
brush,  or  by  means  of  a  spray  producer. 
One  application  of  this  usually  effects  a 
«ure.  The  acid  should  be  used  pure.  A 
good  wash  for  hands  or  feet  affected  with 
chilblains  is  sulphurous  acid,  three  parts ; 
glycerine,  one  part ;  and  water,  one  part. 
The  acid  will  be  found  particularly  useful 
in  the  irritating,  tormenting  stage  of  chil- 
blains. 

CHILBLAINS  AND  CHAFFED  HANDS. 
—  When  chilblains  manifest  themselves, 
the  best  remedy  not  only  for  preventing 
their  ulcerating,  but  overcoming  the  ting- 
ling, itching  pain,  and  stimulating  the  cir- 
culation of  the  part  to  healthy  action,  is 
the  liniment  of  belladonna,  two  drachms; 
the  liniment  of  aconite,  one  drachm ;  car- 
bolic acid,  ten  drops;  collodion  flexile, 
one  ounce;  painted  with  a  camel's  hair 
pencil  over  their  surface.  When  the  chil- 
blains vesicate,  ulcerate  or  slough,  it  is 
better  to  omit  the  aconite  and  apply  the 
other  components  of  the  liniment  without 
it.  The  collodion  flexile  forms  a  coating 
or  protecting  film,  which  excludes  the  air, 
whilst  the  sedative  liniments  allay  the 
irritation,  generally  of  no  trivial  nature. 
For  chapped  hands  we  advise  the  free 
use  of  glycerine  and  good  olive  oil,  in  the 
proportion  of  two  parts  of  the  former  to 
four  of  the  latter;  after  this  has  been  well 
rubbed  into  the  hands  and  allowed  to  re- 
main for  a  little  time,  and  the  hands  sub- 
sequently washed  with  Castile  soap  and 
water,  we  recommend  the  belladonna  and 
collodion  flexile  to  be  painted  on,  and  the 
protective  film  allowed  to  remain  perma- 
nently. These  complaints  not  unfre- 
quently  invade  persons  of  languid  circu- 
lation and  relaxed  habit,  who  should  be 
put  on  a  generous  regimen,  and  treated 
with  ferruginous  tonics.     Obstinate  cases 


are  occasionally  met  with  which  no  local 
application  will  remedy,  unless  some  dis- 
ordered state  of  the  system  is  removed,  or 
the  general  condition  of  the  patient's 
health  improved.  Chapped  lips  are  also 
benefited  by  the  stimulating  form  of  ap- 
plication we  advocate,  but  the  aconite 
must  not  be  allowed  to  get  on  the  lips, 
or  a  disagreeable  tingling  results. 

CHILBLAIN  BALM.  — Boil  together 
ten  fluid  ounces  olive  oil,  two  fluid  ounces 
Venice  turpentine,  and  one  ounce  yellow 
wax;  strain,  and  while  still  warm  add, 
constantly  stirring,  two  and  a  half  drachms 
balsam  of  Peru,  and  ten  grains  camphor. 

CHILBLAIN,  Cure  for.— Make  a  strong 
lye  by  boiling  wood  ashes  in  water.  Put 
your  feet  in  a  small  tub  and  cover  them 
with  the  lye  as  hot  as  you  can  bear  it. 
Gradually  add  more  lye  hotter  and  hotter. 
Keep  them  in  half  an  hour,  bathing  and 
rubbing  them  continually,  and  being  very 
careful  to  keep  the  lye  hot. 

CHILBLAIN  LOTION.— Dissolve  one 
ounce  muriate  of  ammonia  in  one-half 
pint  cider  vinegar,  and  apply  frequently. 
One-half  pint  alcohol  may  be  added  to 
this  lotion  with  good  effects. 

CHILBLAIN  OINTMENT.— Take  mut- 
ton tallow  and  lard,  of  each  three-fourths  of 
a  pound  avoirdupois ;  melt  in  an  iron  ves- 
sel, and  add  hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  two 
ounces,  stirring  continually  with  an  iron 
spoon  until  the  mass  is  of  a  uniform  black 
color;  when  nearly  cool  add  Venice  tur- 
pentine, two  ounces ;  Armenian  bole,  one 
ounce;  oil  of  bergamot,  one  drachm; 
rub  up  the  bole  with  a  little  olive  oil  be- 
fore putting  it  in.  Apply  several  times 
daily  by  putting  it  upon  lint  or  linen.  It 
heals  the  worst  cases  in  a  few  days. 

CHILBLAINS,  Russian  Remedy  for.— 
Slices  of  the  rind  of  fully  ripe  cucumbers, 
dried  with  the  soft  parts  attached.  Pre- 
vious to  use  they  are  softened  by  soaking 
them  in  warm  water,  and  are  then  bound 
on  the  sore  parts  with  the  inner  side  next 
them,  and  left  on  all  night.  This  treat- 
ment is  said  to  be  adopted  for  both 
broken  and  unbroken  chilblains. 

CHILBLAINS,  Itching,  Lotion  for.  — 
Take  hydrochloric  acid,  one  part,  and 
water,  eight  parts ;  mix.  Apply  on  going 
to  bed.  This  must  not  be  used  if  the 
skin  is  broken. 

Sal  ammoniac,  two  ounces ;  rum,  one 
pint;    camphor,  two  drachms.     The   af- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      335 


fected  part  is  wetted  night  and  morning, 
and  when  dry  is  touched  with  a  little 
simple  ointment  of  any  kind — cold  cream 
or  pomatum. 

Oil  of  turpentine,  four  ounces;  cam- 
phor, six  drachms;  oil  of  cajeput,-  two 
drachms.     Apply  with  friction. 

CHILBLAINS,  Broken,  Remedy  for.— 
Mix  together  four  fluid  ounces  collodion, 
one  and  a  half  fluid  ounces  Venice  tur- 
pentine, and  one  fluid  ounce  castor  oil. 

CORNS,  Cure  for.— Take  equal  parts  of 
mercurial  and  galbanum  ointments  ;  mix 
them  well  together,  spread  on  a  piece  of 
soft  leather,  and  apply  it  to  the  corns 
morning  and  evening.  In  a  few  days 
benefit  will  be  derived.  Take  two  ounces 
of  gum  ammoniac,  two  ounces  of  yellow 
wax,  and  six  ounces  of  verdigris;  melt 
them  together,  and  spread  the  composi- 
tion on  soft  leather ;  cut  away  as  much 
of  the  corn  as  you  can,  then  apply  the 
plaster,  and  renew  it  every  fortnight  till 
the  corn  is  away.  Get  four  ounces  of 
white  diachylon  plaster,  four  ounces  of 
shomaker's  Avax,  and  sixty  drops  of  mu- 
riatic acid  or  spirits  of  salt.  Boil  them 
for  a  few  minutes  in  an  earthen  pipkin, 
and  when  cold  roll  the  mass  between  the 
hands,  and  apply  it  on  a  piece  of  white 
leather.  Soak  the  feet  well  in  warm 
water,  then  with  a  sharp  instrument  pare 
off  as  much  of  the  corn  as  can  be  done 
without  pain,  and  bind  up  the  part  with 
.a  piece  of  linen  or  muslin  thoroughly  sat- 
urated with  sperm  oil,  or,  which  is  better, 
the  oil  which  floats  upon  the  surface  of 
the  herring  or  mackerel.  After  three  or 
four  days  the  dressing  may  be  removed 
by  scraping,  when  the  new  skin  will  be 
found  of  a  soft  and  healthy  texture,  and 
less  liable  to  the  formation  of  a  new  corn 
than  before.  Corns  may  be  prevented 
by  wearing  easy  shoes.  Bathe  the  feet 
frequently  in  lukewarm  water,  with  a  little 
salt  or  potashes  dissolved  in  it.  The 
corn  itself  will  be  completely  destroyed 
by  rubbing  it  often  with  a  little  caustic 
solution  of  potash  till  the  soft  skin  is 
formed.  Scrape  to  a  pulp  sufficient 
Spanish  garlic  and  bind  on  the  corn  over 
night,  after  first  soaking  it  well  in  warm 
water,  and  scrape  off  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  hardened  portion  in  the  morning. 
Repeat  the  application  as  required. 

CORNS,  Soft,  a  Cure  for.  —  Scrape  a 
piece  of  common  chalk,  and  put  a  pinch 


to  the  soft  corn,  and  bind  a  piece  of  linen 
rag  upon  it. 

CORNS,  Tender. — A  strong  solution  of 
tannic  acid  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  ap- 
plication to  tender  feet  as  well  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  the  offensive  odor  attendant 
upon  their  profuse  perspiration.  To 
those  of  our  readers  who  live  far  away  in 
the  country,  we  would  suggest  a  strong 
decoction  of  oak  bark  as  a  substitute. 

CORNS,  Caustic  for.  —  Tincture  of 
iodine,  four  drachms;  iodide  of  iron, 
twelve  grains ;  chloride  of  antimony,  four 
drachms ;  mix,  and  apply  with  a  camel's 
hair  brush,  after  paring  the  corn.  It  is 
said  to  cure  in  three  times. 

CORNS,  to  Relieve. — Bind  them  up  at 
night  with  a  cloth  wet  with  tincture  of 
arnica,  to  relieve  the  pain,  and  during 
the  day  occasionally  moisten  the  stocking 
over  the  corn  with  arnica  if  the  shoe  is 
not  large  enough  to  allow  the  corn  being 
bound  up  with  a  piece  of  linen  rag. 

CORNS,  Remedy  for.  —  1.  The  pain 
occasioned  by  corns  may  be  greatly  alle- 
viated by  the  following  preparation  :  Into 
a  one-ounce  vial  put  two  drachms  of  mu- 
riatic acid  and  six  drachms  of  rose-water. 
With  this  mixture  wet  the  corns  night 
and  morning  for  three  days.  Soak  the 
feet  every  evening  in  warm  water  without 
soap.  Put  one-third  of  the  acid  into  the 
water,  and  with  a  little  picking  the  corn 
will  be  dissolved.  2.  Take  a  lemon,  cut 
off  a  small  piece,  then  nick  it  so  as  let  in 
the  toe  with  the  corn,  tie  this  on  at  night 
so  that  it  cannot  move,  and  in  the  morn- 
ing you  will  find  that,  with  a  blunt  knife, 
you  may  remove  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  corn.  Make  two  or  three  applica- 
tions, and  great  relief  will  be  the  result. 

CORNS,  Solvent. — Expose  salt  of  tartar 
(pearlash)  in  a  wide-mouth  vial  in  a  damp 
place  until  it  fonns  an  oil-like  liquid,  and 
apply  to  the  corn. 

CHOLERA,  Remedy,  Sure.— Take  lau- 
danum, tincture  cayenne,  compound  tinc- 
ture rhubarb,  peppermint  and  camphor, 
of  each  equal  parts.  Dose,  ten  to  thirty 
drops.  In  plain  terms,  take  equal  parts 
tincture  of  opium,  red  pepper,  rhubarb, 
peppermint  and  camphor,  and  mix  them 
for  use.  In  case  of  diarrhoea,  take  a  dose 
of  ten  to  twenty  drops  in  three  or  four 
teaspoonfuls  of  water.  No  one  who  has 
this  by  him,  and  takes  it  in  time,  will  ever 
have  the  cholera. 


33<> 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


CHILDREN,  Disease  in,  Signs  of.— In 
the  case  of  a  baby  not  yet  able  to  talk,  it 
must  cry  when  it  is  ill  The  colic  makes 
a  baby  cry  loud,  long,  and  passionately, 
and  shed  tears — stopping  for  a  moment 
and  beginning  again. 

If  the  chest  is  affected,  it  gives  one 
sharp  cry,  breaking  off  immediately,  as  if 
crying  hurt  it. 

If  the  head  is  affected,  it  cries  in 
sharp,  piercing  shrieks,  with  low  moans 
and  wails  between.  Or  there  may  be 
quiet  dozing,  and  startings  between. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  perceive,  where  a 
child  is  attacked  by  disease,  that  there 
has  some  change  taken  place ;  for  either 
its  skin  will  be  dry  and  hot,  its  appetite 
gone ;  it  is  stupidly  '  sleepy,  or  fretful  or 
crying ;  it  is  thirsty,  or  pale  and  languid, 
or  in  some  way  betrays  that  something  is 
wrong.  When  a  child  vomits,  or  has  a 
diarrhoea,  or  is  costive  and  feverish,  it  is 
owing  to  some  derangement,  and  needs 
attention.  But  these  various  symptoms 
may  continue  for  a  day  or  two  before  the 
nature  of  the  disease  can  be  determined. 
A  warm  bath,  warm  drinks,  etc.,  can  do 
no  harm,  and  may  help  to  determine  the 
case.  On  coming  out  of  the  bath,  and 
being  well  rubbed  with  the  hand,  the 
skin  will  show  symptoms  of  rash,  if  it  is 
a  skin  disease  which  has  commenced. 
By  the  appearance  of  the  rash,  the  nature 
of  the  disease  can  be  learned.  Measles 
are  in  patches,  dark  red,  and  come  out 
first  about  the  face.  If  scarlet  fever  is 
impending,  the  skin  will  look  a  deep  pink 
all  over  the  body,  though  most  so  about 
the  neck  and  face.  Chicken-pox  shows 
fever,  but  not  so  much  running  at  the 
nose,  and  appearances  of  cold,  as  in 
measles,  nor  is  there  as  much  of  a  cough. 
Besides,  the  spots  are  smaller,  and  do 
not  run  much  together,  and  are  more 
diffused  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
skin ;  and  enlarge  into  blisters  in  a  day  or 
two. 

CONSUMPTION.  —  Take  one  table- 
spoonful  of  tar,  and  the  yolks  of  three 
hen's  eggs,  beat  them  well  together. 
Dose,  one  tablespoonful  morning,  noon 
and  night. 

CROUP,  Remedy  for  in  One  Minute.— 
This  remedy  is  simply  alum.  Take  a 
knife  or  grater,  and  shave  or  grate  off  in 
small  particles  about  a  teaspoonful  of 
alum ;  mix  it  with  about  twice  its  quantity 


of  sugar,  to  make  it  palatable,  and  ad- 
minister as  quick  as  possible.  Its  effects 
will  be  truly  magical,  as  almost  instan- 
taneous relief  will  be  afforded. 

CHOLERA  REMEDY,  HARTS- 
HORNE'S.— Take  of  chloroform,  tincture 
of  opium,  spirits  of  camphor,  and  spirits. 
of  aromatic  ammonia,  each  one  and  one- 
half  fluid  drachms ;  creosote,  three  drops ;; 
oil  of  cinnamon,  eight  drops;  brandy, 
two  fluid  drachms.  Dilute  a  teaspoonful 
with  a  wine-glass  of  water,  and  give  two> 
teaspoonfuls  every  five  minutes,  followed 
by  a  lump  of  ice. 

DANDRUFF,  Cure  for.— Good  mild 
soap  is  one  of  the  safest  remedies,  and  is 
sufficient  in  ordinary  cases ;  carbonate  of 
potash  or  soda  is  too  alkaline  for  the  skin. 
Every  application  removes  a  portion  of 
the  cuticle,  as  you  may  observe  by  the 
smoothness  of  the  skin  of  your  hands 
after  washing  them  with  it.  Borax  is 
recommended;  but  this  is  also  soda  com- 
bined with  a  weak  acid,  boracic  acid,  and 
may  by  protracted  use  also  injuriously  act. 
on  the  scalp.  Soap  is  also  soda  or  potash 
combined  with  the  weak,  fatty  acids ; 
and  when  the  soap  contains  an  excess  of 
the  alkalies  or  is  sharp,  it  is  as  injurious: 
as  the  carbonate  of  potash.  All  that 
injures  the  scalp  injures  the  growth  of  the 
hair.  One  of  the  best  applications  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom  is  the  mucilagin- 
ous decoction  of  the  root  of  the  burdock,, 
called  bardane,  in  French  (botanical 
name,  Lappa  Minor).  In  the  mineral 
kingdom  the  best  remedy  is  a  solution  of 
flowers  of  sulphur  in  water,  which  may  be 
made  by  the  addition  of  a  very  small 
portion  of  sulphide  of  potassium,  say  ten 
or  twenty  grains  to  the  pint.  This  solu- 
tion is  shaken  up  with  the  sulphur,  and 
the  clear  liquid  remaining  on  the  top  is 
used.  This  recipe  is  founded  on  the 
fact  that  sulphur  is  a  poison  for  inferior 
vegetable  or  animal  growth,  like  dandruff, 
itch,  etc.,  and  is  not  all  a  poison  for  the 
superior  animals  like  man. 

DIPHTHERIA — A  French  physician  ex- 
presses his  preference  for  lemon  juice,  as 
a  local  application  in  diphtheria,  to  chlo- 
rate of  potash,  nitrate  of  silver,  perchlo- 
ride  of  lime  water.  He  uses  it  by  dip- 
ping a  little  plug  of  cottonwood,  twisted 
around  a  wire,  in  the  juice,  and  pressing 
it  against  the  diseased  surface  four  or  five 
times  daily. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      337 


BREATH,  Bad.— Bad  or  foul  breath 
will  be  removed  by  taking  a  teaspoonful 
of  the  following  mixture  after  each  meal: 
One  ounce  liquor  of  potassa,  one  ounce 
chloride  of  soda,  one  and  one-half 
ounces  phosphate  of  soda,  and  three 
ounces  of  water. 

2.  Chlorate  of  potash,  three  drachms; 
rose-water,  four  ounces.  Dose,  a  table- 
spoonful  four  or  five  times  daily. 

BUNION,  Cure  for.— A  bunion  is  a 
swelling  on  the  ball  of  the  great  toe,  and 
is  the  result  of  pressure  and  irritation  by 
friction.  The  treatment  for  corns  ap- 
plies also  to  bunions ;  but  in  consequence 
of  the  greater  extension  of  the  disease, 
the  cure  is  more  tedious.  When  a  bun- 
ion is  forming  it  may  be  stopped  by  poul- 
ticing and  carefully  opening  it  with  a 
lancet. 

BURNS,  and  Scalds,  Cure  for.— Take 
half  a  pound  of  powdered  alum,  dissolve 
it  in  a  quart  of  water;  bathe  the  burn  or 
scald  with  a  linen  rag,  wetted  with  this 
mixture,  then  bind  the  wet  rag  on  it  with 
a  strip  of  linen,  and  moisten  the  bandage 
with  the  alum  water  frequently,  without 
removing  it,  during  two  or  three  days. 

BURNS,  Tea  Leaves  for.— Dr.  Searles, 
of  Warsaw,  Wis.,  reports  the  immediate 
relief  from  pain  in  severe  burns  and  scalds 
by  the  application  of  a  poultice  of  tea 
leaves. 

CANCER.— Boil  down  the  inner  bark 
of  red  and  white  oak  to  the  consistency 
of  molasses ;  apply  as  a  plaster,  shifting 
it  once  a  week;  or,  burn  red-oak  bark  to 
ashes;  sprinkle  it  on  the  sore  till  it  is 
eaten  out;  then  apply  a  plaster  of  tar; 
or,  take  garget  berries  and  leaves  of  stra- 
monium ;  simmer  them  together  in  equal 
parts  of  neatsfoot  oil  and  the  tops  of 
hemlock;  mix  well  together,  and  apply  it 
to  the  parts  affected ;  at  the  same  time 
make  a  tea  of  winter-green  (root  and 
branch);  put  a  handful  into  two  quarts 
of  water;  add  two  ounces  of  sulphur  and 
drink  of  this  tea  freely  during  the  day. 

CASTOR  Oil  Mixture.— Castor  oil,  one 
dessert  spoonful;  magnesia,  one  dessert 
spoonful.  Rub  together  into  a  paste. 
By  this  combination,  the  taste  of  the  oil 
is  almost  entirely  concealed,  and  children 
take  it  without  opposition. 

CASTOR   OH,  to  Disguise.— Rub  up 
two  drops  oil  of  cinnamon  with  an  ounce 
of  glycerine  and  add  an  ounce  of  castor 
22 


oil.     Children  will  take  it  as  a  luxury  and 
ask  for  more. 

CASTOR  OIL  Emulsions.— Take  castor 
oil  and  syrup,  each  one  ounce ;  the  yolk 
of  an  egg,  and  orange  flower  water,  one- 
half  ounce.  Mix.  This  makes  a  very 
pleasant  emulsion,  which  is  readily  taken 
by  adults  as  well  as  children. 

CATARRH.— Take  the  bark  of  sassa- 
fras root,  dry  and  pound  it,  use  it  as  a 
snuff,  taking  two  or  three  pinches  a  day. 

CHILBLAINS.— Wash  the  parts  in 
strong  alum  water,  apply  as  hot  as  can  be 
borne. 

COLD. — Take  three  cents'  worth  of 
liquorice,  three  of  rock  candy,  three  of 
gum  arabic,  and  put  them  into  a  quart  of 
water;  simmer  them  till  thoroughly  dis- 
solved, then  add  three  cents'  worth  pare- 
goric, and  a  like  quantity  of  antimonial 
wine. 

CORNS. — Boil  tobacco  down  to  an  ex- 
tract, then  mix  with  it  a  quantity  of 
white  pine  pitch,  and  apply  it  to  the  corn; 
renew  it  once  a  week  until  the  corn  dis- 
appears. 

COUGH  Mixture. — Two  ounces  am- 
monia mixture;  five  ounces  camphor 
mixture;  one  drachm  tincture  of  digitalis 
(foxglove) ;  one-half  ounce  each  of  sweet 
spirits  of  nitre  and  syrup  of  poppies;  two- 
drachms  solution  of  sulphate  of  morphia. 
A  tablespoonful  of  this  mixture  is  to  be: 
taken  four  times  a  day. 

2.  Tincture  of  blood-root,  one  ounce ; 
sulphate  of  morphia,  one  and  a  half 
grains;  tinctureof  digitalis,  one-half  ounce; 
wine  of  antimony,  one-half  ounce;  oil  of 
winter-green,  ten  drops.  Mix.  Dose 
from  twenty  to  forty  drops  twice  or  three 
times  a  day.  Excellent  for  a  hard,  dry 
cough. 

3.  Common  sweet  cider,  boiled  down* 
to  one-half,  makes  a  most  excellent  syrup 
for  colds  or  coughs  for  children,  is  pleas- 
ant to  the  taste,  and  wil!  keep  for  a  year 
in  a  cool  cellar.  In  recovering  from  an 
illness,  the  system  has  a  craving  for  some 
pleasant  drink.  This  is  found  in  cider, 
which  is  placed  on  the  fire  as  soon  asf 
made,  and  allowed  to  come  to  a  boil, 
then  cooled,  put  in  casks,  and  kept  in  a 
cool  cellar. 

4.  Roast  a  large  lemon  very  carefully 
without  burning;  when  it  is  thoroughly 
hot,  cut  and  squeeze  into  a  cup  upon 
three  ounces  of  sugar  candy,  finely  pow- 


338 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


dered;  take  a  spoonful  whenever  your 
cough  troubles  you.  It  is  as  good  as  it 
is  pleasant. 

DEAFNESS. — Take  ant's  eggs  and 
onion  juice.  Mix  and  drop  them  into 
the  ear.  Drop  into  the  ear,  at  night,  six 
or  eight  drops  of  hot  sweet  oil. 

DIARRHOEA,  Remedies  for.— i.  Take 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  the  same  of  good 
vinegar,  and  a  tablespoonful  of  water; 
mix  and  drink.  It  acts  like  a  charm  on 
the  system,  and  even  one  dose  will  gen- 
erally cure  obstinate  cases  of  diarrhoea  or 
the  first  stages  of  cholera.  If  the  first 
does  not  bring  complete  relief,  repeat  the 
dose,  as  it  is  quite  harmless.  2.  The 
best  rhubarb  root,  pulverized,  1  ounce ; 
peppermint  leaf,  1  ounce ;  capsicum,  }& 
ounce;  cover  with  boiling  water  and 
steep  thoroughly,  strain,  and  add  bi-car- 
bonate  of  potash  and  essence  of  cinnamon, 
of  each,  y^  ounce;  with  brandy  (or  good 
whisky),  equal  in  amount  to  the  whole, 
and  loaf  sugar,  4  ounces.  Dose — For 
an  adult,  1  or  2  tablespoons ;  for  a  child, 
1  to  2  teaspoons,  from  3  to  6  times  per 
day,  until  relief  is  obtained.  3.  To  half 
a  bushel  of  blackberries,  well  mashed, 
add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  allspice,  2 
ounces  of  cinnamon,  2  ounces  of  cloves; 
pulverize  well,  mix  and  boil  slowly  until 
properly  done ;  then  strain  or  squeeze  the 
juice  through  home-spun  or  flannel,  and 
add  to  each  pint  of  the  juice  1  pound  of 
loaf  sugar,  boil  again  for  some  time,  take 
it  off,  and,  while  cooling,  add  half  a 
gallon  of  the  best  Cognac  brandy. 

DIARRH(EA,  Chronic— Rayer  recom- 
mends the  association  of  cinchona,  char- 
coal and  bismuth  in  the  treatment  of 
chronic  diarrhoea,  in  the  fnllowing  pro- 
portions: Subnitrate  of  bismuth,  one 
drachm;  cinchona,  yellow,  powdered, 
one-half  drachm;  charcoal,  vegetable,  one 
drachm.  Make  twenty  powders  and  take 
two  or  three  a  day  during  the  intervals 
between  meals. 

DYSENTERY,  Cures  for.— Tincture  of 
rhubarb,  tincture  of  capsicum,  tincture  of 
camphor,  essence  of  ginger  and  lauda- 
num, equal  parts.  Mix;  shake  well  and 
take  from  ten  to  twenty  drops  every  thir- 
ty minutes  until  relief  is  obtained.  This 
is  a  dose  for  an  adult.  Half  the  amount 
for  a  child  under  twelve  years  of  age.  2. 
Take  some  butter  off  the  churn,  immedi- 
ately after  being  churned,  just  as  it  is, 


without  being  salted  or  washed ;  clarify  it 
over  the  fire  like  honey.  Skim  off  all  the 
milky  particles  when  melted  over  a  clear 
fire.  Let  the  patient  (if  an  adult)  take 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  the  clarified  remain- 
der, twice  or  thrice  within  the  day.  This 
has  never  failed  to  effect  a  cure,  and  in 
many  cases  it  has  been  almost  instantane- 
ous. 3.  In  diseases  of  this  kind  the  In- 
dians use  the  roots  and  leaves  of  the 
blackberry  bush — a  decoction  of  which 
in  hot  water,  well  boiled  down,  is  taken 
in  doses  of  a  gill  before  each  meal,  and 
before  retiring  to  bed.  It  is  an  almost 
infallable  cure.  4.  Beat  one  egg  in  a  tea- 
cup ;  add  one  tablespoonful  of  loaf  sugar 
and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  ground  spice ; 
fill  the  cup  with  sweet  milk.  Give  the 
patient  one  tablespoonful  once  in  ten 
minutes  until  relieved.  5.  Take  one 
tablespoonful  of  common  salt,  and  mix 
it  with  two  tablespoonsful  of  vinegar  and 
pour  upon  it  a  half-pint  of  water,  either 
hot  or  cold  (only  let  it  be  taken  cool.) 
A  wine-glass  full  of  this  mixture  in  the 
above  proportions,  taken  every  half-hour, 
will  be  found  quite  efficacious  in  curing 
dysentery.  If  the  stomach  be  nauseated, 
a  wine-glass  full  taken  every  hour  will 
suffice.  For  a  child,  the  quantity  should 
be  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  one  of  vin- 
egar in  a  teacupful  of  water. 

DROPSY.— Take  the  leaves  of  a  cur- 
rant bush  and  make  into  a  tea. 

DRUNKENNESS,  Cure  for.— The  fol- 
lowing singular  means  of  curing  habitual 
drunkenness  is  employed  by  a  Russian 
physician,  Dr.  Schreiber,  of  Brzese  Litew- 
ski :  It  consists  in  confining  the  drunk- 
ard in  a  room,  and  in  furnishing  him  at 
discretion  with  his  favorite  spirit  diluted 
with  two-thirds  of  water;  as  much  wine, 
beer  and  coffee  as  he  desires,  but  contain- 
ing one-third  of  spirit ;  all  the  food — the 
bread  meat  and  the  legumes  are  steeped 
in  spirit  and  water.  The  poor  devil  is 
continually  drunk  and  dort.  On  the  fifth 
day  of  this  regime  he  has  an  extreme 
disgust  for  spirit;  he  earnestly  requests 
other  diet;  but  his  desire  must  not  be 
yielded  to,  until  the  poor  wretch  no  longer 
desires  to  eat  or  drink ;  he  is  then  cer- 
tainly cured  of  his  penchant  for  drunken- 
ness. He  acquires  such  a  disgust  for 
brandy  or  other  spirits  that  he  is  ready 
to  vomit  at  the  very  sight  of  it. 

DYSPEPSIA.— 1.  Take  bark  of  white 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       339 


poplar  root,  boil  it  thick  and  add  a  little 
spirit,  and  then  lay  it  on  the  stomach. 

2.  Take  wintergreen  and  black  cherry- 
tree  bark  and  yellow  dock ;  put  into  two 
quarts  of  water;  boil  down  to  three 
pints;  take  two  or  three  glasses  a  day. 

Here  are  two  remedies  for  dyspepsia, 
said  by  those  who  "  have  tried  them  "  to 
be  infallable.  1.  Eat  onions.  2.  Take 
two  parts  of  well-dried  and  pounded  pods 
of  red  pepper,  mixed  with  one  part  of 
ground  .mustard,  and  sift  it  over  every- 
thing you  eat  or  drink. 

EAKACHE,  Cure  for.— Take  a  small 
piece  cf  cotton  batting  or  cotton  wool, 
make  a  depression  in  the  center  with  the 
finger,  and  then  fill  it  up  with  as  much 
ground  pepper  as  will  rest  on  a  five  cent 
piece ;  gather  it  into  a  ball  and  tie  it  up ; 
dip  the  ball  into  sweet  oil  and  insert  it  in 
the  ear,  covering  the  latter  with  cotton 
wool,  and  use  a  bandage  or  cap  to  retain 
it  in  its  place.  Almost  instant  relief  will 
be  experienced  ;  and  the  application  is  so 
gentle  that  an  infant  will  not  get  in- 
jured by  it,  but  experience  relief  as  well 
as  adults.  Roast  a  piece  of  lean  mutton, 
squeeze  out  the  juice  and  drop  it  into  the 
ear  as  hot  as  it  can  be  borne.  Roast  an 
onion  and  put  into  the  ear  as  hot  as  it 
can  be  borne. 

ERYSIPELAS.— Dissolve  five  ounces 
of  salt  in  one  pint  of  good  brandy  and 
take  two  table-spoonfuls  three  times  a 
day. 

EYES,  Inflamed. — Pour  boiling  water 
on  alder  flowers,  and  steep  them  like  tea ; 
when  cold,  put  three  or  four  drops  of 
laudanum  into  a  small  glass  of  the  alder- 
tea,  and  let  the  mixture  run  into  the  eyes 
two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  the  eyes 
will  become  perfectly  strong  in  the  course 
of  a  week. 

EYES,  Weeping. — Wash  the  eyes  in 
chamomile  tea  night  and  morning. 

EYES,  Inflammation,  Granular. —  A 
prominent  oculist  says  that  the  contagious 
Egyptian  or  granular  inflammation  of  the 
eyes  is  spreading  throughout  the  country, 
and  that  he  has  been  able  in  many,  and 
indeed  in  a  majority  of  cases,  to  trace 
the  disease  to  what  are  commonly  called 
rolling  towels.  Towels  of  this  kind  are 
generally  found  in  country  hotels  and  the 
dwellings  of  the  working  classes,  and,  be- 
ing thus  used  by  nearly  every  one,  are 
made  the   carriers  of  one  of  the  most 


troublesome  diseases  of  the  eye.  This 
being  the  case,  it  is  urgently  recommend- 
ed that  the  use  of  these  rolling  towels  be 
discarded,  and  thus  one  of  the  special  ve- 
hicles for  the  spread  of  a  most  dangerous 
disorder  of  the  eyes — one  by  which  thou- 
sands of  workingmen  are  annually  de- 
prived of  their  means  of  support — will  no 
longer  exist. 

EYE,  Cure  for  Stye  in. — Bathe  fre- 
quently with  warm  water.  When  the 
stye  bursts,  use  an  ointment  composed  of 
one  part  of  citron  ointment,  and  four  of 
spermaceti,  well  rubbed  together,  and 
smear  along  the  edge  of  the  eye-lid. 

FELONS,  to  Cure. — 1.  Stir  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  water  into  an  ounce  of 
Venice  turpentine  until  the  mixture  ap- 
pears like  granulated  honey.  Wrap  a 
good  coating  of  it  around  the  finger  with 
a  cloth.  If  the  felon  is  only  recent,  the 
pain  will  be  removed  in  six  hours. 

2.  As  soon  as  the  part  begins  to  swell 
wrap  it  with  a  cloth  saturated  thoroughly 
with  the  tincture  of  lobelia.  An  old  phy- 
sician says,  that  he  has  known  this  to  cure 
scores  of  cases,  and  that  it  never  fails 
if  applied  in  season. 

FEVER  AND  AGUE.— Take  of  cloves 
and  cream  of  tartar  each  one-half  ounce, 
and  one  ounce  of  Peruvian  bark.  Mix 
in  a  small  quantity  of  tea,  and  take  it  on 
well  days,  in  such  quantities  as  the 
stomach  will  bear. 

FEVER  SORES.— Take  of  hoarhound, 
balm,  sarsaparilla,  loaf  sugar,  aloes, 
gum  camphor,  honey,  spikenard,  spirits 
of  turpentine,  each  two  ounces.  Dose, 
one  table-spoonful,  three  mornings,  miss- 
ing three ;  and  tor  a  wash,  make  a  strong 
tea  of  sumach,  washing  the  affected 
parts  frequently,  and  keeping  the  ban- 
dage  well  wet. 

FITS.— Take  of  tincture  of  fox-glove, 
ten  drops  at  each  time  twice  a  day,  and 
increase  one  drop  at  each  time  as  long  as 
the  stomach  will  bear  it,  or  it  causes  a 
nauseous  feeling. 

GLEETS. — Make  of  turpentine  a  four- 
grain  pill,  and  take  three  a  day. 

GLYCERINE,  CREAM.— Receipt  for 
chapped  lips :  Take  of  spermaceti,  four 
drachms;  white  wax,  one  drachm;  oil 
of  almonds,  two  troy  ounces;  glycerine, 
one  troy  ounce.  Melt  the  spermaceti, 
wax,  and  oil  together,  and  when  cooling 
stir  in  the  glycerine  and  perfume. 


340 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


GLYCERINE  LOTION.— For  softening 
the  skin  of  the  face  and  hands,  especially 
during  the  commencement  of  cold  weath- 
er, and  also  for  allaying  the  irritation 
caused  by  the  razor:  Triturate,  four  and 
a  half  grains  of  cochineal  with  one  and 
a  half  fluid  ounces  of  boiling  water,  add- 
ed gradually ;  then  add  two  and  a  half 
fluid  ounces  of  alcohol.  Also  make  an 
emulsion  of  eight  drops  of  ottar  of  roses 
with  thirty  grains  of  gum  arabic  and  eight 
fluid  ounces  of  water  j  then  add  three 
fluid  ounces  of  glycerine,  and  ten  fluid 
drachms  of  quince  mucilage.  Mix  the 
two  liquids. 

GONORRHOEA,  Treatment  o£— Mr.  Mc- 
Donald recommends  the  following :  Smear 
a  bougie  with  ointment  of  the  nitrate  of 
silver  (nitrate  of  silver,  one  drachm ;  to 
lard,  one'  ounce;)  introduce  it  into  the 
urethra  about  three  inches,  and  allow  it  to 
remain  two  or  three  minutes.  Two  or 
three  applications  have  been  found  to 
cure  the  disease. 

GONORRHOEA.— Use  internally  in  the 
acute  stage  the  following :  Tincture  vera- 
trum,  twenty  drops;  gelseminum,  one 
ounce ;  water,  four  ounces.  Dose,  a  tea- 
spoonful  every  two  hours.  As  an  injec- 
tion, use  once  or  twice  daily,  as  the  acute 
stage  is  passing  away,  carbolic  acid,  ten 
grains ;  tannic  acid,  fifteen  grains ;  water 
four  ounces. 

GONORRHOEA,  Injection  (Ricord's).— 
Mix  fifteen  grains  each  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  and  acetate  of  lead,  with  six  and  a 
halt  ounces  rose  water.  Inject  three 
times  a  day. 

FLESHWORMS.— These  specks,  when 
they  exist  in  any  number,  are  a  cause  of 
much  unsightliness.  They  are  minute 
corks,  if  we  may  use  the  term,  of  coagu- 
lated lymph,  which  close  the  orifices  of 
some  of  the  pores  or  exhalent  vessels  of 
the  skin.  On  the  skin  immediately  ad- 
jacent to  them  being  pressed  with  the 
finger  nails,  these  bits  of  coagulated 
lymph  will  come  from  it  in  a  vermicular 
form.  They  are  vulgarly  called  "flesh- 
worms,"  many  persons  fancying  them  to 
be  living  creatures.  These  may  be  got 
rid  of  and  prevented  from  returning,  by 
washing  with  tepid  water,  by  proper  fric- 
tion with  a  towel,  and  by  the  application 
of  a  little  cold  cream.  The  longer  these 
little  piles  are  permitted  to  remain  in  the 
skin  the  more  firmly  they  become  fixed; 


and  after  a  time,  when  they  lose  their 
moisture  they  are  converted  into  lo»g 
bony  spines  as  dense  as  bristles,  and  hav- 
ing much  of  that  character.  They  are 
known  by  the  name  of  spotted  achne. 
With  regard  to  local  treatment,  the  fol- 
lowing lotions  are  calculated  to  be  ser- 
viceable: i.  Distilled  rose  water,  i  pint; 
sulphate  of  zinc,  20  to  60  grains.     Mix. 

2.  Sulphate  of  copper,  20  grains;  rose- 
water,  4  ounces;  water,  12  ounces.    Mix. 

3.  Oil  of  sweet  almonds,  1  ounce ;  fluid 
potash,  1  drachm.  Shake  well  together, 
and  then  add  rose-water,  1  ounce ;  pure 
water  6  ounces.  Mix.  The  mode  of 
using  these  remedies  is  to  rub  the  pim- 
ples for  some  minutes  with  a  rough  tow- 
el, and  then  dab  them  with  the  lotion. 

4.  Wash  the  face  twice  a  day  with  warm 
water,  and  rub  dry  with  a  coarse  towel. 
Then  with  a  soft  towel  rub  in  a  lotion 
made  of  two  ounces  of  white  brandy, 
one  ounce  of  cologne,  and  one  half  ounce 
of  liquor  potassa. 

FRECKLES,  Removal  o£  —  Freckles, 
so  persistently  regular  in  their  annual 
return,  have  annoyed  the  fair  sex  from 
time  immemorial;  and  various  means 
have  been  devised  to  eradicate  them, 
although  thus  far  with  no  decidedly  sat- 
isfactory results.  The  innumerable  rem- 
edies in  use  for  the  removal  of  these 
vexatious  intruders,  are  either  simple  and 
harmless  washes,  such  as  parsley  or  horse- 
radish water,  solutions  of  borax,  etc.,  or 
injurious  nostrums,  consisting  principally 
of  lead  and  mercury  salts. 

If  the  exact  cause  of  freckles  were 
known,  a  remedy  for  them  might  be 
found.  A  chemist  in  Moravia,  observing 
the  bleaching  effect  of  mercurial  prepara- 
tions, inferred  that  the  growth  of  a  lo- 
cal parasitical  fungus  was  the  cause  of 
the  discoloration  of  the  skin,  which  ex- 
tended and  ripened  its  spores  in  the 
warmer  season.  Knowing  that  sulpho- 
carbolate  of  zinc  is  a  deadly  enemy  to 
all  parasitic  vegetation  (itselr  not  being 
otherwise  injurious),  he  applied  this  salt 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  freckles. 
The  compound  consists  of  two  parts  of 
sulpho-carbolate  of  zinc,  twenty-five  parts 
of  distilled  glycerine,  twenty- five  parts 
of  rose-water,  and  five  parts  of  scented 
alcohol,  and  is  to  be  applied  twice  daily 
for  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour,  then 
washed  off  with  cold  water.     Protection 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      341 


against  the  sun  by  veiling  and  other 
means  is  recommended,  and  in  addition, 
for  persons  of  pale  complexion,  some 
mild  preparation  of  iron. 

GRAVEL. — 1.  Make  a  strong  tea  of 
the  low  herb  called  heart's  -  ease,  and 
drink  freely.  2.  Make  of  Jacob's  ladder 
a  strong  tea,  and  drink  freely.  3.  Make 
of  bean  leaves  a  strong  tea,  and  drink 
freely. 

HAIR,  Wash  for. — Castile  soap,  finely 
shaved,  one  teaspoonful ;  spirits  of  harts- 
horn, one  drachm ;  alcohol,  five  ounces ; 
cologne  water  and  bay  rum,  in  equal 
quantities  enough  to  make  eight  ounces. 
This  should  be  poured  on  the  head,  fol- 
lowed by  warm  water  (soft  water) ;  the 
result  will  be,  on  washing,  a  copious 
lather  and  a  smarting  sensation  to  the 
person  operated  on.  Rub  this  well  into 
the  hair.  Finally,  rinse  with  warm  water, 
and  afterwards  with  cold  water.  If  the 
head  is  very  much  clogged  with  dirt,  the 
hair  will  come  out  plentifully,  but  the 
scalp  will  become  white  and  perfecly 
clean. 

HAIR,  Restorative. — Take  of  castor 
oil,  six  fluid  ounces ;  alcohol,  twenty-six 
fluid  ounces.  Dissolve.  Then  add  tinc- 
ture of  cantharides  (made  with  strong 
alcohol),  one  fluid  ounce;  essence  of  jes- 
samine (or  other  perfume)  one  and  a  half 
fluid  ounces. 

HEARTBURN".— Sal  volatile  combined 
with  camphor  is  a  splendid  remedy. 

HEADACHE,  Sick.— Take  a  teaspoon- 
ful of  powdered  charcoal  in  molasses  every 
morning,  and  wash  it  down  with  a  little 
tea,  or  drink  half  a  glass  of  raw  rum  or 
gin,  and  drink  freely  of  Mayweed  tea. 

HEADACHE.— -Dr.  Silvers,  of  Ohio,  in 
the  Philadelphia  Medical  and  Surgical  Re- 
porter, recommends  ergot  in  headache, 
especially  the  nervous  or  sick  headache. 
He  says  it  will  cure  a  larger  proportion 
of  cases  than  any  other  remedy.  His 
theory  of  its  action  is  that  it  lessens  the 
quantity  of  blood  in  the  brain  by  contract- 
ing the  muscular  fibres  of  the  arterial 
walls.  He  gives  ten  to  twenty  drops  of 
the  fluid  extract,  repeated  every  half  hour 
till  relief  is  obtained,  or  four  or  five  doses 
used.  In  other  forms  of  disease,  where 
opium  alone  is  contra- indicated,  its  bad 
effects  are  moderated,  he  says,  by  com- 
bining it  with  ergot. 


HEADACHE  DROPS.— For  the  cure  of 
nervous,  sun,  and  sick  headache,  take  two 
quarts  of  alcohol,  three  ounces  of  Castile 
soap,  one  ounce  camphor,  and  two  ounces 
ammonia.     Bathe  forehead  and  temples. 

HIVE  SYRUP  (Coxe's).  —  Put  one 
ounce  each  of  squills  and  seneca  snake- 
root  into  one  pint  water;  boil  down  to 
one-half  and  strain.  Then  add  one-half 
pound  of  clarified  honey  containing  twelve 
grains  tartrate  of  antimony.  Dose  for  a 
child,  ten  drops  to  one  teaspoonful,  ac- 
cording to  age.  An  excellent  remedy  for 
croup. 

HAIR,  Cleaning  the. — From  the  too 
frequent  use  of  oils  in  the  hair,  many 
ladies  destroy "^the  tone  and  color  of  their 
tresses.  The  Hindoos  have  a  way  of 
remedying  this.  They  take  a  hand  basin 
filled  with  [cold  water,  and  have  ready  a 
small  quantity  of  pea  flour.  The  hair  is 
in  the  first  place  submitted  to  the  opera- 
tion of  being  washed  in  cold  water,  a 
handful  of  the  pea  flour  is  then  applied  to 
the  head  and  rubbed  into  the  hair  for  ten 
minutes  at  least,  the  servant  adding  fresh 
water  at  short  intervals,  until  it  becomes 
a  perfect  lather.  The  whole  head  is  then 
washed  quite  clean  with  copious  supplies 
of  the  aqueous  fluid,  combed,  and  after- 
wards rubbed  dry  by  means  of  coarse 
towels.  The  hard  and  soft  brush  is  then 
resorted  to,  when  the  hair  will  be  found 
to  be  wholly  free  from  all  encumbering 
oils  and  other  impurities,  and  assume  a 
glossy  softness,  equal  to  the  most  delicate 
silk.  This  process  tends  to  preserve  the 
tone  and  natural  color  of  the  hair,  which 
is  so  frequently  destroyed  by  the  too  con- 
stant use  of  caustic  cosmetics. 

HANDS,  to  Soften. — After  cleansing  the 
hands  with  soap,  rub  them  well  with  oat- 
meal while  wet. 

HANDS,  to  Remove  Stains  from. — 
Damp  the  hands  first  in  water,  then  rub 
them  with  tartaric  acid,  or  salt  of  lemons, 
as  you  would  with  soap;  rinse  them  and 
rub  them  dry.  Tartaric  acid,  or  salt  of 
lemons,  will  quickly  remove  stains  from 
white  muslin  or  linens.  Put  less  than 
half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  or  acid  into  a 
table-spoonful  of  water;  wet  the  stain 
with  it,  and  lay  it  in  the  sun  for  an  hour ; 
wet  it  once  or  twice  with  cold  water  dur- 
ing the  time;  if  this  does  not  quite  re- 
move it,  repeat  the  acid  water,  and  lay  it 
in  the  sun. 


342 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


HANDS,  to  Whiten.— i.  Stir  ^  of  a 
pound  of  Castile  soap,  and  place  it  in  a 
jar  near  the  fire,  pour  over  it  ^  pint  of 
alcohol;  when  the  soap  is  dissolved  and 
mixed  with  the  spirit,  add  i  ounce  of  gly- 
cerine, the  same  of  oil  of  almonds,  with  a 
few  drops  of  essence  of  violets,  or  ottar  of 
roses,  then  pour  it  into  moulds  to  cool  for 
use.  2.  A  wine  glassful  of  eau-de-cologne, 
and  one  of  lemon-juice,  two  cakes  of 
brown  Windsor  soap,  mixed  well  together, 
when  hard,  will  form  an  excellent  sub- 
stance. 

HEAT),  Scurf  in.  —  A  simple  and 
effectual  remedy.  Into  a  pint  of  water 
drop  a  lump  of  fresh  quick  lime,  the  size 
of  a  walnut ;  let  it  stand  all  night,  then 
pour  the  water  off  clear  from  the  sedi- 
ment or  deposit,  add  ^  of  a  pint  of  the 
best  vinegar,  and  wash  the  head  with  the 
mixture.  Perfectly  harmless;  only  wet 
the  roots  of  the  hair. 

LIPS,  Chapped. — Take  2  ounces  of 
white  wax,  1  ounce  of  spermaceti,  4  ounces 
of  oil  of  almonds,  2  ounces  of  honey,  J/ 
of  an  ounce  of  essence  of  bergamot,  or 
any  other  scent.  Melt  the  wax  and 
spermaceti;  then  add  the  honey*  and 
melt  all  together,  and  when  hot  add  the 
almond  oil  by  degrees,. stirring  till  cold. 
2.  Take  oil  of  almonds  3  ounces ;  sperma- 
ceti, Yz  ounce;  virgin  rice,  y^  ounce. 
Melt  these  together  over  a  slow  fire,  mix- 
ing with  them  a  little  powder  of  alkane 
root  to  color  it.  Keep  stirring  till  cold, 
and  then  add  a  few  drops  of  the  oil  of 
rhodium.  3.  Take  oil  of  almonds,  sperma- 
ceti, white  wax,  and  white  sugar  candy, 
equal  parts.  These  form  a  good,  white 
lip  salve. 

MOTH  PATCHES,  to  Eemove.— Wash 
the  patches  with  solution  of  common  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  and  water  several  times 
during  the  day  for  two  days,  or  until  the 
patches  are  removed,  which  will  usually  be 
in  forty-eight  hours.  After  the  process 
wash  with  some  nice  toilet  soap,  and  the 
skin  will  be  left  nice,  smooth  and  clear  of 
patches. 

NAILS,  the  Care  of— The  nails  should 
be  kept  clean  by  the  daily  use  of  the  nail 
brush  and  soap  and  water.  After  wiping 
the  hands,  but  while  they  are  still  soft  from 
the  action  of  the  water,  gently  push  back 
the  skin  which  is  apt  to  grow  over  the 
nails,  which  will  not  oniy  preserve  them 
neatly  rounded,  but  will  prevent  the  skin 


cracking  around  their  roots  (nail  springs), 
and  becoming  sore.  The  points  of  the 
nails  should  be  pared  at  least  once  a 
week;  biting  them  should  be  avoided. 

HICCOUGH. — A  convulsive  motion  of 
the  diaphragm  and  parts  adjacent.  The 
common  causes  are  flatulency,  indigestion, 
acidity,  and  worms.  It  may  usually  be 
removed  by  the  exhibition  of  warm  car- 
minatives, cordials,  cold  water,  weak 
spirits,  camphor  julep,  or  spirits  of  sal 
volatile.  A  sudden  fright  or  surprise  will 
often  produce  the  like  effect.  An  instance 
is  recorded  of  a  delicate  young  lady  that 
was  troubled  with  hiccough  for  some 
months,  and  who  was  reduced  to  a  state 
of  extreme  debility  from  the  loss  of  sleep 
occasioned  thereby,  who  was  cured  by  a 
fright,  after  medicines  and  topical  appli- 
cations had  failed.  A  pinch  of  snuff,  a 
glass  of  cold  soda-water,  or  an  ice-cream, 
will  also  frequently  remove  this  com- 
plaint. 

HOARSENESS.— Make  a  strong  tea  of 
horse-radish  and  yellow  dock  roots, 
sweeten  with  honey  and  drink  freely. 

HOARSENESS,  Remedies  for.— Take 
one  drachm  of  freshly  scraped  horse- 
radish root,  to  be  infused  with  four  ounces 
of  water  in  a  close  vessel  for  three  hours, 
and  made  into  a  syrup,  with  double  its 
quantity  of  vinegar.  A  teaspoonful  has 
often  proved  effectual. 

HUMORS. — Take  equal  parts  of  saffron 
and  seneca  snake  root,  make  a  strong 
tea,  drink  one-half  pint  a  day,  and  this 
will  drive  out  all  humors  from  the  system. 

HYSTERICS.— Take  the  leaves  of 
motherwort  and  thoroughwort,  and  the 
bark  of  poplar  root,  equal  parts.  Mix 
them  in  molasses,  and  take  four  of  them 
when  the  first  symptoms  of  disorder  are 
felt,  and  they  will  effectually  check  it. 

ITCH,  Barber's. — Moisten  the  parts 
affected  with  saliva  (spittle)  and  rub  it 
over  thoroughly  three  times  a  day  with 
the  ashes  of  a  good  Havana  cigar.  This 
is  a  simple  remedy,  but  yet  it  has  cured 
the  most  obstinate  cases. 

ITCH,  Ointment. — 1.  Take  lard,  one 
pound ;  suet,  one  pound ;  sugar  of  lead, 
eight  ounces;  vermillion,  two  ounces. 
Mix.  Scent  with  a  little  bergamot.  2. 
Take  bichloride  of  mereury,  one  ounce; 
lard,  one  pound;  suet,  one  pound;  hydro- 
chloride acid,  one  and  a  half  ounces. 
Melt  and  well  mix,  and  when  perfectly 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       343. 


cold,  stir  in  essence  cf  lemon,  four 
drachms;  essence  of  bergamot,  one 
drachm.  3.  Take  powdered  chloride  of 
lime,  one  ounce;  lard,  one  pound.  Mix 
well,  then  add  essence  of  lemon,  two 
drachms.  4.  Take  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury, one  part  ;  lard,  fifteen  parts.  Mix 
well  together.  5.  Take  white  precipitate, 
one  part;  lard,  twelve  parts.  Mix.  A 
portion  of  either  of  these  ointments  must 
be  well  rubbed  on  the  parts  affected, 
night  and  morning. 

ITCH,  Seven-year,  to  Cure. — u  Use 
plenty  of  Castile  soap  and  water,  and 
then  apply  freely  iodide  of  sulphur  oint- 
ment; or  take  any  given  quantity  of 
simple  sulphur  ointment  and  color  it  to  a 
light  brown  or  chocolate  color  with  the 
subcarbonate  of  iron,  and  then  perfume 
it.  Apply  this  freely,  and  if  the  case 
should  be  a  severe  one,  administer  mild 
alteratives  in  conjunction  with  the  out- 
ward application.  2.  The  sulphur  bath 
is  a  good  remedy  for  itch  or  any  other 
kind  of  skin  diseases.  Leprosy  (the  most 
obstinate  of  all)  has  been  completely 
cured  by  it,  and  the  common  itch  only 
requires  two  or  three  applications  to  com- 
pletely eradicate  it  from  the  system.  3. 
Benzine,  it  is  said,  will  effect  a  complete 
cure  tor  scabies  in  the  course  of  half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  hour,  after  which  the 
patient  should  take  a  warm  bath  from 
twenty  to  thirty  minutes. 

JAUNDICE.— 1.  Take  the  whites  of 
two  hen's  eggs,  beat  them  up  well  in  a 
gill  of  water ;  take  of  this  a  little  every 
morning;  it  will  soon  do  good.  It  also 
creates  an  appetite,  and  strengthens  the 
stomach.  2.  Take  of  black  cherry-tree 
bark,  two  ouuces ;  blood  root  and  gold 
thread,  each  half  an  ounce;  put  in  a 
pint  of  brandy.  Dose,  from  a  teaspoon- 
ful  to  a  tablespoonful  morning  and  night. 

JOINTS,  Stiffened.— Take  of  the  bark 
of  white  oak  and  sweet  apple  trees,  equal 
parts;  boil  them  down  to  a  thick  sub- 
stance, and  then  add  the  same  quantity 
of  goose-grease  or  oil,  simmer  all  together, 
and  then  rub  it  on  the  parts  warm. 

KIDNEYS,  Diseases  of.— Equal  parts 
of  the  oil  of  red  cedar  and  the  oil  of 
spearmint. 

LAME  BACK.— Take  the  berries  of 
red  cedar  and  allow  them  to  simmer  in 
neatsfoot  oil.  and  use  as  an  ointment. 


LICE,  To  KilL— All  kinds  of  lice  and 
their  nits  may  be  got  rid  of  by  washing 
with  a  simple  decoction  of  stavesacre 
{Delphinium  staphisagria),  or  with  a  lotion 
made  with  the  bruised  seed  in  vinegar,  or 
with  the  tincture,  or  by  rubbing  in  a- 
salve  made  with  the  seeds  and  four  times 
their  weight  of  lard  very  carefully  beaten 
together.  The  acetic  solution  and  the 
tincture  are  the  cleanliest  and  most  agree- 
able preparations,  but  all  are  equally  effi- 
cacious in  destroying  both  the  creatures 
and  their  eggs,  and  even  in  relieving  the 
intolerable  itching  which  their  casual 
presence  leaves  behind  on  many  sensitive 
skins.  The  alkaloid  delphinia  may  also 
be  employed,  but  possesses  no  advantage 
except  in  the  preparation  of  an  ointment, 
when  from  any  reason  that  form  of  ap- 
plication should  be  preferred. 

LINIMENT,  Rheumatic. — Olive  oil, 
spirits  of  camphor  and  chloroform,  of 
each  two  ounces ;  sassafras  oil,  1  drachm. 
Add  the  oil  of  sassafras  to  the  olive  oil, 
then  the  spirits  of  camphor,  and  shake 
well  before  putting  in  the  chloroform; 
shake  when  used,  and  keep  it  corked,  asj 
the  chloroform  evaporates  very  fast  if  it 
is  left  open.  Apply  three  or  four  times 
daily,  rubbing  in  well,  and  always  toward 
the  body. 

LEIlJDXT,  Sore  Throat. — Gum  cam- 
phor, two  ounces;  castile  soap,  shaved 
fine,  one  drachm ;  oil  of  turpentine  and 
oil  of  origanum,  each  one-half  ounce; 
opium,  one-fourth  of  an  ounce ;  alcohol, 
one  pint.  In  a  week  or  ten  days  they 
will  be  fit  for  use.  Bathe  the  parts  freely 
two  or  three  times  daily  until  relief  is  ob- 
tained. 

LINIMENT,  Wonderful. — Two  ounces 
oil  of  spike,  two  ounces  origanum,  two 
ounces  hemlock,  two  ounces  wormwood,1 
four  ounces  sweet  oil,  two  ounces  spirit 
of  ammonia,  two  ounces  gum  camphor, 
two  ounces  spirits  turpentine.  Add  one 
quart  strong  alcohol.  Mix  well  together, 
and  bottle  tight.  This  is  an  unequaled 
horse  liniment,  and  of  the  best  ever  made 
for  human  ailments  such  as  rheumatism, 
sprains,  etc. 

LIPS,  SOKE— Wash  the  lips  with  a 
strong  tea,  made  from  the  bark  of  the 
white  oak. 

LIVER  COMPLAINT. — Make  a  strong 
tea  of  syrup  of  burdock,  wormwood  and 
dandelion,  equal  parts,  and  drink  freely. 


344 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


LOCK-JAW.— It  is  said  that  the  appli- 
cation of  warm  lie,  made  of  ashes  as 
strong  as  possible,  to  a  wounded  part, 
will  prevent  a  locked  jaw ;  if  a  foot  or 
hand,  immersed  in  it ;  if  another  part  of 
the  body,  bathe  with  flannels  wrung  out 
of  the  warm  lye.  '^ 

MUMPS. — This  disease,  most  common 
among  children,  begins  with  soreness  and 
stiffness  in  the  side  of  the  neck.  Soon  a 
swelling  of  the  parotid  gland  takes  place, 
which  is  painful,  and  continues  to  in- 
crease for  four  or  five  days,  sometimes 
making  it  difficult  to  swallow,  or  open  the 
mouth.  The  swelling  sometimes  comes 
on  one  side  at  a  time,  but  commonly  upon 
both.  There  is  often  heat  and  sometimes 
fever,  with  a  dry  skin,  quick  pulse,  furred 
tongue,  constipated  bowels,  and  scanty 
and  high-colored  urine.  The  disease  is 
contagious.  The  treatment  is  very  sim- 
ple— a  mild  diet,  gentle  laxative,  occa- 
sional hot  fomentations,  and  wearing  a 
piece  of  flannel  round  the  throat. 

NAILS,  to  Prevent  Growing  into  the 
Toe. — If  the  nail  of  your  toe  be  hard, 
^.nd  apt  to  grow  round,  and  into  the  cor- 
ners of  your  toe,  take  a  piece  of  broken 
glass  and  scrape  the  top  very  thin ;  do  this 
whenever  you  cut  your  nails,  and  by  con- 
stant use,  it  makes  the  corners  fly  up  and 
grow  flat,  so  that  it  is  impossible  they 
ishould  give  you  any  pain. 

NAILS,  to  Whiten.— The  best  wash  for 
whitening  the  nails  is  two  drachms  of  di- 
luted sulphuric  acid,  one  drachm  of  tinc- 
ture of  myrrh,  added  to  four,  ounces  of 
spring  water ;  first  cleanse  the  hands,  and 
then  apply  the  wash. 

NEUBALGIA,  'Jure  for— i.  Fill  a 
tight-top  thimble  with  cotton  wool,  and 
drop  on  it  a  few  drops  of  strong  spirits 
of  hartshorn.  The  open  mouth  of  the 
thimble  is  then  applied  over  the  seat  of 
pain  for  a  minute  or  two,  until  the  skin  is 
blistered  The  skin  is  then  rubbed  off, 
and  upon  the  denuded  surface  a  small 
quantity  of  morphia  (one-fourth  grain)  is 
applied  This  affords  almost  instant  re- 
lief. A  second  application  of  the  mor- 
phia, if  required,  is  to  be  preceded  by 
first  rubbing  off  the  new  formation  that 
has  sprung  ud  over  ^e  former  blistered 
surface. 

2.  Dr.  J.  Knox  Hodge  recommends 
the  following  as  an  application  which 
will  relieve  facial  or  any  other  neuralgia 


almost  instantaneously :  Albumen  of  egg, 
one  drachm ;  rhigolene,  four  ounces ;  oil 
of  peppermint,  two  ounces;  collodion 
and  chloroform,  each  one  ounce.  Mix. 
Agitate  occasionlly  for  twenty-four  hours, 
and  by  gelatinization  a  beautiful  and 
semi-solidified,  opodeldoc-looking  com- 
pound results,  which  will  retain  its  con- 
sistency and  hold  the  ingredients  inti- 
mately blended  for  months.  Apply  by 
smart  friction  with  the  hand,  or  gently 
with  a  soft  brush  or  moo  along  the  course 
of  the  nerve  involved. 

3.  Mix  one  and  one-half  drachms  io- 
dide of  potash,  fifteen  grains  of  quinine, 
one  ounce  ginger  syrup,  and  two  and  a 
half  ounces  water.  Dose,  a  tablespoon- 
ful  every  three  hours. 

4.  Of  the  Stomach.— Take  of  distilled 
water  of  cherry  laurel,  five  parts ;  muri- 
ate of  morphia,  one-tenth  part.  Mix 
and  dissolve.  One  drop  on  a  lump  of 
sugar  immediately  before  meals. 

OINTMENT,  for  Sore  Nipples.— Glyce- 
rine, rose-water  and  tannin,  equal  weights, 
rubbed  together  into  an  ointment,  is  very 
highly  recommended  for  sore  or  cracked 
nipples. 

OINTMENT,  Glycerine.— Melt  togeth- 
er spermaceti,  two  drachms ;  white  wax, 
one-half  drachm;  oil  of  sweet  almonds, 
two  ounces,  and  then  add  glycerine  one 
ounce  and  stir  briskly  until  cool.  An 
admirable  application  for  chanped  hands, 
etc. 

OINTMENT,  for  Itch.— White  precipi- 
tate, fifteen  grains;  saltpetre,  one-half 
drachm;  flour  of  sulphur,  one  drachm. 
Mix  well  with  lard,  two  ounces.  Long 
celebrated  for  the  cure  of  itch. 

OINTMENT,  Sulphur.— Flour  of  sta- 
phur,  eight  ounces ;  oil  of  bergamot,  two 
drachms;  lard,  one  pound.  Rub  freely 
three  times  a  day,  for  itch. 

OINTMENT,  for  Piles.— Tannin,  two 
drachms;  water,  two  fluid  drachms; 
triturate  together,  and  add  lard,  one  and 
a  half  drachms.  An  excellent  applica- 
tion for  piles. 

OINTMENT,  for  Hemorrhoids.— Sul- 
phate of  morphia,  three  grains;  extract 
of  stramonia,  thirty  grains ;  olive  oil,  one 
drachm ;  carbonate  of  lead,  sixty  grains ; 
lard,  three  drachms. 

PAINS. — 1.  Steep  mangold  in  good 
cider  vinegar   and  frequently  wash  the 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       34S 


affected   parts.     This   will  afford  speedy 
relief. 

2.  Take  half  a  pound  of  tar  and  the 
same  quantity  of  tobacco,  and  boil  them 
down  separately  to  a  thick  substance; 
then  simmer  them  together.  Spread  a 
plaster  and  apply  it  to  the  affected 
parts,  and  it  will  afford  immediate  relief. 

PAINTERS'  COLIC— Make  of  tartaric 
acid  a  syrup  similar  to  that  of  lemon 
syrup ;  add  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water, 
and  drink  two  or  three  glasses  a  day. 

PAIN-KILLER,  Instantaneous.  —  An- 
other and  even  more  instant  cure  of 
pain  is  made  as  follows:  Take  aqua- 
ammonia,  sulphuric  ether,  and  alcohol, 
equal  parts,  and  apply  over  the  pain. 

PIMPLES. — Take  a  teaspoonful  of  the 
tincture  of  gum  guaiacum,  and  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  vinegar;  mix  well  and  apply 
it  to  the  affected  parts. 

PLASTER,  Poor  Man's.— Melt  togeth- 
er beeswax,  "one  ounce ;  tar,  three  ounces ; 
resin,  three  ounces ;  and  spread^  on  paper 
or  muslin. 

PLASTER,  Rheumatic.  —  One-fourth 
pound  of  resin,  and  one-fourth  pound  of 
sulphur;  melt  by  a  slow  fire,  and  add 
one  ounce  of  Cayenne  pepper,  and  one- 
fourth  of  an  ounce  of  camphor  gum; 
stir  well  till  mixed,  and  temper  with  neats- 
foot  oil. 

PLASTER,  Strengthening. — Litharge 
plaster,  twenty-four  parts;  white  resin, 
six  parts;  yellow  wax  and  olive  oil,  of 
■each  three  parts ;  and  red  oxide  of  iron, 
eight  parts.  Let  the  oxide  be  rubbed 
with  the  oil,  and  the  other  ingredients 
added  melted,  and  mix  the  whole  well 
together.  The  plaster,  after  being  spread 
over  the  leather,  should  be  cut  into 
strips  two  inches  wide,  and  strapped  firm- 
ly around  the  joint. 

PLASTERS,  Mustard. — It  is  stated 
that  in  making  a  mustard  plaster,  no 
water  whatever  should  be  used,  but  the 
mustard  mixed  with  the  white  of  an 
egg;  the  result  will  be  a  plaster  that 
will  "draw"  perfectly,  but  will  not  pro- 
duce a  blister  even  upon  the  skin  of  an 
infant,  no  matter  how  long  it  is  allowed 
to  remain  upon  the  part. 

POULTICE,  Bread  and  Milk.— Take  stale 
bread  in  crumbs,  pour  boiling  sweet  milk, 
or  milk  and  water  over  it,  and  simmer 
till  soft,  stirring  it  well;  then  take  it 
from    the    fire,    and  gradually   stir  in  a 


little   glycerine    or  sweet    oil,  so  as  to 
render  the  poultice  pliable  when  applied. 

POULTICE,  Linseed.— Take  of  linseed, 
powdered,  four  ounces;  hot  water  suffi- 
cient, mix  and  stir  well  with  a  spoon, 
until  of  suitable  consistence.  A  little  oil 
should  be  added,  and  some  smeared  over 
the  surface  as  well,  to  prevent  its  get- 
ting hard.  A  very  excellent  poultice, 
suitable  for  many  purposes. 

POULTICE,  Spice. — Powdered  cinna- 
mon, cloves  and  Cayenne  pepper,  of 
each  two  ounces;  rye  meal,  or  flour, 
spirits  and  honey,  of  each  sufficient  to 
make  of  suitable  consistence. 

QUINSY. — This  is  an  inflammation  of 
the  tonsils,  or  common  inflammatory 
sore  throat;  commences  with  a  slight 
feverish  attack,  with  considerable  pain 
and  swelling  of  the  tonsils,  causing  some 
difficulty  in  swallowing;  as  the  attack 
advances  these  symptoms  become  more 
intense,  there  is  headache,  thirst,  a  pain- 
ful sense  of  tension,  and  acute  darting 
pains  in  the  ears.  The  attack  is  generally 
brought  on  by  exposure  to  cold,  and 
lasts  from  five  to  seven  days,  when  it 
subsides  naturally,  or  an  abscess  may 
form  in  tonsil  and  burst,  or  the  tonsil 
may  remain  enlarged,  the  inflammation 
subsiding. 

Treatment. — The  patient  should  re- 
main in  a  warm  room,  the  diet  chiefly 
milk  and  good  broths,  some  cooling  lax- 
ative and  diaphoretic  medicine  may  be 
given ;  but  the  greatest  relief  will  be  found 
in  the  frequent  inhalation  of  the  steam 
of  hot  water  through  an  inhaler,  or  in 
the  old-fashioned  way  through  the  spout 
of  a  tea-pot. 

RHEUMATISM,  Other  Remedies  for.— 

1.  Bathe  the  parts  affected  with  water  in 
which  potatoes  have  been  boiled,  as  hot 
as  can  be  borne,  just  before  going  to 
bed;  by  the  next  morning  it  will  be 
much  relieved,  if  not  removed.  One  ap- 
plication of  this  simple  remedy  has  cured 
the  most  obstinate  of  rheumatic  pains. 

2.  Half  an  ounce  of  pulverized  saltpetre 
put  in  half  a  pint  of  sweet  oil;  bathe  the 
parts  affected,  and  a  sound  cure  will  be 
speedily  effected.  3.  Rheumatism  has 
frequently  been  cured  by  a  persistent  use 
of  lemon-juice,  either  undiluted  or  in  the 
form  of  lemonade.  Suck  half  a  lemon 
every  morning  before  breakfast,  and  oc- 
casionally during  the    day,    and  partake 


346 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


of  lemonade  when  thirsty  in  preference 
to  any  other  drink.  If  severely  afflict- 
ed, a  physician  should  be  consulted;  but, 
in  all  cases,  lemon-juice  will  hasten  the 
cure.  4.  By  the  valerian  bath,  made 
simply  by  taking  one  pound  of  valerian 
root,  boiling  it  gently  for  about  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  in  one  gallon  of  water, 
straining  and  adding  the  strained  liquid 
to  about  twenty  gallons  of  water  in  an 
ordinary  bath.  The  temperature  should 
be  about  ninety-eight  degrees,  and  the 
time  of  immersion  from  twenty  minutes 
to  half  an  hour.  Pains  must  be  taken 
to  dry  the  patient  perfectly  upon  getting 
out  of  the  bath.  If  the  inflammation  re- 
main refractory  in  any  of  the  joints,  lin- 
seed meal  poultices  should  be  made  with 
a  strong  decoction  of  valerian  root,  and 
applied. 

RING-WORM,  To  Cure.— To  one  part 
sulphuric  acid,  add  sixteen  to  twenty 
parts  water.  Use  a  brush  and  feather, 
and  apply  it  to  the  parts  night  and  morn- 
ing. A  few  dressings  will  generally  cure. 
If  the  solution  is  too  strong  and  causes 
pain,  dilute  it  with  water,  and  if  the  irri- 
tation is  excessive,  rub  on  a  little  oil  or 
other  softening  application,  but  always 
avoid  the  use  of  soap. 

Or,  wash  the  head  with  soft  soap  every 
morning,  and  apply  the  following  lotion 
every  night :  One-half  drachm  of  sub- 
carbonate  of  soda  dissolved  in  one  gill  of 
vinegar. 

SALVE,  Healing. — Sweet  oil,  three 
quarts;  resin,  three  ounces;  beeswax, 
three  ounces.  Melt  together ;  then  add 
powdered  red  lead,  two  pounds ;  heat  all 
these  together  and  when  nearly  cold 
add  a  piece  of  camphor  as  large  as  a 
nutmeg.     Good  for  burns,  etc. 

SALT  RHEUM. — 1.  Make  a  strong  tea 
of  elm  root  bark ;  drink  the  tea  freely, 
and  wash  the  affected  part  in  the  same. 
2.  Take  one  ounce  of  blue  flag  root,  steep 
it  in  half  a  pint  of  gin  ;  take  a  teaspoon- 
ful  three  times  a  day,  morning,  noon  and 
night,  and  wash  with  the  same.  3.  Take 
one  ounce  of  oil  of  tar,  one  drachm  of 
oil  of  checker  berry;  mix.  Take  from 
five  to  twenty  drops  moining  and  night, 
as  the  stomach  will  bear. 

STOMACH,  Bleeding  of  the.— Take  a 
teaspoonful  of  camomile  tea  every  ten 
minutes  until  the  bleeding  stops. 

STOMACH,  Sickness  of.— Drink  three 


or  four  times  a  day  of  the  steep  made 
from  the  bark  of  white  poplar  roots. 

SUNBURN  AND  TAN.— 1.  Take  two- 
drachms  of  borax,  one  drachm  of  Roman 
alum,  one  drachm  of  camphor,  half  an 
ounce  of  sugar  candy,  and  a  pound  of 
ox-gall.  Mix,  and  stir  well  for  ten 
minutes  or  so,  and  repeat  this  stirring 
three  or  four  times  a  day  for  a  fortnight, 
till  it  appears  clear  and  transparent. 
Strain  through  blotting  paper,  and  bottle 
up  for  use.  2.  Milk  of  almonds  made 
thus:  Take  of  blanched  bitter  almonds 
half  an  *©unce,  soft  water  half  a  pint ; 
make  an  emulsion  by  beating  the  almonds 
and  water  together,  strain  through  a 
muslin  cloth,  and  it  is  made.  3.  A  prep- 
aration composed  of  equal  parts  of  olive 
oil  and  lime  water  is  also  an  excellent 
remedy  for  sunburn. 

SWEAT,  To  Produce.— Take  of  nitre, 
one-half  drachm;  snake's  head  (herb), 
saffron,  camphor,  snake-root,  seneca,  bark 
of  sassafras  root,  each  one  ounce ;  ipecac, 
and  opium,  each  one-half  ounce ;  put 
the  above  in  three  quarts  of  Holland  gin, 
and  take  a  tablespoonful  in  catnip  tea 
every  few  minutes,  till  a  sweat  is  pro- 
duced. 

TEETHING.— Young  children   whilst 
cutting  their  first  set  of  teeth  often  suffer 
severe  constitutional  disturbance.  At  first 
there  is  restlessness  and  peevishness,  with 
slight  fever,  but  not  unfrequently  these 
are  followed  by  convulsive  fits,  as  they 
are  commonly  called,  which  depend  on 
the  brain  becoming  irritated ;  and  some- 
times under  this   condition  the  child  is 
either  cut  off  suddenly,  or  the  foundation 
of  serious  mischief  to  the  brain  is  laid. 
The  remedy,   or    rather  the  safeguard, 
against   these    frightful  consequences   is 
trifling,  safe,  and  almost  certain,  and  con- 
sists merely  in  lancing  the  gum  covering 
the    tooth    which    is    making    its    way 
through.     When  teething  is  about  it  may 
be  known  by  the  spittle  constantly  drivel- 
ing from  the  mouth  and  wetting  the  frock. 
The  child    has   its   fingers   often   in   its 
mouth,  and  bites  hard  any  substance  it 
can  get  hold  of.    If  the  gums  be  carefully 
looked  at,  the  part  where  the  tooth  is 
pressing  up  is  swollen  and  redder  than 
usual ;  and  if  the  finger  be  pressed  on  it 
the  child  shrinks  and  cries,  showing  that 
the  gum  is  tender.    When  these  symptoms 
occur,  the   gum   should  be  lanced,  and 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       347 


sometimes  the  tooth  comes  through  the 
next  day,  if  near  the  surface ;  but  if  not 
so  far  advanced  the  cut  heals  and  a  scar 
forms,  which  is  thought  by  some  objec- 
tionable, as  rendering  the  passage  of  the 
tooth  more  difficult.  This,  however,  is 
untrue,  for  the  scar  will  give  way  much 
more  easily  than  the  uncut  gum.  If  the 
tooth  does  not  come  through  after  two  or 
three  days,  the  lancing  may  be  repeated ; 
and  this  is  more  especially  needed  if  the 
child  be  very  fractious,  and  seem  in  much 
pain.  Lancing  the  gums  is  further  ad- 
vantageous, because  it  empties  the  in- 
flamed part  of  its  blood,  and  so  relieves 
the  pain  and  inflammation.  The  relief 
children  experience  in  the  course  of  two 
or  three  hours  from  the  operation  is  often 
very  remarkable,  as  they  almost  immedi- 
ately become  lively  and  cheerful. 

TEETH  AND  GUMS,  Wash  for.— The 
teeth  should  be  washed  night  and  morn- 
ing, a  moderately  small  and  soft  brush 
being  used;  after  the  morning  ablution 
pour  on  a  second  tooth-brush,  slighly 
damped,  a  little  of  the  following  lotion: 
Carbolic  acid,  20  drops ;  spirit  of  wine,  2 
drachms;  distilled  water,  6  ounces.  After 
using  this  lotion  for  a  short  time  the 
gums  become  firmer  and  less  tender,  and 
impurity  of  the  breath  (which  is  most 
commonly  caused  by  bad  teeth),  will  be 
removed.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  use 
hard  tooth-brushes,  or  to  brush  the  teeth 
until  the  gums  bleed. 

TETTER.— After  a  slight  feverish  at- 
tack, lasting  two  or  three  days,  clusters 
of  small,  transparent  pimples,  filled  some- 
times with  a  colorless,  sometimes  with  a 
brownish  lymph,  appear  on  the  cheeks  or 
forehead,  or  on  the  extremities,  and  at 
times  on  the  body.  The  pimples  are 
about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  break  after  a 
few  days,  when  a  brown  or  yellow  crust 
is  formed  over  them,  which  falls  off  about 
the  tenth  day,  leaving  the  skin  red  and 
irritable.  The  eruption  is  attended  with 
heat,  itching,  tingling,  fever  and  restless- 
ness, especially  at  night.  Ringworm  is  a 
curious  form  of  tetter,  in  which  the 
inflamed  patches  assume  the  form  of  a 
ring. 

Treatment — Should  consist  of  light 
diet,  and  gentle  laxatives.  If  the  patient 
be  advanced  in  life,  and  feeble,  a  tonic 
will  be  desirable.  For  a  wash,  white 
vitriol,   one   drachm;    rose-water,   three 


ounces,  mixed;  or  an  ointment  made  of 
alder-flower  ointment,  one  ounce;  oxide 
of  zinc,  one  drachm. 

TAN,  to  Remove. — Tan  may  be  re- 
moved from  the  face  by  mixing  magnesia 
in  soft  water  to  the  consistency  of  paste, 
which  should  then  be  spread  on  the  face 
and  allowed  to  remain  a  minute  or  two. 
Then  wash  off  with  Castile  soap  suds,  and 
rinse  with  soft  water. 

TEETH,  Care  of.— The  mouth  has  a 
temperature  of  980,  warmer  than  is  ever 
experienced  in  the  shade  in  the  latitude 
of  New  England.  It  is  well  known  that 
if  beef,  for  example,  be  exposed  in  the 
shade  during  the  warmest  of  our  summer 
days,  it  will  very  soon  decompose.  If  we 
eat  beef  for  dinner,  the  particles  invari- 
ably find  their  way  into  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  teeth.  Now,  if  these  particles 
of  beef  are  not  removed,  they  will  fre- 
quently remain  till  they  are  softened  by 
decomposition.  In  most  mouths  this 
process  of  decomposition  is  in  constant 
progress.  Ought  we  to  be  surprised  that 
the  gums  and  teeth  against  which  these 
decomposing  or  putrefying  masses  lie 
should  become  subjects  of  disease  ? 

How  shall  our  teeth  be  preserved  ? 
The  answer  is  very  simple — keep  them 
clean !  How  shall  they  be  kept  clean  ? 
Answer — By  a  toothpick,  rinsing  with 
water,  and  the  daily  use  of  a  brush. 

The  toothpick  should  be  a  quill,  not 
because  the  metallic  picks  injure  the 
enamel,  but  because  the  quill  pick  is  so 
flexible  it  fits  into  all  the  irregularities  be- 
tween the  teeth. 

Always  after  using  the  toothpick  the 
mouth  should  be  thoroughly  rinsed.  If 
warm  water  be  not  at  hand,  cold  may  be 
used,  although  the  warm  is  much  better. 
Closing  the  lips,  with  a  motion  familiar  to 
all,  everything  may  be  thoroughly  rinsed 
from  the  mouth. 

Every  morning  (on  rising),  and  every 
evening  (on  going  to  bed),  the  tooth- 
brush should  be  used,  and  the  teeth,  both 
outside  and  inside,  thoroughly  brushed. 

Much  has  been  said,  pro  and^w.,  upoa 
the  use  of  soap  with  the  tooth-brush.  My 
own  experience  and  the  experience  of 
members  of  my  family  is  highly  favorable 
to  the  regular  morning  and  evening  use  or 
soap.  Castile  or  other  good  soap  will 
answer  this  purpese.  (Whatever  is  good 
for  the  hands  and  face  is  good  for  the 


.348 


HOME  DOCTOR. 


teeth.)  The  slightly  unpleasant  taste 
which  soap  has  when  we  begin  to  use  it 
will  soon  be  unnoticed. 

TOOTH  POWDERS.— Many  persons, 
while  laudably  attentive  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  their  teeth,  do  them  harm  by  too 
much  officiousness.  They  daily  apply  to 
them  some  dentifrice  powder,  which  they 
rub  so  hard  as  not  only  to  injure  the  enamel 
by  .excessive  friction,  but  to  hurt  the  gums 
even  more  than  by  the  abuse  of  the  tooth- 
pick. The  quality  of  some  of  the  denti- 
frice powders  advertised  in  newspapers  is 
•extremely  suspicious,  and  there  is  reason 
to  think  that  they  are  not  altogether  free 
from  a  corrosive  ingredient.  One  of  the 
safest  and  best  compositions  for  the  pur- 
pose is  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  prepared 
chalk,  one  of  Peruvian  bark,  and  one  of 
hard  soap,  all  finely  powdered,  which  is 
calculated  not  only  to  clean  the  teeth 
without  hurting  them,  but  to  preserve  the 
firmness  of  the  gums. 

Besides  the  advantage  of  sound  teeth 
for  their  use  in  mastication,  a  proper  at- 
tention to  their  treatment  conduces  not  a 
little  to  the  sweetness  of  the  breath.  This 
is,  indeed,  often  affected  by  other  causes 
existing  in  the  lungs,  the  stomach,  and 
sometimes  even  in  the  bowels,  but  a  rot- 
ten state  of  the  teeth,  both  from  the 
putrid  smell  emitted  by  carious  bones 
and  the  impurities  lodged  in  their  cavi- 
ties, never  fails  of  aggravating  an  un- 
pleasant breath  wherever  there  is  a  tend- 
ency of  that  kind. 

TOOTHACHE,  Remedies  for.— i.  One 
drachm  of  alum  reduced  to  an  impalpa- 
ble powder,  three  drachms  of  nitrous 
spirit  of  ether — mix,  and  apply  them  to 
the  tooth  on  cotton.  2.  Mix  a  little  salt 
and  alum,  equal  portions,  grind  it  fine, 
wet  a  little  lock  of  cotton,  fill  it  with  the 
powder  and  put  it  in  your  tooth.  One  or 
two  applications  seldom  fail  to  cure.  3. 
To  one  drachm  oi  collodion  add  two 
drachms  of  Calvert's  carbolic  acid.  A 
gelatinous  mass  is  precipitated,  a  small 
portion  of  which,  inserted  in  the  cavity  of 
an  aching  tooth,  invariably  gives  imme- 
diate relief.  4.  Saturate  a  small  bit  of 
clean  cotton  wool  with  a  strong  solution 
of  ammonia,  and  apply  it  immediately  to 
the  affected  tooth.  The  pleasing  con- 
trast instantaneously  produced  in  some 
cases  causes  a  fit  of  laughter,  although  a 
moment  previous  extreme  suffering  and 


anguish  prevailed.  5.  Sometimes  a  sound 
tooth  aches  from  sympathy  of  the  nerves 
of  the  face  with  other  nerves.  But  when 
toothache  proceeds  from  a  decayed  tooth 
either  have  it  taken  out,  or  put  hot  fo- 
mentations upon  the  face,  and  hot  drinks 
into  the  mouth,  such  as  tincture  of  cay- 
enne. 

WARTS,  to  Cure. — Warts  are  formed 
by  the  small  arteries,  veins  and  nerves 
united  together,  taking  on  a  disposition 
to  grow  by  extending  themselves  upward, 
carrying  the  scarf-skin  along  with  them, 
which,  thickening  forms  a  wart.  Corns 
are  a  similar  growth,  brougth  about  by  the 
friction  of  tight  boots  and  shoes.  1.  Take 
a  piece  of  diachylon  plaster,  cut  a  hole 
in  the  centre  the  size  of  the  wart,  and 
stick  it  on,  the  wart  protruding  through. 
Then  touch  it  daily  with  aquafortis,  or  ni- 
trate of  silver.  They  may  be  removed 
by  tying  a  string  tightly  around  them.  2. 
Take  a  blacksmith's  punch,  heat  it  red 
hot  and  burn  the  warts  with  the  end  of 
it.  When  the  burn  gets  well  the  warts 
will  be  gone  forever.  3.  Scrape  down 
enough  dry  cobwebs  to  make  a  ball  large 
enough  to  a  little  more  than  cover  the 
wart  and  not  touch  the  flesh  around  the 
same;  lay  it  on  top  of  the  wart,  ignite  it, 
and  let  it  be  until  it  is  all  burnt  up.  The 
wart  will  turn  white,  and  in  a  few  days 
come  out.  4.  Pass  a  pin  through  the 
wart;  apply  one  end  of  the  pin  to  the 
flame  of  a  lamp ;  hold  it  there  until  the 
wart  fries  under  the  action  of  the  heat. 
A  wart  so  treated  will  leave.  5.  Dissolve 
as  much  common  washing  soda  as  the 
water  will  take  up;  wash  the  warts  with 
this  for  a  minute  or  two,  and  let  them 
dry  without  wiping.  Keep  the  water  in 
a  bottle  and  repeat  the  washing  often, 
and  it  will  take  away  the  largest  warts. 
6.  They  may  be  cured  surely  by  paring 
them  down  until  the  blood  comes  slightly 
and  then  rubbing  them  with  lunar  caustic. 
It  is  needless  to  say  this  hurts  a  little,  but 
is  a  sure  cure.  The  hydrochlorate  of 
lime  applied  in  the  same  way  will  cure 
after  several  applications  and  some  pa- 
tience; so  will  strong  wood  vinegar,  and 
so  it  is  said  will  milk  weed.  The  cures 
founded  upon  superstitious  practices,  such 
as  muttering  some  phrases  over  the  ex- 
crescence, stealing  a  piece  of  beef,  rub- 
bing the  wart  therewith  and  then  bury- 
ing it  under  the  leaves  to  await  its  decay, 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      349 


etc.,  etc.,  are  all  the  remnants  of  a  past 
state  of  ignorance  and  are  of  no  use 
whatever.  Warts  are  generally  only  tem- 
porary and  disappear  as  their  possessors 
grow  up. 

WHITE  SWELLING.— Draw  a  blister 
on  the  inside  of  the  leg  below  the  knee; 
keep  it  running  with  ointment  made  of 
hen  manure,  by  simmering  it  in  hog's 
lard  with  onions;  rub  the  knee  with  the 
following  kind  of  ointment :  Bits  of  pep- 
permint, oil  of  sassafras,  checkerberry, 
juniper,  one  drachm  each ;  simmer  in  one- 
half  pint  neatsfoot  oil,  and  rub  on  the 
knee  three  times  a  day. 

WOUNDS.  —  Catnip  steeped,  mixed 
with  fresh  butter  and  sugar. 

WHOOPING-COUGH.— Take  a  quart 
of  spring  water,  put  it  in  a  large  handful 
of  chin-cups  that  grow  upon  moss,  a 
large  handful  of  unset  hyssop ;  boil  it  to 
a  pint,  strain  it  off,  and  sweeten  it  with 
sugar-candy.  Let  the  child,  as  often  as 
it  coughs,  take  two  spoonsful  at  a  time. 

WORMS,  in  Children.— 1.  Take  one 
ounce  of  powdered  snake-head  (herb), 
and  one  drachm  each  of  aloes  and  prick- 
ly ash  bark;  powder  these,  and  to  one- 
half  teaspoonful  of  this  powder  add  a 
teaspoonful  of  boiling  water,  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  molasses.  Take  this  as  a 
dose,  night  or  morning,  more  or  less,  as 
the  symptoms  may  require.  2.  Take  to- 
bacco leaves,  pound  them  up  with  honey, 
and  lay  them  on  the  belly  of  the  child  or 
grown  person,  at  the  same  time  adminis- 
tering a  dose  of  some  good  physic.  3. 
Take  garden  parsley,  make  it  into  a  tea, 


and  let  the  patient  drink  freely  of  it.  4. 
Take  the  scales  that  will  fall  around  the 
blacksmith  s  anvil,  powder  them  fine,  and 
put  them  in  some  sweetened  rum.  Shake 
when  you  take  them,  and  give  a  tea- 
spoonful three  times  a  day. 

URINE,  Scalding  of  the. — Equal  parts 
of  the  oil  of  red  cedar,  and  the  oil  of 
spearmint. 

URINARY  OBSRUCTIONS.  —  Steep 
pumpkin  seeds  in  gin,  and  drink  about 
three  glasses  a  day;  or,  administer  half  a 
drachm  uva  ursi  every  morning,  and  a 
dose  of  spearmint. 

URINE,  Free  Passage  of. — The  leaves 
of  the  currant  bush  made  into  a  tea,  and 
taken  as  a  common  drink. 

VENEREAL  COMPLAINTS.  —  Equal 
parts  of  the  oil  of  red  cedar,  combined 
with  sarsaparilla,  yellow  dock  and  bur- 
dock made  into  a  syrup ;  add  to  a  pint  of 
this  syrup  an  ounce  of  gum  guiaicum- 
Dose,  from  a  tablespoonful  to  a  wine 
glass,  as  best  you  can  bear. 

THROAT,  Sore,  How  to  Cure.—"  One 
who  has  tried  it "  communicates  the  fol- 
lowing sensible  item  about  curing  sore 
throat :  Let  each  one  of  your  half  million 
readers  buy  at  any  drug  store  one  ounce 
of  camphorated  oil  and  five  cents'  worth 
of  chloride  of  potash.  Whenever  any 
soreness  appears  in  the  throat,  put  the 
potash  in  half  a  tumbler  of  water,  and 
with  it  gargle  the  throat  thoroughly ;  then 
rub  the  neck  thoroughly  with  the  cam- 
phorated oil  at  night  before  going  to  bed, 
and  also  pin  around  the  throat  a  small 
strip  of  woolen  flannel.  This  is  a  simple* 
cheap  and  sure  remedy. 


HOUSEHOLD    PESTS 


ANTS,  to  Destroy.— Ants  that  frequent 
houses  or  gardens  may  be  destroyed  by 
taking  flour  of  brimstone,  half  a  pound, 
and  potash  four  ounces;  set  them  in  an 
iron  or  earthen  pan  over  the  fire  till  dis- 
solved and  united;  afterwards  beat  them 
to  a  powder,  and  infuse  a  little  of  this 
powder  in  water;  and  wherever  you 
sprinkle  it  the  ants,  will  die  or  fly  the 
place. 

ANTS,    Black,    to   Destroy.— A    few 

leaves  of  green  wormword,  scattered 
among  the  haunts  of  these  troublesome 
insects,  is  said  to  be  effectual  in  dislodg- 
ing them. 

ANTS,  Eed,  to  Destroy.— The  best  way 
to  get  rid  of  ants,  is  to  set  a  quantity  of 
cracked  walnuts  or  shell-barks  on  plates, 
and  put  them  in  the  closet  and  places 
where  the  ants  congregate.  They  are 
very  fond  of  these,  and  will  collect  on 
them  in  myriads.  When  they  have  col- 
lected on  them  make  a  general  auto-da-fe, 
by  turning  nuts  and  ants  together  into  the 
fire  and  then  replenishing  the  plates  with 
fresh  nuts.  After  they  have  become  so 
thinned  off  as  to  cease  collecting  on 
plates,  powder  some  camphor  and  put  in 
the  holes  and  crevices,  whereupon  the  re- 
mainder of  them  will  speedily  depart. 
It  may  help  the  process  of  getting  them 
to  assemble  on  the  shell-barks,  to  remove 
all  edibles  out  of  their  way  for  the  time. 

BEE,  Black,  to  Destroy.— Place  two  or 
three  shallow  vessels — the  larger  kind  of 
flower-pot  saucers  will  do — half  filled 
with  water,  on  the  floors  where  they 
assemble,  with  strips  of  card-board  run- 
ning from  the  edge  of  the  vessel  to  the 
floor,  at  a  gentle  inclination;  these  the 
unwelcome  guests  will  eagerly  ascend, 
and  so  find  a  watery  grave. 

BED-BUGS,  to  Destroy.— i.  When  they 
have  made  a  lodgement  in  the  wall,  fill 
all  the  apertures  with  a  mixture  of  soft 


soap  and  Scotch  snuff.    Take  th<s  bed- 
stead to  pieces,  and  treat  that  in  the  same 
way.     2.  A  strong  decoction  of  red  pep- 
per applied  to  bedsteads  will  either  kill 
the  bugs  or  drive  them  away.     3.  Put  the 
bedstead  into  a  close  room  and  set  fire 
to  the  following  composition,  placed  in 
an  iron  pot  upon  the  hearth,  having  pre- 
viously closed  up  the  chimney,  then  shut 
the  door ;  let  them  remain  a  day :     Sul- 
phur nine  parts;  saltpetre,  powdered,  one 
part.     Mix.     Be  sure  to  open  the  door  of 
the  room  five  or  six  hours  before  you  ven- 
ture to  go  into  it  a  second  time.     4.  Rub 
the   bedstead   well   with   lamp-oil;    this 
alone  is  good,  but  to  make  it  more  effect- 
ual, get  a  sixpence  worth  of  quicksilver 
and  add  to  it.     Put  it  into  all  the  cracks 
around  the  bed,  and  they  will  soon  dis- 
appear.    The  bedsteads  should  first  be 
scalded  and  wiped  dry,  then  put  on  with 
a  feather.     5.  Corrosive  sublimate,  one 
ounce;  muriatic  acid,  two  ounces;  water, 
four  ounces ;  dissolve,  then  add  turpen- 
tine, one  pint ;  decoction  of  tobacco,  one 
pint.     Mix.     For  the  decoction  of  tobac- 
co boil  one  ounce  of  tobacco  in  a  y2  pint 
of  water.    The  mixture  must  be  applied 
with  a  paint  brush.    This  wash  is  a  dead- 
ly poison.    6.  Rub  the  bedsteads  in  the 
joints  with  equal  parts  of  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine and  kerosene  oil,  and  the  cracks 
of  the  surbase  in  rooms  where  there  are 
many.     Filling  up  all  the  cracks  with 
hard  soap  is  an  excellent  remedy.    March 
and  April  are  the  months  when  bedsteads 
should  be  examined  to  kill  all  the  eggs. 
7.  Mix  together  two  ounces  of  camphor, 
four  ounces    spirits   of   turpentine,   one 
ounce  corrosive  sublimate,  and  one  pint 
alcohol.     8.  Distilled  vinegar,  or  diluted 
wood  vinegar,  a  pint;  camphor,  one-ha^ 
once;    dissolve.      9.  White  arsenic,  two 
ounces;  lard,  thirteen  ounces;  corrosive 
sublimate,   one-fourth    ounce;     Venetian 
red,  one-fourth  ounce.     (Deadly  poison.) 


(350) 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       351 


10.  Strong  mercurial  ointment,  one 
•ounce;  soft  soap,  one  ounce;  oil  of 
turpentine,  a  pint.  11.  Gasoline  and 
coal  oil  are  both  excellent  adjuncts,  with 
•cleanliness,  in  ridding  a  bed  or  house  of 
these  pests. 

CATERPILLARS,  To  Destroy.— Boil  to- 
gether a  quantity  of  rue,  wormwood,  and 
any  cheap  tobacco  {equal  parts),  in  com- 
mon water.  The  liquid  should  be  very 
strong.  Sprinkle  it  on  the  leaves  and 
young  branches  every  morning  and  even- 
ing during  the  time  the  fruit  is  ripening. 

COCKROACHES  AND  BEETLES,  to 
Destroy. — 1.  Strew  the  roots  of  black 
hellebore,  at  night,  in  the  places  infested 
by  these  vermin,  and  they  will  be  found 
in  the  morning  dead,  or  dying.  Black 
hellebore  grows  in  marshy  grounds,  and 
may  be  had  at  the  herb  shops.  1.  Put 
about  a  quart  of  water  sweetened  with 
molasses  in  a  tin  wash  basin  or  smooth 
glazed  china  bowls.  Set  it  at  evening  in 
a  place  frequented  by  the  bugs.  Around 
the  basin  put  an  old  piece  of  carpet  that 
the  bugs  can  have  easy  access  to  the  top. 
They  will  go  down  in  the  water,  and  stay 
till  you  come.  3.  Take  pulverized  borax, 
4  parts,  flour  1  part,  mix  intimately  and 
distribute  the  mixture  in  cupboards  which 
are  frequented  by  the  roaches,  or  blow  it, 
by  means  of  a  bellows,  into  the  holes  or 
cracks  that  are  infested  by  them.  4.  By 
scattering  a  handful  of  fresh  cucumber 
parings  about  the  house.  5.  Take  car- 
bonic acid  and  powdered  camphor  in 
equal  parts ;  put  them  in  a  bottle ;  they 
■will  become  fluid.  With  a  painter's  brush 
of  the  size  called  a  sash-tool,  put  the 
mixture  on  the  cracks  or  places  where 
the  roaches  hide ;  they  will  come  out  at 
once.  Then  kill.  6.  Mix  up  a  quantity 
of  fresh  burned  plaster  of  paris  (gypsum, 
such  as  is  used  for  making  molds  and 
ornaments),  with  wheat  flour  and  a  little 
sugar,  and  distribute  on  shallow  plates 
and  box  boards,  and  place  in  the  corners 
of  the  kitchen  and  pantry,  where  they 
frequent.  In  the  darkness  they  will 
feast  themselves  on  it.  Whether  it  inter- 
feres with  their  digestion  or  not,  is  difficult 
to  ascertain,  but  after  three  or  four  nights 
renewal  of  the  preparation,  no  cock- 
roaches will  be  found  on  the  premises. 

CRICKETS,  To  Destroy.— Sprinkle  a 
little  quicklime  near  to  the  cracks  through 
which  they  enter  the  room.     The  lime 


may  be  laid  down  over  night,  and  swept 
away  in  the  morning.  In  a  few  days 
they  will  most  likely  all  be  destroyed. 
But  care  must  be  taken  that  the  children 
do  not  meddle  with  the  lime,  as  a  very 
small  portion  ot  it,  getting  into  the  eye, 
would  prove  exceedingly  hurtful.  In  case 
of  such  an  accident  the  best  thing  to  do 
would  be  to  wash  the  eye  with  vinegar 
and  water. 

FLEAS,  To  Get  Bid  o£ — Much  of  the 
largest  number  of  fleas  are  brought  into 
our  family  circles  by  pet  dogs  and  cats. 
The  oil  of  pennyroyal  will  drive  these 
insects  off;  but  a  cheaper  method,  where 
the  herb  flourishes,  is  to  throw  your  cats 
and  dogs  into  a  decoction  of  it  once  a 
week.  When  the  herb  cannot  be  got, 
the  oil  can  be  procured.  In  this  case, 
saturate  strings  with  it  and  tie  them  round 
the  necks  of  dogs  and  cats.  These  ap- 
plications should  be  repeated  every  twelve 
or  fifteen  days.  Mint,  freshly  cut,  and 
hung  round  a  bedstead,  or  on  the  furni- 
ture, will  prevent  annoyance  from  bed 
insects;  a  few  drops  of  essential  oil  of 
lavender  will  be  more  efficacious. 

FLIES,  To  Destroy. — 1.  Take  an  infu- 
sion of  quassia,  one  pint;  brown  sugar, 
four  ounces ;  ground  pepper,  two  ounces. 
To  be  well  mixed  together,  and  put  in 
small  shallow  dishes  where  required. 
2.  Black  pepper  (powdered),  one  drachm; 
brown  sugar,  one  drachm;  milk  or  cream, 
two  drachms.  Mix,  and  place  it  on  a 
plate  or  saucer  where  the  flies  are  most 
troublesome.  3.  Pour  a  little  simple 
oxymel  (an  article  to  be  obtained  at  the 
druggists),  into  a  common  tumbler  glass, 
and  place  in  the  glass  a  piece  of  cap 
paper,  made  into  the  shape  of  the  upper 
part  of  a  funnel,  with  a  hole  at  the 
bottom  to  admit  the  flies.  Attracted  by 
the  smell,  they  readily  enter  the  trap  in 
swarms,  and  by  the  thousands  soon  col- 
lected prove  that  they  have  not  the  wit 
or  the  disposition  to  return.  4.  Take 
some  jars,  mugs,  or  lumblers,  fill  them 
half  full  with  soapy  water ;  cover  them  as 
jam-pots  are  covered,  'with  a  piece  of 
paper,  either  tied  down  or  tucked  under 
the  rim.  Let  this  paper  be  rubbed  inside 
with  wet  sugar,  molasses,  honey,  or  jam, 
or  any  thing  sweet ;  cut  a  small  hole  in 
the  centre,  large  enough  for  a  fly  to  enter. 
The  flies  settle  on  the  top,  attracted  by 
the  smell  of  the  bait ;  they  then  crawl 


3S2 


HOUSEHOLD  PESTS. 


through  the  hole,  to  feed  upon  the  sweet 
beneath.  Meanwhile  the  warmth  of  the 
weather  causes  the  soapy  water  to  fer- 
ment, and  produces  a  gas  which  over- 
powers the  flies,  and  they  drop  down  into 
the  vessel.  Thousands  may  be  destroyed 
this  way,  and  the  traps  last  a  long  time. 

PLY  PAPER.— Melt  resin,  and  add 
thereto  while  soft  sufficient  sweet  oil,  lard, 
or  lamp  oil  to  make  it,  when  cold,  about 
the  consistency  of  honey.  Spread  on 
writing  paper,  and  place  in  a  convenient 
spot.  It  will  soon  be  filled  with  ants, 
flies,  and  other  vermin. 

INSECTS,  Expelling  Them.— All  in- 
sects dread  pennyroyal ;  the  smell  of  it 
destroys  some,  and  drives  others  away. 
At  the  time  that  fresh  pennyroyal  cannot 
be  gathered,  get  oil  of  pennyroyal ;  pour 
some  into  a  saucer,  and  steep  in  it  small 
pieces  of  wadding  or  raw  cotton,  and 
place  them  in  corners,  closet-shelves, 
bureau  drawers,  boxes,  etc.,  and  the  cock- 
roaches, ants,  or  other  insects  will  soon 
disappear.  It  is  also  well  to  place  some 
between  the  mattresses,  and  around  the 
bed.  It  is  also  a  splendid  thing  for 
brushing  off  that  terrible  little  insect,  the 
seed  tick. 

MICE,  To  Destroy.— i.  Use  tartar 
emetic  mingled  with  some  favorite  food. 
The  mice  will  leave  the  premises. 

2.  Take  one  part  calomel,  five  parts  of 
wheat  flour,  one  part  sugar,  and  one-tenth 
of  a  part  of  ultramarine.  Mix  together 
in  a  fine  powder  and  place  it  in  a  dish. 
This  is  a  most  efficient  poison  for  mice. 

3.  Any  one  desirous  of  keeping  seeds 
from  the  depredations  of  mice  can  do  so 
by  mixing  pieces  of  camphor  gum  in  with 
the  seeds.  Camphor  placed  in  drawers 
or  trunks  will  prevent  mice  from  doing 
them  injury.  The  little  animal  objects 
to  the  odor  and  keeps  a  good  distance 
from  it     He  will  seek  food  elsewhere. 

4.  Gather  all  kinds  of  mint  and  scat- 
ter about  your  shelves,  and  they  will 
forsake  the  premises. 

MOSQUITOES,  To  Drive  Away.— 1.  A 
camphor  bag  hung  up  in  an  open  case- 
ment will  prove  an  effectual  barrier  to 
their  entrance.  Camphorated  spirits  ap- 
plied as  perfume  to  the  face  and  hands 
will  prove  an  effectual  preventive;  but 
when  bitten  by  them,  aromatic  vinegar  is 
the  best  antidote. 

2.  A  small  amount  of  oil  of  penny- 


royal sprinkled  around  the  room  will 
drive  away  the  mosquitoes.  This  is  an 
excellent  recipe. 

3.  Take  of  gum  camphor  a  piece  about 
half  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  evaporate  it 
by  placing  it  in  a  tin  vessel  and  holding 
it  over  a  lamp  or  candle,  taking  care  that 
it  does  not  ignite.  The  smoke  will  soon 
fill  the  room  and  expel  the  mosquitoes. 

MOTHS,  To  Preserve  Clothing  from.— 
1.  Procure  shavings  of  cedar  wood  and 
enclose  in  muslin  bags,  which  should  be 
distributed  freely  among  clothes.  2.  Pro- 
cure shavings  of  camphor  wood,  and 
enclose  in  bags.  3.  Sprinkle  pimento 
(allspice)  berries  among  the  clothes.  4. 
Sprinkle  the  clothes  with  the  seeds  of  the 
musk  plant.  5.  An  ounce  of  gum  cam- 
phor and  one  of  the  powdered  shell  of 
red  pepper  are  macerated  in  8  ounces  of 
strong  alcohol  for  several  days,  then 
strained.  With  this  tincture  the  furs  or 
cloths  are  sprinkled  over,  and  rolled  up 
in  sheets.  6.  Carefully  shake  and  brush 
woollens  early  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  be 
certain  that  no  eggs  are  in  them;  then 
sew  them  up  in  cotton  or  linen  wrappers, 
putting  a  piece  of  camphor  gum,  tied  up 
in  a  bit  of  muslin,  into  each  bundle,  or 
into  the  chests  and  closets  where  the 
articles  are  to  lie.  No  moth  will  appxoah 
while  the  smell  of  the  camphor  continues. 
When  the  gum  is  evaporated,  it  must  be 
renewed.  Enclose  them  in  a  moth-proof 
box  with  camphor,  no  matter  whether 
made  of  white  paper  or  white  pine,  before 
any  eggs  are  laid  on  them  by  early  spring 
moths.  The  notion  of  having  a  trunk 
made  of  some  particular  kind  of  wood 
for  this  purpose,  is  nonsense.  Furs  or 
woollens,  put  away  in  spring  time,  before 
moth  eggs  are  laid,  into  boxes,  trunks, 
drawers,  or  closets  even,  where  moths 
cannot  enter,  will  be  safe  from  the  rav- 
ages of  mothworms,  provided  none  were 
in  them  that  were  laid  late  in  the  autumn, 
for  they  are  not  of  spontaneous  produc- 
tion. 

MOTHS  IN  CARPETS,  To  Kill- 
Wring  a  coarse  crash  towel  out  of  clear 
water,  spread  it  smoothly  on  the  carpet, 
iron  it  dry  with  a  good  hot  iron,  repeat- 
ing the  operation  on  all  parts  of  the 
carpet  suspected  of  being  infected  with 
moths.  No  need  to  press  hard,  and 
neither  the  pile  nor  color  of  the  carpet 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       353 


will  be  injured,  and  the  moths  will  be 
destroyed  by  the  heat  and  steam. 

RATS,  To  Destroy. — 1.  When  a  house 
is  infested  with  rats  which  refuse  to  be 
caught  by  cheese  and  other  baits,  a  few 
drops  of  the  highly-scented  oil  of  rhodium 
poured  on  the  bottom  of  the  cage  will  be 
an  attraction  which  they  cannot  refuse, 
2.  Place  on  the  floor  near  where  their 
holes  are  supposed  to  be  a  thin  layer  of 
moist  caustic  potash.  When  the  rats 
travel  on  this,  it  will  cause  their  feet  to 
become  sore,  which  they  lick,  and  their 
tongues  become  likewise  sore.  The  con- 
sequence is,  that  they  shun  this  locality, 
and  seem  to  inform  all  the  neighboring 
rats  about  it,  and  the  result  is  that  they 
soon  abandon  a  house  that  has  such  mean 
floors.  3.  Cut  some  corks  as  thin  as 
wafers,  and  fry,  roast,  or  stew  them  in 
grease,  and  place  the  same  in  their  track ; 
or  a  dried  sponge  fried  or  dipped  in 
molasses  or  honey,  with  a  small  quantity 
of  bird  lime  or  oil  of  rhodium,  will  fasten 
to  their  fur  and  cause  them  to  depart.  4. 
If  a  live  rat  be  caught  and  smeared  over 
with  tar  or  'train  oil,  and  afterwards 
allowed  to  escape  in  the  holes  of  other 
rats,  he  will  cause  all  soon  to  take  their 
departure.  5.  If  a  live  rat  be  caught, 
and  a  small  bell  be  fastened  around  his 
neck,  and  allowed  to  escape,  all  of  his 
brother  rats  as  well  as  himself  will  very 
soon  go  to  some  other  neighbor's  house. 
6.  Take  a  pan,  about  twelve  inches  deep, 
and  half  fill  it  with  water;  then  sprinkle 
some  bran  on  the  water  and  set  the  pan 
in  a  place  where  the  rats  most  frequent. 
In  the  morning  you  will  find  several  rats 
in  the  pan.  7.  Flour,  three  parts;  sugar, 
one-half  part;  sulphur,  two  parts,  and 
phosphorus,  two  parts.  Smear  on  meat, 
and  place  near  where  the  rats  are  most 
troublesome.  8.  Squills  are  an  excellent 
poison  for  rats.  The  powder  should  be 
mixed  with  some  fatty  substance,  and 
spread  upon  slices  of  bread.  The  pulp 
of  onions  is  also  very  good.  Rats  are 
very  fond  of  either.  9.  Take  two  ounces 
of  carbonate  of  barytes,  and  mix  with  one 
pound  of  suet  or  tallow,  place  a  portion 
of  this  within  their  holes  and  about  their 
haunts.  It  is  greedily  eaten,  produces 
great  thirst,  and  death  ensues  after  drink- 
ing. This  is  a  very  effectual  poison, 
because  it  is  both  tasteless  and  ordorless. 
10.  Take  one  ounce  of  finely  powdered 

23 


arsenic,  one  ounce  of  lard ;  mix  these  into 
a  paste  with  meal,  put  it  about  the  haunts 
of  rats.  They  will  eat  of  it  greedily.  11. 
Make  a  paste  of  one  ounce  of  flour,  one- 
half  gill  of  water,  one  drachm  of  phos- 
phorus, and  one  ounce  of  flour.  Or,  one 
ounce  of  flour,  two  ounces  of  powdered 
cheese-crumbs,  and  one-half  a  drachm  of 
phosphorus;  add  to  each  of  these  mix- 
tures a  few  drops  of  the  oil  of  rhodium, 
and  spread  this  on  thin  pieces  of  bread 
like  butter;  the  rats  will  eat  of  this 
greedily,  and  it  is  a  sure  poison.  12. 
Mix  some  ground  plaster  of  paris  with 
some  sugar  and  Indian  meal.  Set  it 
about  on  plates,  and  leave  beside  each 
plate  a  saucer  of  water.  When  the  rats 
have  eaten  the  mixture  they  will  drink 
the  water  and  die.  To  attract  them 
toward  it,  you  may  sprinkle  on  the  edges- 
of  the  plates  a  little  of  oil  of  rhodium. 
Another  method  of  getting  rid  of  rats  is,, 
to  strew  pounded  potash  on  their  holes.. 
The  potash  gets  into  their  coats  and 
irritates  the  skin,  and  the  rats  desert  the 
place.  13.  The  Dutch  method:  this  is 
said  to  be  used  successfully  in  Holland ; 
we  have,  however,  never  tried  it.  A 
number  of  rats  are  left  together  to  them- 
selves in  a  very  large  trap  or  cage,  with 
no  food  whatever;  their  craving  hunger 
will,  at  last,  cause  them  to  fight  and  the 
weakest  will  be  eaten  by  the  others; 
after  a  short  time  the  fight  is  renewed, 
and  the  next  weakest  is  the  victim,  and  so 
it  goes  on  till  one  strong  rat  is  left. 
When  this  one  has  eaten  the  last  remains 
of  any  of  the  others,  it  is  set  loose ;  the 
animal  has  now  acquired  such  a  taste  for 
rat-flesh  that  he  is  the  terror  of  ratdom, 
going  round  seeking  what  rat  he  may 
devour.  In  an  incredibly  short  time  the 
premises  are  abandoned  by  all  other  rats, 
which  will  not  come  back  before  the 
cannibal  rat  has  left  or  has  died.  14. 
Catch  a  rat  and  smear  him  over  with  a 
mixture  of  phosphorus  and  lard,  and  then 
let  him  loose.  The  house  will  soon  be 
emptied  of  these  pests. 

VERMHr,in  Water.— Go  to  the  nearest 
river  or  pond,  and  with  a  small  net  (a 
piece  of  old  mosquito  bar  will  do)  collect 
a  dozen  or  more  of  the  small  fishes  known 
as  minnows,  and  put  them  in  your  cistern, 
and  in  a  short  time  you  will  have  clear  water, 
the  wiggle-tails  and  reddish-colored  bugs 
or  lice  being  gobbled  up  by  the  fishes. 


BUGS,  AND  OTHER  INSECTS: 

HOW  TO  KNOW  THEM -HOW  TO  DESTROY  THEM. 


BABK-LICE  OF  THE  APPLETBEE. 

— There  are  two  species  of  bark-lice  that 
attack  the  apple-tree  in  the  United  States. 
The  first,  which  is  a  native  North 
American  insect,  is  now  known  as  Harris' 
Bark-louse.  The  color 
'of  the  scale  is  dirty 
white,  and  its  form  is 
irregular,  being  usually- 
egg-shaped;  but,  how- 
ever variable  in  outline, 
is  always  quite  flat  and 
causes  the  infested  tree 
to  wear  the  appearance 
of  Figure  i ;  while  the 
minute  eggs  which  are 
found  under  it  in  winter 
time  are  invariably 
blood-red  or  lake-red. 
This  species  has  scarce- 
ly ever  been  known  to 
increase  sufficiently  to 
Fig  i.  do  material  damage,  for 

'the  reason  doubtless  that  there  have,  hith- 
erto, always  been  natural  enemies  and 
parasites  enough  to  keep  it  in  due 
bounds. 

The  second  species,  which  is  known  as 

.the  Oyster-shell    Bark-louse,   is  by    no 

means  so  harmless  however,  for  it  is  one 

vof  the  most  pernicious  and  destructive 

.insects  which  the    apple-grower    in  the 

Northern   States  has   to  contend  with. 

"This  species  may  always  be  distinguished 

from  the  former  by  having  a  very  uniform 

muscle-shaped  scale,  of  an  ash-gray  color 

(the  identical  color  of  the  bark),  and  by 

these    scales    containing,  in   the    winter 

time,   not  red,  but  pure  white  colored 

eggs. 

There  is  scarcely  an  apple- orchard  in 
■Northern  Illinois,  in  Iowa,  or  in  Wiscon- 
sin, that  has  not  suffered  more  or  less  from 
its  attacks,  and  many  an  one  has  been 
slowly  but  surely  bled  to  death  by  this  tiny 
sap-sucker.  Its  extension  southward  is  un- 


doubtedly limited,  for  though  so  abund- 
ant in  the  northern  half  of  Illinois,  ob- 
servation has  clearly  proved  that  it  can- 
not exist  in  the  southern  half  of  the  same 
State. 

The  oyster-shell  bark-louse  produces 
but  one  brood  annually,  and  these  eggs, 
therefore,  remain  under  the  scales  for 
more  than  nine  months  of  the  year,  sub- 
jected alike  to  the  continuous  warmth  ot 
the  fall  months,  and  to  the  severe  frosts 
of  winter;  freezing  and  thawing  again 
and  again,  without  their  vitality  being  in 
in  the  least  impaired. 

Remedies. — These  may  be  summed 
up  in  a  very  few  words,  and  consist  for  the 
most  part  in  prevention,  and  we  again  urge 
a  strict  examination  of  every  young  tree 
before  it  is  planted.  If  an  orchard  is 
once  attacked  before  its  owner  is  aware 
of  it,  much  could  be  done  on  young  trees 
by  scraping  the  scales  off  in  winter,  but 
on  large  trees,  where  it  is  difficult  to  reach 
all  the  terminal  twigs,  this  method  be- 
comes altogether  impracticable,  and  it 
will  avail  but  little  to  cleanse  the  trunk 
alone,  as  most  of  the  scales  containing 
living  eggs  will  be  found  on  the  terminal 
branches.  Alkaline  washes,  and  all  other 
washes,  except  those  of  an  oily  nature, 
such  as  petroleum  or  kerosine,  are  of  no 
avail  when  applied  to  the  scales,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  they  do  not  penetrate 
and  reach  the  eggs,  which  are  so  well  pro- 
tected by  these  scales;  and  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  any  solution  can  be  used 
that  is  sufficiently  oily  to  penetrate  the 
scales  and  kill  the  eggs  without  injuring 
the  tree,  especially  while  the  sap  of  the 
tree  is  inactive.  Hence,  the  bark-louse 
can  only  be  successfully  fought  at  the 
time  the  eggs  are  hatching,  and  the  young 
lice  are  crawling  over  the  limbs.  The 
time  of  year  in  which  this  occurs  has  al- 
ready been  indicated,  and  the  trees  should 


(354) 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       355 


"be  closely  watched  during  the  last  days 
of  May  and  the  first  days  ot  June,  for, 
without  close  scrutiny,  they  will  not  be 
observed,  appearing  simply  like  very  min- 
ute, white,  moving  specks.  While  the 
young  larva?  are  thus  crawling  over  the 
tree,  they  are  so  tender  that  they  can 
be  readily  destroyed  by  simply  scrubbing 
the  limbs  with  a  stiff  brush.  It  is  quite 
■evident,  however,  that  any  remedy,  to 
become  practicable  on  a  large  scale,  so 
as  to  rapidly  and  effectually  reach  every 
limb  of  the  tree,  both  large  and  small, 
must  be  applied  by  a  syringe  or  by  means 
of  fumigation,  and  that  whatever  be  ap- 
plied, it  must  kill  the  lice  without  in- 
juring the  foliage  or  fruit,  as  the  young 
apples  are  generally  as  large  as  a  good 
sized  pea  by  the  time  the  lice  hatch.     Fu- 


migation has  not  yet  been  sufficiently 
tried  to  enable  us  to  judge  of  its  merits. 

In  short,  we  have  abundant  proof  that 
neither  tobacco-water  nor  strong  alkaline 
washes  have  any  effect  on  these  young 
lice,  though  a  strong  solution  of  soap 
will  kill  them,  and  our  experience  the  past 
season,  with  cresylic  acid  soap  in  other 
directions,  leads  us  to  strongly  recom- 
mend it  for  this  purpose.  It  will  some- 
times be  necessary  to  repeat  the  wash,  as 
the  lice  do  not  all  hatch  out  the  same 
day,  though  the  period  of  hatching  sel- 
dom extends  over  three  days. 

APPLE  TREE  BORER,  Round  Headed. 
— It  is  a  fact  which  has  not  been  dis- 
puted by  any  one  whom  we  have  queried 
on  the  subject,  that  apples  trees  on  our 
,  ridges  are  shorter  lived  than  those  grown 


Fig. 

on  our  lower  lands.  Hitherto  no  partic-  ] 
ular  reason  has  been  given  for  this  oc- 
-currence,  but  we  think  it  is  mainly  attrib- 
utable to  the  workings  of  the  borer  now 
under  consideration.  We  have  invariably 
found  it  more  plentiful  in  tree  growing  on 
high  land  than  in  those  growing  on  low 
land,  and  it  has  also  been  our  experience 
that  it  is  worse  in  plowed  orchards  than 
in  those  which  are  seeded  down  to  grass. 

It  also  attacks  the  quince,  mountain 
ash,  hawthorn,  pear  and  the  June-berry. 

At  figure  2  this  borer  is  represented  in 
its  three  stages  of  larva  (a),  pupa  (£),  and 
perfect  beetle  (<r).  The  beetle  may  be 
known  by  the  popular  name  of  the  Two- 
■striped  Saperda,  while  its  larva  is  best 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Round-headed 
apple-tree  borer,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Flat-headed  species. 

The  average  length  of  the  larva,  when 
full  grown,  is  about  one  inch,  and  the 
width  of  the  first  segment  is  not  quite 
one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Its  color  is  light 
yellow,  with  a  tawny  yellow  spot  of  a  more 


horny  consistency  on  the  first  segment 
which,  under  a  lens,  is  found  to  be  formed 
of  a  mass  of  light  brown  spots.  The 
head  is  chestnut  brown,  polished  and 
horny,  and  the  jaws  are  deep  black.  The 
pupa  is  of  rather  lighter  color  than  the 
larva,  and  has  transverse  rows  of  minute 
teeth  on  the  back,  and  a  few  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  body ;  and  the  perfect  bee- 
tle has  two  longitudinal  white  stripes  be- 
tween three  of  a  light  cinnamon-brown 
color.  The  Two-striped  Saperda  makes 
its  appearance  in  the  beetle  state  during 
the  months  of  May  and  June,  and  is  sel- 
dom seen  by  any  but  the  entomologist 
who  makes  a  point  of  hunting  for  it — 
from  the  fact  that  it  remains  quietly  hid- 
den by  day  and  flies  and  moves  only  by 
night.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs 
during  the  month  of  June,  mostly  at  the 
foot  of  the  tree,  and  the  young  worms 
hatch  and  commence  boring  into  the 
bark  within  a  fortnight  afterwards.  These 
young  worms  differ  in  no  essential  from 
the  full-grown  specimens,  except  in  their 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.r-REMEDIES  FOR. 


very  minute  size;  and  they  invariably 
live,  for  the  first  year  of  their  lives,  on  the 
sap-wood  and  inner  bark,  excavating 
shallow,  flat  cavities  which  are  found  to 
be  stuffed  full  of  their  sawdust-like  cast- 
ings. The  hole  by  which  the  newly- 
hatched  worm  penetrated  is  so  very  min- 
ute that  it  frequently  fills  up,  though  not 
till  a  few  grains  of  castings  have  fallen 
from  it;  but  the  presence  of  the  worms 
may  be  generally  detected,  especially  in 
young  trees,  from  the  bark,  under  which 
they  lie,  becoming  darkened,  and  suffi- 
ciently dry  and  dead  to  contract  and 
form  cracks.  Through  these  cracks  some 
of  the  castings  of  the  worm  generally 
protrude,  and  fall  to  the  ground  in  a  little 
heap,  and  this  occurs  more  especially  in 
the  spring  of  the  year,  when,  with  the 
rising  sap  and  frequent  rains,  such  cast- 
ings become  swollen  and  augment  in  bulk. 
As  winter  approaches,  the  young  borer 
descends  as  near  the  ground  as  its  bur- 
row will  allow,  and  doubtless  remains  in- 
active till  the  following  spring.  On  ap- 
proach of  the  second  winter  it  is  about 
one-half  grown,  and  still  living  on  the 
sap-wood;  and  it  is  at  this  time  that 
these  borers  do  the  most  damage,  for 
where  there  are  four  or  five  in  a  single 
tree,  they  almost  completely  girdle  it.  In 
the  course  of  the  next  summer  when  it 
has  become  about  three-fourths  grown,  it 
generally  commences  to  cut  a  cylindrical 
passage  upwards  into  the  solid  wood,  and 
before  having  finished  its  larval  growth, 
it  invariably  extends  this  passage  right  to 
the  bark,  sometimes  cutting  entirely 
through  a  tree  to  the  opposite  side  from 
which  it  commenced ;  sometimes  turning 
back  at  different  angles.  It  then  stuffs 
the  upper  end  of  the  passage  with  saw- 
dust-like powder,  and  the  lower  part  with 
curly  fibres  of  wood,  after  which  it  rests 
from  its  labors.  It  thus  finishes  its  gnaw- 
ing work  during  the  commencement  of 
the  third  winter,  but  remains  motionless 
in  the  larval  state  till  the  following  spring, 
when  it  casts  off  its  skin  once  more  and 
becomes  a  pupa.  After  resting  three 
weeks  in  the  pupa  state  it  becomes  a  bee- 
tle, with  all  its  members  and  parts  at  first 
soft  and  weak.  These  gradually  harden 
and  in  a  fortnight  more  it  cuts  its  way 
through  its  sawdust-like  castings,  and 
issues  from  the  tree  through  a  perfectly 
smooth  and  round  hole. 


Remedies— From  this  brief  sketch  of  our 
round-headed  borer,  it  becomes  apparent 
that  plugging  the  hole  to  keep  him  in,  is  on 
a  par  with  locking  the  stable  door  to  keep 
the  horse  in,  after  he  is  stolen ;  even  sup- 
posing there  were  any  philosophy  in  the 
plugging  system,  which  there  is  not.  The 
round  smooth  holes  are  an  infalliable  in- 
dication that  the  borer  has  left,  while  the 
plugging  up  cf  any  other  holes  or  cracks: 
where  the  castings  are  seen,  will  not  affect 
the  intruder.  This  insect  probably  has; 
some  natural  enemies  belonging  to  its  own 
great  class,  and  some  of  our  wood-peck- 
ers doubtless  seek  it  out  from  its  retreat 
and  devour  it;  but  its  enemies  are  cer- 
tainly not  sufficiently  under  our  control,, 
and  to  grow  healthy  apple  trees  we  have 
to  fight  it  artificially.  Here  again  pre- 
vention will  be  found  better  than  cure, 
and  a  stitch  in  time  will  not  only  save 
nine,  but  fully  ninety-nine. 

Experiments  have  amply  proved  that 
alkaline  washes  are  repulsive  to  this  in- 
sect, and  the  female  beetle  will  not  lay 
her  eggs  on  trees  protected  by  such  wash- 
es. Keep  the  base  of  every  tree  in  the 
orchard  free  from  weeds  and  trash,  and 
apply  soap  to  them  during  the  month  of 
May,  and  they  will  not  likely  be  troubled 
with  borers.  For  this  purpose  soft  soap 
or  common  bar  soap  can  be  used.  The 
last  is  perhaps  the  most  convenient  and 
the  newer  and  softer  it  is,  the  better.  This, 
borer  confines  himself  almost  entirely  to 
the  butt  of  the  tree,  though  very  rarely  it  is 
found  in  the  crotch.  It  is,  therefore,  only 
necessary  in  soaping,  to  rub  over  the  low- 
er part  of  the  trunk  and  the  crotch,  but 
it  is  a  very  good  plan  to  lay  a  chunk  of 
the  soap  in  the  principal  crotch,  so  that  it 
may  be  washed  down  by  the  rains.  In 
case  these  precautions  have  been  unheed- 
ed, and  the  borer  is  already  at  work, 
many  of  them  may  be  killed  by  cutting 
through  the  bark  at  the  upper  end  of 
their  burrows,  and  gradually  pouring  hot 
water  into  the  cuts  so  that  it  will  soak 
through  the  castings  and  penetrate  to  the 
insect.  But  even  where  the  soap  pre- 
ventive is  used  in  the  month  of  May,  it  is 
always  advisable  to  examine  the  trees  irt 
the  fall,  at  which  time  the  young  worms 
that  hatched  through  the  summer  may 
be  generally  detected  and  easily  cut  out 
without  injury  to  the  tree.  Particular  at- 
tention should  also  be  paid  to  any  tree 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       357 


that  has  been  injured  or  sun-scalded,  as 
such  trees  are  most  liable  to  be  attacked. 

PEACH  BORER,— The  borer  is  the 
•most  troublesome  enemy  of  the  peach, 
but  if  looked  after  in  time  it  is  easily  sub- 
dued, and  need  not  seriously  intertere 
with  cultivation.  The  eggs  from  which 
this  pest  is  produced  are  deposited  by  a 
four-winged  wasp-shaped  insect,  during 
the  summer,  on  the  tender  bark  of  the 
tree,  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  As 
the  season  advances  the  eggs  hatch  into 
small  white  grubs  or  borers,  about  an 
inch  long  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, which  penetrate  the  bark  and 
bore  into  the  sap-wood,  where  they  re- 
main all  winter.  The  next  spring  they 
emerge  in  their  perfect  winged  form,  and 
soon  commence  depositing  eggs  for  an- 
other generation.  While  in  the  tree  they 
devour  voraciously  the  bark  and  sap- 
wood,  and  one  or  two  are  sufficient  to 
destroy  a  young  tree  in  a  single  season, 
and  four  or  five  will  destroy  an  old  one. 

Remedy. — A  little  experience  will  en- 
able one  to  detect  the  borer.  The  most 
certain  and  obvious  sign  is  the  gum  at 
the  neck  of  the  tree;  that  is,  the  tender 
part  which  extends  about  an  inch  above 
and  two  below  the  surface.  When  this  is 
discovered,  the  earth  should  be  scraped 
from  the  root,  the  gum  and  decayed  wood 
cut  away,  and  a  stiff  wire  or  whalebone 
thrust  into  the  curving  cavity,  and  the 
worm  be  thus  destroyed.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  kill  all,  as  sometimes  five  or  six 
will  be  found  in  the  same  tree.  The  dead 
and  diseased  wood  should  be  carefully  re- 
moved, so  that  the  new  growth  may  cover 
the  old  wood  as  soon  as  possible.  Afterthe 
operation  the  soil  should  be  drawn  up  to 
the  neck  of  the  tree  again,  to  prevent  the 
evil  effects  ot  the  sun  or  dry  winds  in 
summer,  or  the  severe  fosts  in  winter. 
The  application  of  boiling  water,  the 
waste  water  from  salt  works,  and  oil  dif- 
fused in  water  have  all  been  proposed  as 
remedies,  but  are  all  inferior  to  the  punch- 
ing operation  with  a  wire  or  whalebone. 
Sheathing  the  tree  with  strips  of  thick 
paper,  straw,  or  cloth,  a  foot  wide,  is  a  good 
preventive,  if  kept  on  from  the  middle  of 
June  till  the  middle  of  October.  The 
paper  should  extend  two  inches  below 
the  surface,  the  dirt  being  scraped  away 
for  the  purpose.     After  adjusting  the  pa- 


per properly,  the  dirt  should  be  drawn 
back  and  pressed  down  firmly. 

Remedies. — We  have  had  ample  occa- 
sion to  witness  the  effects  of  the  mound- 
ing system  during  the  summer  in  several 
orchards,  and  are  fully  convinced  that  it 
is  the  best  practical  method  of  preventing 
the  attacks  of  this  insect,  and  that  it  mat- 
ters little  whether  ashes  or  simple  earth 
be  used  for  the  mound. 

CODLING  MOTH  OR  APPLE-WORM. 

The  apple-worm  we  find  to  be  quite 

common  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  civil- 
ized world  where  apples  are  grown.  Dr. 
Trimble  has  devoted  page  after  page  to 
the  consideration  of  this  little  pest,  and 
yet  its  whole  history  and  the  means  of 
preventing  its  insidious  work  may  be 
given  in  a  very  few  lines.  The  following  fig- 
ure represents  it  in  all  its  states,  and  gives 
at  a  glance  its  natural  history :  a  repre- 
sents a  section  of  an  apple  which  has 
been  attacked  by  the  worm,  showing  the 
burrowings  and  channel  of  exit  to  the 
left;  d,  the  point  at  which  the  egg  was 
laid  and  at  which  the  young  worm  enter- 
ed ;  <?,  the  full  grown  worm ;  hy  its  head 


Fig.  3. 

and  first  segment  magnified;  /,  the  co- 
coon which  it  spins ;  d,  the  chrysalis  to 
which  it  changes ;  /,  the  moth  which  es- 
capes from  the  chrysalis,  as  it  appears 
when  at  rest ;  g,  the  same  with  wings  ex- 
panded. The  worm  when  young  is  whit- 
ish, with  usually  an  entirely  black  head 
and  a  black  shield  on  the  top  of  the  first 
segment.  When  full  grown  it  acquires  a 
flesh  colored  or  pinkish  tint,  especially  on 
the  back,  and  the  head  and  top  of  first 


;ss 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


segment  become  more  brown,  being  usu- 
ally marked  as  at  Figure  3.  It  is  sparse- 
ly covered  with  very  minute  hairs,  which 
take  their  rise  from  minute  elevated 
points,  of  which  there  are  eight  on  each 
segment. 

The  Codling  moth  is  even  more  injuri- 
ous than  the  Curculio. 

In  latitude  thirty-eight  degrees  the 
moths  make  their  appearance  about  the 
first  of  May,  and  the  first  worms  begin  to 
leave  the  apples  from  the  5th  to  the  10th 
of  June  and  become  moths  again  by  the 
fore  part  of  July.  While  some  of  the 
first  worms  are  leaving  the  apples,  others 
are  but  just  hatched  from  later  deposited 
eggs,  and  thus  the  two  broods  run  into 
each  other;  but  the  second  brood  of 
worms  (the  progeny  of  the  moths  which 
hatch  out  after  the  1st  of  July),  invarially 
passes  the  winter  in  the  worm  or  larval 
state,  either  within  the  apple  after  it  is 
plucked,  or  within  the  cocoon.  We  have 
had  them  spin  up  as  early  as  the  latter 
part  of  August,  and  at  different  dates 
subsequently  till  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber, and  in  every  instance,  whether  they 
spun  up  early  or  late  in  the  year,  they 
remained  in  the  larval  state  till  the  mid- 
dle of  April,  when  they  all  changed  to 
chrysalids  within  a  few  days  of  each 
other. 

Though  the  Codling  moth  prefers  the 
apple  to  the  pear,  it  nevertheless  breeds 
freely  in  the  latter  fruit,  for  we  have  our- 
selves raised  the  moth  from  pear-boring 
larvse,  and  the  fact  was  recorded  many 
years  ago  by  the  German  entomologist, 
Kollar.  It  also  inhabits  the  fruit  of  the 
crab-apple  and  quince. 

Remedies. — Though  with  some  varie- 
ties of  the  apple,  the  fruit  remains  on 
the  tree  till  after  the  worm  has  left  it, 
yet  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  in- 
fested fruit  falls,  prematurely  with  the 
worm,  to  the  ground  j  hence  much  can 
be  done  toward  diminishing  the  num- 
bers of  this  little  pest  by  picking  up  and 
destroying  the  fallen  fruit  as  soon  as  it 
touches  the  ground.  For  this  purpose, 
hogs  will  again  be  found  quite  valuable, 
when  circumstances  allow  of  their  being 
turned  into  the  orchard.  Abundant  tes- 
timony might  be  given  to  prove  this. 

There  is,  however,  a  more  infallible 
remedy,  and  one  which  is  always  practi- 
cable.     It    is    that    of   entrapping  the 


worms.  This  can  be  done  by  hanging 
an  old  cloth  in  the  crotches  of  the  tree, 
or  by  what  is  known  as  Dr.  Trimble's, 
hay-band  system,  which  consists  of  twist- 
ing a  hay-band  twice  or  thrice  around 
the  trunk  of  the  tree. 

Many  of  the  worms  of  the  second 
brood  yet  remain  in  the  apples  even  after 
they  are  gathered  for  the  market.  These 
wormy  apples  are  barreled  up  with  the 
sound  ones,  and  stored  away  in  the  cellar 
or  in  the  barn.  From  them  the  worms 
continue  to  issue,  and  they  generally  find 
plenty  of  convenient  corners  about  the 
barrels  in  which  to  form  their  cocoons. 
Hundreds  of  these  cocoons  may  some- 
times be  found  around  a  single  barrel, 
and  it  therefore  becomes  obvious  that, 
no  matter  how  thoroughly  the  hay-band 
system  had  been  carried  out  during  the 
summer,  there  would  yet  remain  a  suffi- 
ciency in  such  situations  to  abundantly 
continue  the  species  another  year.  And 
when  we  consider  that  every  female  moth 
which  escapes  in  the  spring,  lays  from 
two  to  three  hundred  eggs,  and  thus 
spoils  so  many  apples,  the  practical  im- 
portance of  thoroughly  examining,  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  all  barrels  or  other 
vessels  in  which  apples  have  been  stored 
becomes  at  once  apparent.  It  should, 
therefore,  also  be  made  a  rule  to  destroy 
all  the  cocoons  which  are  found  on  such 
barrels  or  vessels  either  by  burning  them 
up  or  by  immersing  them  in  scalding 
hot  water. 

The  philosophy  of  the  hay-band  sys- 
tem is  simply  that  the  worms,  in  quit- 
ting the  fruit,  whether  while  it  is  on 
the  tree  or  on  the  ground,  in  their  search 
for  a  cozy  nook,  in  which  to  spin  up, 
find  the  shelter  given  by  the  hay-band 
just  the  thing,  and  in  ninety-nine  cases 
out  of  a  hundred,  they  will  accept  of  the 
lure,  if  no  other  more  enticing  be  in 
their  way.  We  have  thoroughly  tested 
this  remedy  the  past  summer,  and  have 
found  it  far  more  effectual  than  we  had 
anticipated,  wherever  the  above  rules- 
were  recognized.  Under  two  hay-bands 
which  were  kept  around  a  single  old  iso- 
lated tree,  through  the  months  of  June, 
July  and  August,  we  found  every  week 
of  the  last  two  months  an  average  of  fifty 
cocoons. 

CUT-WORMS.— There  are  several  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  insects  that  are  known  by 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       359. 


the  popular  name  of  cut-worm.  Thus, 
the  White-grub,  or  larva  of  the  common 
May  beetle,  and  the  different  species  of 
wire-worms,  the  larvae  of  our  Click  bee- 
tles (Elater  family)  are  all  called  cut- 
worms in  some  part  or  other  of  the 
United  States.  But  we  shall  confine  the 
term  to  those  caterpillars,  which,  for  the 
most  part,  have  the  habit  of  hiding  just 
under  the  surface  of  the  earth  during  the 
day,  and  feeding  either  on  the  roots, 
stems  or  leaves  of  plants  during  the 
night. 

Most  of  these  caterpillars  have  the 
very  destructive  habit  of  cutting,  or  en- 
tirely severing  the  plant  on  which  they 
feed  just  above  or  below  the  ground.  On 
this  account  they  have  received  the  name 
of  Cut-worms,  and  not  because  when  cut 
in  two,  each  end  will  reproduce  itself  as 
some  people  have  supposed;  for  although 
some  polyps  and  other  animals  belonging 
to  the  great  class  Radiata  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  have  this  curious  power  of 
multiplying  by  division,  it  is  not  possess- 
ed by  any  insect,  and  after  having  muti- 
lated one  of  these  cut-worms,  the  farmer 
need  never  fear  that  he  has  thereby  in- 
creased, instead  of  having  decreased  their 
number.  From  this  habit  of  cutting, 
they  prove  a  far  greater  nuisance  than  if 
they  were  to  satisfy  their  appetites  in  an 
honest  manner.  In  the  latter  case  we 
might  feel  like  letting  them  go  their  own 
way  in  peace,  but  as  with  the  Baltimore 
oriole,  which  abrades  and  ruins  a  hun- 
dred grapes  where  it  would  require  one 
for  food,  we  feel  vexed  at  such  wanton 
destruction  of  our  products,  and  would 
gladly  rid  ourselves  of  such  nuisances. 

These  caterpillars  are  called  surface  ca- 
terpillars in  England,  in  which  country, 
as  well  as  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
they  have  long  been  known  to  do  great 
damage  to  vegetables,  and  especially  to 
the  cabbage,  mangel-wurzel  and  turnip. 
There  are  many  different  species,  and 
they  vary  in  size  and  detail  of  markings ; 
but  all  of  them  are  smooth,  naked  and 
greasy-looking  worms  of  some  shade  of 
green,  gray,  brown  or  black,  with  a  pol- 
ished, scaly  head,  and  a  shield  of  the 
same  color  on  the  top  of  the  first  and  last 
segments ;  while  most  of  them  have  sev- 
eral minute  shiny  spots  on  the  other  seg- 
ments, each  spot  giving  rise  to  a  minute 
stiff  hair.    They  also  have  the  habit  of 


curling  up  in  a  ball  when  disturbed. 
They  produce  moths  of  sombre  colors' 
which  are  known  as  Owlet  or  Rustic 
moths,  and  the  species  that  have  so  far' 
been  bred  in  this  country,  belong  to  one 
or  other  of  the  four  genera,  Agrotis,  Ha- 
dena,  Mamestra  or  Celaena.  These 
moths  fly,  for  the  most  part,  by  night,, 
though  some  lew  of  them  may  be  seen 
flying  by  day,  especially  in  cloudy  weath- 
er. They  frequently,  even  in  large  cities, 
rush  into  a  room,  attracted  by  the  light  of 
gas  or  candle,  into  which  they  heedlessly 
plunge  and  singe  themselves.  They  rest 
with  the  wings  closed  more  or  less  flatly 
over  the  body,  the  upper  ones  entirely 
covering  the  lower  ones,  and  these  upper 
wings  always  have  two  more  or  less  dis- 
tinctly marked  spots,  the  one  round,  the 
other  kidney-shaped. 

The  natural  history  of  most  of  these 
cut-worms  may  be  thus  briefly  given. 
The  parent  moth  attaches  her  eggs  to* 
some  substance  near  the  ground,  or  de- 
posits them  on  plants,  mostly  during  the  ■ 
latter  part  of  summer,  though  occasion- 
ally in  the  spring  of  the  year.  Those- 
which  are  deposited  during  late  summer, - 
hatch  early  in  the  fall,  and  the  young 
worms,  crawling  into  the  ground,  feed' 
upon  the  tender  roots  and  shoots  of  herb- 
acious  plants.  At  this  time  of  the  year,, 
the  worms  being  small  and  their  foodplen- 
tiful,  the  damage  they  do  is  seldom  no- 
ticed. On  the  approach  of  winter  they 
are  usually  about  two-thirds  grown,  when 
the  descend  deeper  into  the  ground,  and, 
curling  themselves  up,  remain  in  a  torpid 
state  till  the  following  spring.  When 
spring  returns,  they  are  quite  ravenous, 
and  their  cutting  propensities  having  fully 
developed,  they  ascend  to  the  surface 
and  attack  the  first  green  succulent  vege- 
tation that  comes  in  their  way.  When 
once  full  grown  they  descend  deeper  into 
the  earth,  and  form  for  themselves  oval 
chambers  in  which  they  change  to  chry- 
salids.  In  this  state  they  remain  from 
two  to  four  weeks,  and  finally  come  forth- 
as  moths,  during  the  months  of  Juner 
July  and  August,  the  chrysalis  skin  being 
in  most  cases  so  thin  that  it  is  impossible 
to  preserve  it.  These  moths  in  time 
lay  eggs,  and  their  progeny  goes  through 
the  same  cycle  of  changes.  Some  spe- 
cies, however,  as  we  shall  presently  show, 
are  most  likely  two-brooded,  while  others 


360 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


pass  through  the  winter  in  the  chrysalis 
state. 

Remedies. — The  climbing   cut-worms 
are  easily  headed  off  by  a  little  vigilance. 
From  the  orchard  planted  upon    light, 
warm  soils  they  can  be  driven  away  en- 
tirely by  claying  the  ground  about  the 
trees ;  a  wheelbarrow  full  is  nigh  enough 
for  each  tree  when  spread  around  its  base 
and  as  far  as  the  limbs  extend.     This  is 
the  most  thorough  and  lasting.     A  small 
strip  of  tin,  three  inches  wide,  carefully 
secured  around  the  body  of  the  tree,  will 
effectually  prevent  their  ascension ;  if  the 
tin  is  old  and  rusty  it  will  require  to  be  a 
little  wider.     Each  night,  after  the  swell- 
ing of  the  bud,  an  hour  or  two  after  mid- 
night a  slight  jar  of  the  tree  will  bring 
every  one  on  it  down,  when  they  can  be 
caught  in  a  spread  sheet  and  destroyed. 
This  will  have  to  be  followed  up  till  the 
bud  has  unfolded  into  the  leaf,  after  which 
there  is  no  longer  anything  to  be  appre- 
hended from  the  worm.      The  reasons 
why  the  clay  is  so  efficient  are  two-fold : 
1.  The  worms  seem  to  have  an  instinctive 
"dislike  to  crawling  over  it.     2.  In  drop- 
ping from  the  tree  on  the  hard  surface 
they  are  frequently  disabled,  and  whether 
■disabled  or  not,  they  cannot  immediately 
burrow  into  it  as  in  sand,  and  they  are  all 
the  more  exposed  to  their  numerous  mid- 
night enemies  which  are  ever  watching 
for  them. 

For  the  common  field  cut-worms  we 
are  convinced  that  there  is  no  better  rem- 
edy, as  a  rule,  than  hunting  and  killing 
them.  It  is  generally  believed  that  ashes 
and  lime  used  about  plants  will  keep  off 
cut-worms,  and  we  might  fill  pages  with  re- 
corded experiments,  going  to  prove  the 
good  effects  of  these  substances.  The 
experimenters  generally  forget,  however, 
that  there  is  a  period  in  the  life  of  these 
worms  when  they  of  themselves  go  down 
in  the  earth  and  disappear,  and  anything 
applied  just  before  this  happens  is  sure  to 
be  heralded  forth  as  a  perfect  remedy. 
Experiments  show,  however,  that  when 
placed  in  a  box  with  separate  quantities 
of  ashes,  lime,  salt  and  mold,  they  will 
burrow  and  hide  in  all  of  them,  but  es- 
pecially in  the  ashes  and  mold.  Soot 
seems  to  be  more  obnoxious  to  them,  and, 
although  we  have  not  yet  had  an  opportu- 
nity to  give  it  a  thorough  test,  we  do  not 
*ish  to  discourage  its  trial.  Fall  plowing, 


to  be  efficacious,  must  be  done  very  late 
in  the  fall,  when  the  worms  are  numbed 
with  cold,  and  then  we  think  it  is  of  doubt- 
ful utility  further  than  it  exposes  them  to 
the  attacks  of  enemies,  including  birds. 

POTATO  STALK-BORER.— This  larva 
(Fig.  4,)  is  of  a  livid  hue  when  young, 
with  light  stripes  along  the  body,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  When  full  grown  it  gener- 
ally becomes  lighter,  with  the  longitudi- 


nal 
it 

5- 


3.  2 

Fig.  4. — Potato  Stalk-Borer. 

lines    broader,    and    at    this    time 
more    frequently    resembles    Figure 
It  commonly  burrows  in  large  stalks 
of  the  potato; 
but  it  is  not  pe- 
culiar   to    that 
plant,  as  it  oc- 
Fig  5..  curs  also  in  the 

stalks  of  the  tomato,  and  in  those  of  the 
dahlia  and  aster  and  other  garden  flow- 
ers. We  have  likewise  found  it  boring 
through  the  cob  of  growing  Indian  corn, 
and  strangely  confining  itself  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  ear :  though  it  is  likewise 
found  occasionally  in  the  stem  of  that  plant. 
By  way  of  compensation,  it  is  particularly 
partial  to  the  stem  of  the  common  cock- 
lebur  {Xanthium  strumarium)  ;  and  if  it 
would  only  confine  itself  to  such  noxious 
weeds  as  this,  it  might  be  considered  as  a 
friend  instead  of  any  enemy. 

Remedy  —  Prevention.  —  The  careful 
florist,  by  an  occasional  close  inspection 
of  his  plants  about  the  beginning  of  July, 
may  detect  the  point  at  which  the  borer 
entered,  which  is  generally  quite  a  dis- 
tance from  the  ground,  and  can  then  cut 
him  out  without  injury  to  the  plant.  As 
this  is  not  feasible  in  a  large  potato  field, 
care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  his  at- 
tacks another  year  as  far  as  possible  to  do 
so,  by  hunting  for  him  wherever  a  vine  is 
seen  to  suddenly  wilt. 

POTATO  STALK-WEEVIL.— This  insect 
is  more  particularly  a  Southern  species, 
occurring  abundantly  in  the  Middle 
States,  but,  according  to  Dr.   Harris,  be- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      361 


ing  totally  unknown  in  New  England. 
The  beetle  (Fig.  7)  is  of  a  blueish  or  ash 
gray  color,  distinguished,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, by  having  three  shiny  black  im- 
pressed spots  at  the  lower  edge  of  the 
thorax.  The  female  deposits  a  single 
egg  in  an  oblong  slit  about  one-eighth 
inch  long,  which  she  has  previously  form- 
ed with  her  beak  in  the  stalk  of  the 
potato.  The  larva  subsequently  hatches 
out,  and  bores  into  the  heart  of  the  stalk, 
always  proceeding  downward  toward  the 
root.  When  full  grown,  it  is  a  little  over 
one-fourth  inch  long  (Fig.  6),  and  is  a 
soft,  whitish,  legless  grub,  with  a  scaly 
head.  Hence  it  can  always  be  readily 
•distinguished  from  the  larva  of  the  Stalk- 


Fig.  6. — Potato  Stalk-Weevil. 

borer,  which  has  invariably  sixteen  legs, 
no  matter  how  small  it  may  be.  Un- 
like this  last  insect,  it  becomes  a  pupa 
.(Fig.  6)  within  the  potato  stalk  which  it 
inhabits ;  and  it  comes  out  in  the  beetle 
state  about  the  last  of  August  or  the  be- 
ginning of  September. 

Remedy. — Same  as  with  the  foregoing 
species.  Burn  all  the  vines  which  wilt 
from  its  attacks — roots  and  all,  for  it  al- 
most always  works  below  ground.  The 
stalk-borer  must  bo  searched  for,  if  one 
will  be  sure  of  killing  him  as  he  leaves 
the  stalk  to  transform;  but  as  this  stalk- 
weevil  transforms  within  the  vine,  one 
may  be  pretty  sure  of  destroying  it  by 
turning  the  vines  when  they  first  wilt. 

POTATO  or  TOMATO  WOEM.—This 
-well-known  insect,  the  larva  of  which  is 
usually  called  the  potato  worm,  but  it  is 
far  commoner  on  the  closely  allied  toma- 
to, the  foliage  of  which  it  often  clears  off 
"very  completely  in  particular  spots  in  a 
single  night.  Many  persons  are  afraid 
to  handle  this  worm,  from  an  absurd 
idea  that  it  has  the  power  of  stinging 
with  the  horn  on  its  tail.  But  this  is  a 
vulgar  error,  and  the  worm  is  totally 
incapable  of  doing  any  direct  harm  to 
man,   either  with  the  conspicuous  horn 


on  its  tail,  or  with  any  hidden  weapon 
that  it  may  have  concealed  about  its 
person.  In  fact,  this  dreadful  looking 
horn  is  not  peculiar  to  the  potato  worm, 
but  is  met  with  in  almost  all  the  larvae  cf 
the  large  and  beautiful  group  to  which  it 
belongs  (Sphinx  family.)  It  seems  to 
have  no  special  use,  but,  like  the  bunch 
of  hair  on  the  breast  of  the  turkey  cock, 
to  be  a  mere  ornamental  appendage. 

When  full-fed,  which  is  usually  about 
the  last  of  August,  the  Potato  worm  bur- 
rows under  ground  and  shortly  after- 
wards transforms  into  the  pupa  state. 
The  pupa  is  often  dug  up  in  the  spring 
from  ground  where  tomatoes  or  pota- 
toes were  grown  in  the  preceding  sea- 
son ;  and  most  persons  that  meet  with  it . 
suppose  that  the  singular,  jug-handled 
appendage  at  one  end  of  it  is  its  tail. 
In  reality,  however,  it  is  the  tongue-case, 
and  contains  the  long  pliable  tongue 
which  the  future  moth  will  employ  in 
lapping  up  the  nectar  of  the  flowers,  be- 
fore which,  in  the  dusky  gloom  of  some 
warm,  balmy  summer's  evening,  it  hangs 
for  a  few  moments  suspended  in  the  air, 
like  the  glorified  ghost  of  some  departed 
botanist. 

The  moth  itself  was  formerly  confound  - 
ed  with  the  Tobacco- worm  moth  {Sphin  x 
Carolina,  Linnaeus),  which  indeed  it  ve  ry 
closely  resembles,  having '  the  same  se- 
ries of  orange-colored  spots  on  each  side 
of  the  abdomen.  The  gray  and  black 
markings,  however,  of  the  wings  differ 
perceptibly  in  the  two  species ;  and  in 
the  Tobacco-worm  moth  there  is  always 
a  more  or  less  faint  white  spot  or  dot 
near  the  center  of  the  front  wing,  which 
is  never  met  with  in  the  other  species.  In 
Connecticut  and  other  northern  States 
where  tobacco  is  grown,  the  Potato- 
worm  often  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  the 
tobacco  plant,  the  true  Tobacco-worm 
being  unknown  in  those  latitudes.  In 
the  more  southerly  States,  on  the  other 
hand,  and  in  Mexico  and  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  true  Potato-worm  is  unknown, 
and  it  is  the  Tobacco-worm  that  the  to- 
bacco growers  have  to  fight.  While  in 
the  intermediate  country  both  species 
may  frequently  be  captured  on  the  wing 
in  the  same  garden  and  upon  the  same 
evening.  In  other  words,  the  Potato- 
worm  is  a  northern  species,  the  Tobacco- 
worm  a  southern  species;   but  on   the 


362 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


confines  of  the  two  districts  exclusively 
inhabited  by  each,  they  intermingle  in  va- 
rying proportions,  according  to  the  lati- 
tude. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  so  large 
and  conspicuous  that  the  most  effectual 
mode  of  destroying  it  is  by  hand-picking. 
In  destroying  the  worms  in  this  manner 
care  should  be  taken  to  leave  alone  all 
those  specimens  which  one  finds  covered 
with  little  white  oval  cocoons,  as  these 
are  the  cocoons  of  little  parasites  which 
materially  assist  us  in  its  subjugation. 

STRIPED  BLISTER  BEETLE.— The 
Striped  Blister  Beetle  is  almost  exclusive- 
ly a  southern  species,  occurring  in  partic- 
ular years  very  abundantly  on  the  potato 
vine  in  Central  and  Southern  Illinois,  and 
in  Missouri,  though,  according  to  Dr. 
Harris,  it  is  also  occasionally  found  even 
in  New  England.  In  some  specimens, 
the  broad  outer  black  stripe  on  the  wing 
cases  is  divided  lengthwise  by  a  slender 
yellow  line,  so  that  instead  of"  two  there 
are  three  black  stripes  on  each  wing-case ; 
and  in  the  same  field  all  the  intermediate 
grades  between  the  two  varieties  may  be 
met  with. 

This  species  (Fig.  7)  is  the  one  com- 
monly found  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of 
the  Northern  States,  where  it  usually  takes 
the  place  of  the  Striped  Blister-beetle  fig- 
ured above.  It  is  of  a  uniform  ash-gray  col- 
or; but  this  color  is  given  it  by  the  presence 
upon  its  body  of  minute  ash-gray  scales 
or  short  hairs,  and  whenever  these  are 
rubbed  off,  which  happens  almost  as 
readily  as  on  the  wings  of  a  butterfly,  the 
original  black  color  of  its  hide  appears. 
It  attacks  not  only  potato  vines,  but  also 
honey-locusts,  and 
especially  the  Eng- 
1  i  s  h  or  Windsor 
bean,  and  we  found 
^_it  quite  abundant 
on  the  Early  Snap 
bean.  It  also  at- 
tacks the  foliage  of 
J-the  apple  tree,  and 
likewise  gnaws  in- 

^1G'  7'      to  the  young  fruit. 

BLACK  BLISTER-BEETLE. —  This 
species  is  very  similar  in  appearance  to 
the  Black-rat  Blister-beetle;  the  latter 
being  distinguishable  from  it  only  by 
having  four  raised  lines  placed  lengthwise 
upon  each  wing-case  and  by  the  two  first 


joints  of  the  antennae  being  greatly 
dilated  and  lengthened  in  the  males,  as 
shown  at  Figure  c.  The  Black  Blister- 
beetle  appears  in  August  and  September, 
and  is  very  common  on  the  flowers  of 
the  Golden-rod.  As  a  general  rule,  it 
makes  its  appearance  too  late  in  the 
season  to  do  great  damage. 

MARGINED  BLISTER  -BEETLE.  — 
This  species  may  be  at  once  recognized 
by  its  general  black  color,  and  the  narrow 
ash-gray  edging  to  its  wing-cases.  It 
usually  feeds  on  certain  wild  plants ;  but 
we  found  it  quite  abundant  on  potatoes 
last  summer,  both  in  Missouri  and  in 
Illinois.  It  appears  not  to  attack  the 
Peach  Blow  variety. 

Remedies. — The  same  remedies  will 
apply  equally  to  all  three  of  the  blister- 
beetles  that  have  just  been  described. 
Let  it  be  remembered  that  during  the 
heat  of  the  day,  these  beetles  are  ready 
with  their  wings  and  may  be  driven  from 
the  vines.  Thus  the  most  practical  and 
efficient  mode  of  destroying  them*  is  to 
drive  them  into  a  windrow  of  hay  or 
straw,  and  kill  them  by  setting  fire  to  it. 
As  they  all  appear  rather  late  in  the 
season,  we  should  recommend  the  plant- 
ing of  early  varieties,  which  will  be  more 
likely  to  escape  their  attacks ;  and  espe- 
cially of  the  Peach  Blow  variety,  the 
leaves  of  which  seem  to  be  more  distaste- 
ful to  them  than  those  of  any  other 
variety. 

THREE-LINED  LEAF  -  BEETLE.  — 
The  three  first  insects,  described  and 
figured  above  as   infesting   the  potato- 


FlG.  8.  Three-Lined  Leaf-Beetle., 
plant,  attack  it  only  in  the  larva  statev 
The  five  next,  namely  the  three  Blister- 
beetles,  attack  it  exclusively  in  the  perfect 
state.  The  three  that  remain  to  be  con- 
sidered attack  it  both  in  the  larva  and  in 
the  perfect  state,  but  go  underground  to 
pass  into  the  pupa  state,  in  which  state — 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       365 


like  all  other  beetles,  without  exception — 
they  are  quiescent,  and  eat  nothing  at 
all. 

The  larva  of  the  Three-Lined  Leaf- 
Beetle  may  be  distinguished  from  all 
other  insects  that  prey  upon  the  potato 
by  its  habit  of  covering  itself  with  its 
own  excrement.  In  figure  8,  this  larva 
is  shown  in  profile,  both  full  and  half 
grown,  covered  with  the  soft,  greenish 
excrementitious  matter  which  from  time 
to  time  it  discharges.  Figure  7  gives  a 
somewhat  magnified  view  of  the  pupa; 
and  Figure  8  shows  the  last  few  joints 
of  the  abdomen  ot  the  larva,  magnified, 
and  viewed,  not  in  profile,  but  from 
above.  The  vent  of  the  larva,  as  will 
be  seen  from  this  last  figure,  is  situated 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  last  joint,  so 
that  its  excrement  naturally  falls  upon  its 
back,  and  by  successive  discharges  is 
pushed  forward  towards  its  head,  till  the 
whole  upper  surface  of  the  insect  is 
covered  with  it.  In  other  insects,  which 
do  not  indulge  in  this  singular  practice, 
the  vent  is  situated  either  at  the  extreme 
tip  of  the  abdomen  or  on  its  lower 
surface. 

There  are  several  other  larvae,  feeding 
upon  other  plants,  which  commonly  wear 
cloaks  of  this  strange  material,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  one  which  is 
very  common  upon  the  Sumach,  and 
which  produces  a  jumping,  oval  Leaf- 
beetle,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long, 
and  of  a  yellow  color,  speckled  with 
brick-red.  The  larvae  of  certain  Tortoise- 
beetles,  some  of  which  feed  on  the 
Morning  Glory  and  the  Sweet  Potato 
vines,  adopt  the  same  practice,  but  in 
their  case  there  is  a  forked  process  at  the 
tail  which  curves  over  their  backs  and 
receives  the  requisite  supply  of  excre- 
ment. 

There  are  two  broods  of  this  species 
every  year.  The  first  brood  of  larvae 
may  be  found  on  the  potato  vine  toward 
the  latter  end  of  June,  and  the  second  in 
August.  The  first  brood  stays  under- 
ground about  a  fortnight  before  it  emerges 
in  the  perfect  beetle  state;  and  the 
second  brood  stays  there  all  winter,  and 
only  emerges  at  the  beginning  of  the 
following  June.  The  perfect  beetle  is  of 
a  pale  yellow  color,  with  three  black 
stripes  on  its  back,  and  bears  a  general 
resemblance  to  the  common  Cucumber- 


beetle.  From  this  last  species,  however, 
it  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the 
remarkable  pinching  in  of  the  sides  of 
its  thorax,  so  as  to  make  quite  a  lady-like 
waist  there,  or  what  naturalists  call  a 
"  constriction."  It  is  also  on  the  average 
a  somewhat  larger  insect,  and  differs  in 
other  less  obvious  respects.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  Colorado  Potato-beetle,  the 
female,  after  coupling  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, lays  her  yellow  eggs  (Fig.  8)  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  leaves  of  the  potato 
plant.  The  larvae  hatching  from  these 
require  about  the  same  time  to  develop, 
and  when  full  grown  descend  in  the  same 
manner  into  the  ground,  where  they 
transform  to  pupae  (Fig.  8)  within  a  small 
oval  chamber,  from  which  in  time  the 
perfect  beetle  comes  forth. 

The  Three-lined  Leaf-beetle,  in  certain 
seasons,  is  a  great  pest  in  the  Eastern 
States ;  but,  it  has  never  yet  occurred  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  in  such 
numbers  as  to  be  materially  injurious. 

APPLE-BOOT  PLANT-LOUSE.— The 
roots  of  the  apple  tree  are  very  often 
found  to  rot,  and  thus  cause  the  death  of 
the  tree.  Of  these  rots  there  appear  to 
be  three  distinct  kinds.  One  kind  is  that 
popularly  known  as  "rotten  root"  in 
Southern  Illinois,  and  seems  to  be  a 
simple  decomposition  of  the  vegetable 
tissue,  analagous  to  the  rotting  of  the 
root  of  a  cabbage,  for  instance.  Its 
cause  is  not  clearly  understood,  though 
it  seems  to  be  a  consequence  of  certain 
conditions  of  the  soil.  The  other  rot 
was  discovered  during  1875,  by  Doctor 
Hull,  of  Alton,  Illinois,  and  is  a  fungoid 
growth,  which,  after  covering  the  root 
with  a  thin  layer  of  white  fibrous  sub- 
stance, causes  a  sort  of  dry  rot  of  the  root, 
and  which  is  common  to  both  the  pear 
and  the  apple.  Some  of  the  symptoms 
of  this  rot  are :  a  rather  earlier  develop- 
ment or  maturity  of  the  branches ;  an  ex- 
cess of  fruit  buds,  and  a  shortening  or 
thickening  of  some  twigs. 

Although  this  insect  usually  confines 
itself  to  the  roots  of  the  tree,  yet  a  few 
may  occasionally  be  found  on  the  suckers 
that  spring  up  round  the  butt  of  the 
trunk,  and  even  on  the  trunk  and  limbs, 
especially  in  places  where  a  branch  has 
been  formerly  amputated,  and  nature  is 
closing  up  the  old  wound  by  a  circle  of 
new  bark.     Where  it  works  upon  the 


364 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


naked  trunk,  it  often  causes  a  mass  of 
little  granulations  to  sprout  out,  about  the 
size  of  cabbage  seeds,  thus  producing  on 
a  small  scale,  the  same  effects  that  it  does 
upon  the  roots.  Wherever  the  insect 
■works,  small  as  it  is,  it  may  be  easily  re- 
cognized by  the  peculiar  blueish-white 
cottony  matter  which  it  secretes  from  its 
body,  and  which  is  never  met  with  in  the 
case  of  the  common  Apple-tree  Plant 
louse  that  inhabits  the  leaves  and  the  tips 
of  the  twigs. 

Fig.  a,   as     represented    below,   fully 
illustrates  the  Apple-root  Plant  louse.    A 


Fig.  9. 
portion  of  a  knotty  root  as  it  appears  af- 
ter the  punctures  of  the  lice  is  represent- 
ed at  a,  the  larva  state  at  b,  and  the 
winged  state  at  c;  while  d  represents  the 
leg,  e  the  proboscis,/"  the  antenna  of  the 
winged  individual,  and  g  that  of  the 
larva,  all  highly  magnified.  The  young 
louse  is  of  a  deep  flesh  or  pink  color,  and 
the  proboscis  extends  the  whole  length 
of  the  body,  while  the  older  specimens 
have  a  deeper,  purplish  hue. 

Remedies. — The  best  mode  to  get  rid 
of  the  Apple-root  Plant-louse  is  to  drench 
the  roots  of  the  infested  tree  with  hot 
water.  But  to  render  this  process  effect- 
ual, the  water  must  be  applied  in  quan- 
tities large  enough  to  penetrate  to  every 
part  of  the  infested  roots.  There  need 
be  no  fear  of  any  injurious  result  from 
such  an  application  of  hot  water;  for  it  is 
a  very  general  rule  that  vegetable  or- 
ganisms can,  for  a  short  time,  stand  a 
much  higher  temperature  than  animal 
organisms,  without  any  injury  to  their 
tissues.  In  laying  bare  the  roots  for  the 
better  application  of  the  water,  a  sharp 
eye  should  be  kept  for  the  friends  above 


described,  and  when  espied  they  should 
be  tenderly  laid  aside  till  after  the 
slaughter  of  the  enemy.  Mulching 
around  the  infested  trees  has  been  found, 
by  Mr.  E.  A.  Riehl  and  others,  of  Alton, 
Illinois,  to  have  the  effect  of  bringing  the 
lice  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where 
they  can  be  more  easily  reached  by  the 
hot  water. 

ELM  TEEE  BEETLE.— Many  com- 
plaints have  been  made  about  the  elms  in 
cities  being  destroyed  by  a  small  worm, 
where  the  trees  have  been  planted  in  the 
streets  for  shade  and  ornament,  and  have 
attained  a  considerable  size.  We  will 
here  give  a  condensed  history  of  the  bee- 
tle and  its  habits:  This  insect  is  gener- 
ally known  as  the  elm-tree  beetle,  (Gal- 
etuca  calmariensis^)  and  is  a  small,  striped 
beetle,  somewhat  resembling  the  three- 
lined  leaf  or  striped  cucumber  beetle, 
but  much  smaller,  and  of  a  dull,  yellow- 
ish-gray color,  with  only  one  dark  line 
and  spot  on  each  wing  case.  This 
insect  deposits  its  eggs  in  clusters  up- 
on the  leaves,  the  worms  or  larva? 
from  which  are  hatched  out  in  a  few 
days,  and  immediately  commence  to  feed 
upon  the  parenchyma,  or  soft  pulpy  sub- 
stance of  the  leaf,  at  first  making  mere- 
ly small  blotches,  but  eventually,  as  they 
increase  in  size,  destroying  the  whole 
leaf,  leaving  only  the  harder  part,  such 
as  the  mid-ribs  and  network  of  veins, 
untouched,  thus  causing  the  leaves  to 
turn  brown  and  wither,  until  the  whole 
tree  assumes  the  appearance  of  having 
been  scorched  by  fire.  These  worms, 
when  fully  grown  and  ready  to  change 
into  pupae,  not  being  able  to  descend  by 
means  of  a  silken  thread,  like  the  real 
caterpillars,  crawl  down  the  trunk  to  the 
ground,  and,  soon  casting  their  larva 
skin,  change  into  pupae  on  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  at  the  foot  of  the 
tree  they  have  despoiled.  Some  of  the 
worms,  however,  conceal  themselves  in 
fissures  of  the  bark,  where  they  undergo 
their  transformation  into  the  perfect  bee- 
tle. These  last,  however,  are  few,  and 
bear  no  comparison  with  the  multitudes 
of  pupae  which  will  be  found  on  the 
damp  ground,  motionless,  helpless,  and 
appearing  like  grains  of  wheat  accident- 
ally fallen  near  the  tree.  After  becoming 
pupae,  in  a  few  days  the  skin  of  the  back 
splits  open,  and  the  perfect  insect  crawls 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


>*S 


forth,  furnished  with  wings,  by  means  of 
which  it  is  enabled  to  fly  to  other  trees 
and  deposit  its  eggs,  thus  spreading  the 
nuisance  to  every  elm  in  the  neighbor- 
hood ;  or  it  may  ascend  the  same  tree 
and  lay  the  eggs  for  a  second  generation, 
which  destroys  the  second  crop  of  leaves, 
frequently  so  enfeebling  the  already  ex- 
hausted tree  that  it  is  unable  to  recover, 
and  eventually  perishes.  If  the  trees  are 
examined  daily  when  the  worms  first  ap- 
pear on  the  foliage,  which  may  be  known 
by  the  leaves  exhibiting  a  somewhat 
blotched  appearance,  it  will  be  found  that 
in  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks  mul- 
titudes of  worms  have  left  the  leaves,  and 
are  slowly  descending  the  trunk  for  the 
purpose  of  undergoing  their  final  trans- 
formation on  earth,  under  stones  or  moss, 
near  the  collar  of  the  tree,  and  in  two  or 
three  days  the  pupae  may  be  killed  by 
crushing  under  foot,  when  lying  heaped 
up  and  incapable  of  locomotion.  This  is 
the  best  time  to  destroy  them,  as  the 
worms  are  scattered  over  the  whole  tree, 


and  the  perfect  insect  is  much  too  nimble 
to  allow  itself  to  be  caught.  Were  the 
base  of  each  tree  encased  in  a  low,  open 
box,  about  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  ini 
height,  placed  at  the  same  distance  from 
the  main  trunk,  having  its  lower  part  sunk 
four  or  five  inches  below  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  the  top  capped  with  strips  of 
bright  tin,  sloping  inwards,  and  projecting 
on  both  sides  like  the  eaves  of  a  house, 
and  the  upper  half  of  the  inside  boards 
painted  every  morning  with  coal  tar  or 
some  other  viscid  substance,  the  larvae 
could  not  crawl  out  over  it,  the  helpless 
and  motionless  pupae  would  be  found 
collected  in  heaps  within  the  enclosure, 
and  could  be  killed  by  thousands  without 
much  trouble.  It  might  be  advisable  to 
cover  the  ground  inside  with  cement  or 
mortar,  so  that  the  worms  could  not  pos- 
sibly burrow  underneath  the  board  fence 
and  escape.  The  same  box  might  also- 
succeed  in  keeping  the  female  of  the 
canker  worm  from  ascending  the  fruit 
trees  to  deposit  her  eggs,  but  in  that  case. 


Fig.  io. 


coal  tar  should  be  put  on  the  outside  of 
the  box,  as  these  insects  want  to  crawl 
inside  in  order  to  climb  up  the  trunk, 
instead  of  descending  and  then  scattering 
themselves  over  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
like  the  elm-tree  beede.  Such  temporary 
boxes  might  be  made  so  as  to  be  removed 
when  not  required,  and  put  into  some 
safe  place  to  be  used  another  season.  If 
stationary,  the  same  tin  gutters  now  so 
extensively  used  in  the  Northern  States  to 
obstruct  the  canker  worm,  and  usually 
placed  around  the  tree  itself,  could  be 
put  around  the  box  at  some  distance  from 
the  tree,  and  so  prevent  the  oil,  tar,  or 
whatever  is  in  them  from  being  spilled 
and  injuring  the  bark,  and  at  the  same 
time  answer  the  purpose  just  as  well  in 
preventing  the  wingless  female  from 
ascending  the  trunk  to  deposit  her  eggs. 
NEW  GRAPE-ROOT  BORER. —  The 
larvae  of  this  insect,  in  general  appear- 


ance, resemble  those  of  the  peach-tree 
borer,  and  work  in  the  same  manner 
under  ground,  but  destroy  the  roots  by 
gnawing  into  them,  and  are  sometimes, 
said  to  be  shielded  from  outward  applica- 
tions by  a  coating  of  the  bark.  It  is, 
evident  that  this  pest  is  spreading,  and 
may  in  a  short  time  prove  as  disastrous 
to  the  vineyards  as  the  peach-tree  borer 
is  to  the  peach  orchards.  This  insect 
working  underground,  its  ravages  cannot 
be  seen  until  the  vine  becomes  sickly. 

Remedies. — It  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  grape-grower  to  examine  the 
roots  of  all  unhealthy-looking  grape-vines 
in  the  vineyard,  wherever  the  insect  has; 
effected  a  lodgment  in  the  neighborhood, 
at  least  twice  a  year,  and  any  larvae  or 
pupae  found  should  be  cut  out  and  de- 
stroyed at  once.  The  Scuppernong  grape 
alone  is  said  to  be  exempt  from  the 
attacks   of  the   grape-vine   borer.      The 


26G 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


pupse  are  formed  in  rough  oval  cocoons 
of  a  gummy  substance,  covered  outwardly 
with  particles  of  wood  and  dirt,  and  the 
perfect  insect  makes  its  appearance  from 
June  to  September. 

Little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of 
extirpating  these  underground  borers, 
when,  as  in  the  present  instance, 
,their  presence  is  only  indicated  by  the 
'approaching  death  of  the  vine.  Still, 
every  vineyardist  should  make  it  a  rule  to 
search  for  them  wherever  they  find  vines 
suddenly  dying  from  any  cause  unknown 
to  them,  and  upon  finding  such  a  borer 
should  at  once  put  an  end  to  his  exist- 
ence. The  beetle  which  may  frequently 
be  found  during  the  summer  months, 
should  also  be  ruthlessly  sacrificed  where 
ever  met  with.  We  should  also  advise 
not  to  plant  a  vineyard  on  land  covered 
with  old  oak  stumps,  and  not  to  use  oak 
stakes  where  those  made  of  cedar  can  be 
had  as  conveniently. 

GRAPE-CANE    GALL-CXTRCULIO— 

The  canes  of  the  Concord  vines  are  fre- 
quently found  to  have  galls  on  the  last 
year's  growth,  in  the  shape  of  an  elon- 
gated knot  or  swelling  which  is  generally 
situated  above  or  below  a  joint.  This 
gall  was  formed  the  previous  fall  while 
the  tender  cane  was  growing,  and  has 
almost  invariably  a  longitudinal  slit  or 
depression  on  one  side,  dividing  that  side 
into  two  cheeks,  which  generally  have  a 
rosy  tint.  The  gall  is  caused  by  a  little 
footless,  white  cylindrical  larva  which 
measures  0.28  of  an  inch,  and  has  a 
yellowish  head,  and  somewhat  darker 
tawny  jaws.  It  is  minutely  wrinkled 
transversely,  and  sparsely  covered  with 
minute  white  bristles;  the  three  segments 
next  to  the  head  being  prominently 
swollen  underneath  and  the  bristles  at- 
tached to  them  look  very  much  like  legs, 
and  doubtless  to  some  extent  perform  the 
functions  of  legs.  This  larva  indeed 
bears  a  very  close  general  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  Potato  Stalk- weevil,  and  when 
taken  out  of  its  gall  immediately  curls  up. 
It  is  of  a  uniform  light  yellowish  brown 
without  any  markings  whatever.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  the  Potato  Stalk-weevil, 
but  belongs  to  the  genus  Madams  which 
differs  from  Baridius  in  the  peculiar  un- 
dulating appearance  of  the  wing-cases, 
and  more  especially  in  their  being  highly 


polished,   the   word    Madams    meaning 
glossy  or  polished. 

Remedy. — If  these  gall-bearing  canes 
are  cut  off  and  burned  during  the  winter 
there  need  be  little  fear  of  this  insect's 
work,  the  more  especially  as  it  is  not 
secure  from  parasites,  even  in  its  snug 
retreat,  for  we  have  bred  a  species  of 
Chalets  fly  from  the  galls,  which  had 
evidently  destroyed  the  true  gall-maker. 

GRAPE-VINE    FIDIA.— One   of   the 

worst  foes  to  the  grape-vine  that  we  have 
is  the  Grape-vine  Fidia, 
which  is  represented  in  the 
annexed  Figure  n.  It  is 
of  a  chestnut-brown  color, 
and  is  densely  covered 
with  short  and  dense  whit- 
ish hairs  which  give  it  a 
Fig.  11.— Grape  hoary  appearance.  We 
Vine  Fidia.  have  found  it  very  thick 
in  most  of  the  vineyards  which  we  visited, 
and  it  is  almost  universally  miscalled  the 
"Rose-bug,"  which  is,  however,  a  very 
different  insect.  It  is  found  in  the  woods 
on  the  wild  grape-vine,  and  also  on  the 
leaves  of  the  Cercis  Canadensis ;  but  of 
the  tame  vines  it  seems  to  prefer  the 
Norton's  Virginia  and  Concord.  It  makes 
its  appearance  during  the  month  of  June, 
and  by  the  end  of  July  has  generally  dis- 
appeared, from  which  fact  we  may  infer 
that  there  is  but  one  brood  each  year. 
The  manner  in  which  it  injures  the  vine 
is  by  cutting  straight  elongated  holes  of 
about  }i  inch  in  diameter  in  the  leaves, 
and  when  numerous  it  so  riddles  the 
leaves  as  to  reduce  them  to  mere  shreds. 
The  preparatory  stages  of  this  beetle  are 
not  yet  known. 

Remedies. — Luckily  this  beetle  has  the 
same  precautionary  habit  of  dropping  to 
the  ground,  upon  the  slightest  disturb- 
ance, as  has  the  Plum  curculio,  and  this 
habit  enables  us  readily  to  keep  it  in 
check.  The  most  efficient  way  of  doing 
this  is  by  the  aid  of  chickens.  Mr. 
Peschell,  of  Hermann,  on  whose  vines 
this  beetle  had  been  exceedingly  numer- 
ous, raised  a  large  brood  of  chickens,  and 
had  them  so  well  trained  that  all  he  had 
to  do  was  to  start  them  in  the  vineyard 
with  a  boy  in  front  to  shake  the  vines, 
and  he  himself  behind  the  chicks.  They 
picked  up  every  beetle  which  fell  to  the 
ground,  and  in  this  manner  he  kept  his 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       36j 


vines  so  clean  that  he  could  scarcely  find 
a  single  beetle  the  following  year. 

GRAPE  CODLING.— Although  the  pre- 
ceding insect  has  been  so  scarce,  yet  the 
Grape  has  been  worked  upon  in  a  some- 
what similar  manner,  and  even  to  a 
greater  extent,  by  the  insect  now  under 
consideration. 

The  larva  of  this  Grape-codling  may 
at  once  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
Grape  curculio,  by  its  having  six  scaly 
legs  near  the  head,  eight  fleshy  legs  in 
the  middle,  and  two  at  the  extremity  of 
the  body,  and  by  spinning  a  fine  web,  by 
which  it  lets  itself  drop  whenever  handled. 
It  is  also  larger,  of  a  darker  color,  and 
bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  Strawberry  leaf-roller,  to  be  hereafter 
figured  and  described. 

Its  presence  is  soon  indicated  by  a 
reddish-brown  color  on  that  side  of  the 
yet  green  grape  which  it  enters.  On 
opening  the  grape,  a  winding  channel  is 
seen  in  the  pulp,  and  a  minute  white 
worm  with  a  dark  head  is  seen  at  the 
end  of  the  channel.  It  continues  to  feed 
upon  the  pulp  of  the  fruit,  and  when  it 
reaches  the  seeds,  eats  out  their  interior. 
As  it  matures  it  becomes  darker,  being 
either  of  an  olive-green  or  dark  brown 
color,  with  a  honey-yellow  head ;  and  if 
one  grape  is  not  sufficient  it  fastens  the 
already  ruined  grape  to  an  adjoining  one 
by  means  of  silken  threads,  and  proceeds 
to  burrow  in  it  as  it  did  in  the  first. 
"When  full  grown  it  leaves  the  grape  and 
forms  its  cocoon  on  the  leaves  of  the 
vine.  This  operation  is  performed  in  a 
manner  essentially  characteristic:  the 
worm  cuts  out  a  clean  oval  flap,  leaving 
it  hinged  on  one  side,  and,  rolling  this 
flap  over,  fastens  it  to  the  leaf,  and  thus 
forms  for  itself  a  cozy  little  house  which 
it  lines  on  the  inside  with  silk. 

Remedies, — This  insect  threatens  to 
become  a  grievous  pest  unless  checked 
by  some  unforeseen  means,  as  was  the 
case  with  the  Grape  curculio.  Luckily, 
there  is  at  least  one  parasite  which  attacks 
it,  in  the  shape  of  a  yellowish,  footless 
maggot,  with  a  green  tint  and  fourteen 
.segments.  We  obtained  such  maggots 
from  two  of  the  caterpillars,  one  having 
crawled  out  of  its  host  before,  and  the 
other  after  he  had  spun  up.  Mr.  Read 
says,  the  first  brood  of  caterpillars  feed 
on  the  leaves,  appearing  in  May  (in  Ohio) 


or  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  grown.  The 
worms  which  appear  in  our  grapes  in 
July  are,  therefore,  the  second  brood,  and 
there  is  doubtless  a  third  brood,  for  Mr. 
Rathvon  received  them  in  October,  and 
we  have  taken  the  worm  out  of  a  grape 
as  late  as  the  2 2d  of  September.  The 
broods,  in  all  probability,  run  into  one 
another,  and  the  last  passes  the  winter 
within  the  cocoon,  either  in  the  larva  or 
pupa  state.  They  should,  therefore,  be 
searched  for  early  in  the  season  on  the 
leaves.  The  second  brood  of  worms,  or 
those  which  infest  grapes,  can  easily  be 
espied  and  destroyed  in  a  healthy  vine- 
yard; but  where  a  vineyard  is  affected 
with  what  is  designated  as  the  "  American 
Grape-rot,"  the  grapes  attacked  by  the 
Codling  are  not  so  easily  distinguished, 
as  they  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
rotting  ones.  Care  should  be  taken  in 
gathering  the  infested  grapes,  for  the 
worm  being  very  active  wriggles  away 
and  easily  escapes. 

GRAPE-VINE  PLUME.— During  the 
latter  part  of  May  and  beginning  of 
June,  the  leaves  of  the  grape-vine  may 
often  be  seen  drawn  together  by  silken 
threads,  and  in  the  retreat  thus  made  will 
be  found]  a  small  hairy  caterpillar,  which 
feeds  on  the  tender  leaves  of  the  vine. 
This  caterpillar  grows  to  the  length  of 
about  half  an  inch;  the  color  of  the  body 
is  very  pale  green  and  has  four  elevated 
white  spots  and  two  still  smaller  dots  on 
every  segment,  from  which  spring  stiff 
white  hairs  in  all  directions. 

Remedies. — Whenever  they  become 
numerous,  the  only  remedy  is  hand-pick- 
ing. 

TREE-CRICKET. — The  general  color 
is  a  delicate  greenish,  semi-transparent 
white,  though  some  specimens  have  a 
blackish  shade.  From  the  fact  that  it  is 
known  to  devour  plant-lice,  and  likewise 
the  eggs  of  some  moths,  we  were  formerly 
in  doubt  whether  it  should  be  consideced 
friend  or  foe,  but  the  experience  dur- 
ing 1875  year  settled  the  matter  definitely, 
for  it  proved  very  destructive  to  the 
vine.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in 
grape  canes,  raspberry  and  blackberry 
canes,  in  the  twigs  of  the  peach,  white 
willow,  and  a  variety  of  other  trees.  In 
depositing,  she  makes  a  straight,  longi- 
tudinal, contiguous  row  of  punctures, 
each   puncture   about   the   size    of  that 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


which  would  be  made  by  an  ordinary  pin. 
From  each  of  these  holes,  a  narrow, 
yellowish,  elongate  egg,  runs  slantingly 
across  the  pith.  The  twigs  or  canes  thus 
punctured  almost  invariably  die  above 
the  punctured  part,  and  the  injury  thus 
caused  to  vines  is  sometimes  consider- 
able. 

But  by  far  the  worst  habit  of  the  Tree- 
cricket  is  that  of  severing  grapes  from  the 
bunches  just  as  they  are  beginning  to 
ripen,  and  it  sometimes  cuts  off  an  entire 
bunch,  or  so  thoroughly  excoriates  the 
stem  that  it  fails  to  ripen  its  berries. 

Remedy.  —  The  crickets  themselves 
should  be  crushed  whenever  met  with, 
while  the  vineyardist  should  make  a 
business  of  searching  in  the  winter  time 
for  all  punctured  twigs,  and  by  burning 
them,  prevent  their  increase  in  future. 

STRAWBERRY  LEAF-ROLLER,  and 
Other  Insects. — Insects  are  more  injurious 
to  the  strawberry  than  any  disease  that 
has  yet  appeared. 


12. — Strawberry  Leaf-Roller. 

The  most  destructive  of  these  is  proba- 
bly the  larva  of  the  common  May  Beetle, 
formerly  called  Melolontha,  but  now 
placed  in  the  genus  Lachnosterna.  The 
grub  (larva),  when  fully  grown,  is  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  three-eighths 
thick,  nearly  white,  with  a  brown  head, 
and  commonly  called  the  White  Grub. 

These  grubs  are  usually  more  numer- 
ous in  old  dry  pastures  and  meadows 
than  elsewhere,  because  their  principal 
food  is  the  roots  of  different  kinds  of 
grass.  The  old  sods  afford  protection 
against  the  birds  and  worms  which  de- 
vour them ;  consequently  they  often  be- 
come very  abundant  in  such  places.  If 
these  grass  lands  are  plowed  and  planted 
with  the  strawberry,  the  grubs  will  attack 
the  roots,  and,  if  numerous,  will  destroy 
every  plant  almost  as  soon  as  it  is  put  in 
the  ground.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  the  white  grub  has  materially 
checked  the  cultivation  of  the  strawberry. 
The  only  remedy  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted is,  to  occupy  the  ground  with 


some  crop  which  requires  considerable- 
hoeing  and  cultivation,  for  two  or  three 
years  before  planting  with  the  straw- 
berry. 

The  grub  is  said  to  be  three  or  four 
years  in  attaining  its  growth,  and  by 
continually  manipulating  the  soil  they 
are  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  birds,  and 
many  are  destroyed  by  crushing ;  besides 
this,  the  beetles  will  seldom  deposit  their 
eggs  in  freshly  disturbed  soil. 

Mr.  Harris,  in  his  "Insects  Injurious  to 
Vegetation,"  says  "that  this  white  grub  is 
the  larva  of  the  May  beetle,  which  is  so 
often  seen  flying  about  in  the  evening* 
It  is  of  a  chestnut-brown  color,  smooth,, 
but  finely  punctured — that  is,  covered 
with  little  impressed  dots,  as  if  pricked 
with  the  point  of  a  needle,  each  wing-case- 
has  two  or  three  slightly  elevated,  longi- 
tudinal lines ;  the  breast  is  covered  with 
yellowish  down.  The  grubs  are  greedily 
devoured  by  birds;  the  crow  being  ex- 
ceedingly fond  of  them. 

Wire  "Worm. — 

The  wire  worm  (lulus),  which  belongs 
to  the  Myriapods  or  many-footed  worms, 
sometimes  attacks  the  roots  of  the  straw- 
berry, but  we  have  no  accounts  which 
show  that  they  have  as  yet  been  very  de- 
structive. Frequent  plowing  and  thor- 
ough cultivation  are  the  most  effective 
means  of  destroying  them. 

Snail  or  Slug. — 

The  snail  or  slug,  which  is  so  abundant 
and  destructive  to  the  strawberry  and 
other  garden  products  of  Europe,  has 
found  its  way  to  this  country,  and  is 
now  quite  plentiful  in  some  gardens  near 
New  York.  These  snails  are  great  gour- 
mands, and  will  destroy  the  strawberry 
fruit  in  quantities  if  they  become  very 
plentiful.  Hand-picking,  or  destroying 
them  with  lime,  is  a  pretty  sure  way  of 
getting  rid  of  this  pest. 

Plant  Louse  (Aphis). — 

The  Plant  Louse  (Aphis),  or  Green 
Fly,  as  it  is  usually  called,  sometimes  be- 
comes quite  numerous  upon  the  roots  of 
the  strawberry,  particularly  when  the  soil 
is  quite  loose  and  open,  so  as  to  admit 
them  readily  to  the  roots.  Upon  these 
they  congregate  in  immense  numbers, 
sucking  the  juices  of  the  plant,  and  there- 
by effectually  checking  its  growth.  A 
liberal  application  of  dry  ashes  or  refuse 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       369 


from  a  tobacco  factory  will  usually  de- 
stroy them.  The  Aphis  also  attacks  the 
plants  when  grown  under  glass,  but  they 
are  more  readily  destroyed  than  the  Red 
Spider  ( Telaris),  which  insect  is  very  de- 
structive when  numerous. 

The  best  preventive  to  the  ravages  of 
the  Red  Spider  is  a  moist  atmosphere, 
but  when  this  cannot  be  allowed,  flour  of 
sulphur  should  be  freely  scattered  among 
ihe  plants  or  upon  the  soil  near  them. 
The  fumes  of  melted  sulphur  will  make 
quick  work  with  them,  but  it  requires 
great  care  in  its  application,  for  should 
the  sulphur  take  fire  and  burn,  the  fumes 
will  destroy  the  plants  as  well. 

WHITE-MARKED  TUSSOCK  MOTH. 
—During  the  winter  little  bunches  of 
dead  leaves  are  sometimes  found  to  be 
quite  numerous  on  our  apple  trees.  They 
are  generally  fastened  to  the  twigs,  and 

V  ?  1  v 


Fig.  13. 

upon  examination  are  found  to  contain 
gray  cocoons.  The  greater  portion  of 
these  cocoons  have  an  egg-mass  glued  to 
them,  which  is  composed  of  numerous 
round,  cream-colored  eggs,  of  about  0.03 
diameter,  and  partly  covered  with  glis- 
tening white  froth-like  matter;  while  the 
other  proportion  of  these  cocoons  have 
no  such  egg-mass. 

This  insect  seems  to  occur  more  or  less 
over  the  whole  country,  and  we  have  re- 
peatedly received  its  egg-masses  during 
the  past  two  winters.  It  is,  however,  as 
wo  might  expect  from  its  nature,  often 
confined,  like  the  Canker-worm,  to  partic- 
ular orchards  in  a  particular  neighbor- 
hood. It  feeds  upon  different  kinds  of 
trees,  such  as  the  elm,  maple,  horse-chest- 
nut and  oak,  but  it  seems  to  prefer  the 
apple,  the  plum,  the  rose  and  the  pear. 

REMEDIES."=-Dr.  Fitch  has  described 
two  parasites,  which  attack  this  caterpil- 
lar, and  we  are  acquainted  with  seven 
others,  making  in  all  nine  distinct  para- 
sites, which  prey  upon  this  species. 
24 


In  collecting  the  cocoons  in  the  win- 
ter in  order  to  destroy  them,  none  but 
those  which  have  the  egg-masses  on  them 
should  be  taken,  as  all  the  others,  either 
contain  the  empty  male  chrysalis  or  else 
some  friendly  parasite.  From  the  fact 
that  the  female  never  travels  beyond  her 
cocoon,  it  becomes  obvious  that,  since 
the  insect  can  only  travel  in  the  caterpilr 
lar  state,  it  would  require  over  a  century 
for  it  to  spread  even  a  hundred  miles. 
Hence  we  may  rightly  conclude  that  it 
has  been  introduced  into  different  parts 
of  the  country  in  the  egg-state  on  young 
imported  trees.  How  essential  it  is  then 
to  examine  every  tree  in  planting  out  a 
young  orchard,  and  how  easy  it  is,  with 
the  proper  precautions,  to  forever  keep  an 
orchard  free  from  its  destructive  work. 
As  already  stated,  the  young  worms  let 
themselves  down  upon  slightly  jarring  the 
tree,  and  though  after  the  third  moult 
they  lose  this  habit  to  a  great  extent,  yet 
they  may  always  be  brought  down  by  a 
good  thorough  shake,  and  where  they 
have  once  invaded  an  orchard,  this  will 
be  found  the  most  feasible  mode  of  kill 
ingthem;  though  prevention, by  destroy 
ing  the  egg-masses  in  the  winter  when 
they  are  easily  discerned,  is  infinitely  the 
best,  and  surest  remedy  against  its  at- 
tacks. 

BAG-WORM,  alias  BASKET-WORM, 
alias  DROP-WORM. — Our  shade  and  or- 
namental trees  are  often  defoliated  by  va- 
rious insects,  and  we  will  give  brief  ac- 
counts of  three  which  have  attracted  our 
attention  during  the  past  summer.  Of 
these,  the  insect  whose  transformations 
are  illustrated  below,  is  by  far  the  most 
common  and  injurious.  It  apparently 
flourishes  better  south  of  latitude  39  ° 
than  north  of  that  line.  Year  after  year 
shade  trees  are  planted,  and  year  after" 
year  a  great  proportion  of  them  dwindle; 
and  die,  until  at  last  the  opinion  very  gen- 
erally prevails  among  land-owners  that 
it  is  of  little  use  to  try  and  grow  them. 
Consequently  they  are  not  as  generally 
planted  as  they  should  be. 

Throughout  the  winter  the  weather- 
beaten  bags  may  be  seen  hanging  from  al- 
most every  kind  of  tree.  Upon  plucking 
them  many  will  be  found  empty,  but  the 
greater  proportion  of  them  will,  on  being 
cut  open,  present  the  appearance  given  at 
Figure  14;  they  are  in  fact  full  of  soft 


37° 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC—REMEDIES  FOR. 


yellow  eggs.  Those  which  do  not  con- 
tain eggs  are  the  male  bags,  and  his  empty- 
chrysalis  skin  is  generally  found  protrud- 
ing from  the  lower  end.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  next  May  these  eggs  will  hatch 
into  active  little  worms,  which,  from  the 
first  moment  of  their  lives,  commence  to 


form  for  themselves  little  bags.  Thej 
crawl  on  to  a  tender  leaf,  and,  attached 
to  their  anterior  feet  with  their  tails  hoist- 
ed in  the  air,  they  each  spin  around  them- 
selves a  ring  of  silk,  to  which  they  soon  fas- 
ten bits  of  leaf.  They  continue  adding  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  ring,  pushing  it  up  as  ii 


jrIG-    ^ — Bag-Worm,    alias  Basket-Worm,  alias  Drop- Worm. 


increases  in  width,  till  it  reaches  the  tail 
and  forms  a  sort  of  cone,  as  represented 
at  Figure  14,  g.  As  the  worms  grow, 
they  continue  to  increase  their  bags  from 
tha  bottom,  until  the  latter  become  so 
large  and  heavy  that  the  worms  let  them 
hang  instead  of  holding  them  upright,  as 
they  did  while  they  were  young.  By  the 
end  of  July  they  have  become  full  grown, 
when  they  present  the  appearance  of 
Figure  14,  /.  The  worm  on  being 
pulled  out,  appearing  as  at  Figure  14,  a. 
"This  full  grown  condition  is  not  attained, 
however,  without  critical  periods.  At 
four  different  times  during  their  growth 
these  worms  close  up  the  mouths  of  then- 
bags  and  retire  for  two  days  to  cast  their 
skins  or  moult,  as  is  the  nature  of  their 
kind,  and  they  push  their  old  skins 
through  a  passage  which  is  always  left 
open  at  the  extremity  of  the  bag,  and 
which  also  allows  the  passage  of  the  ex- 
crement. 

Remedies. — From  the  natural  history 
of  this  Bag-worm  it  becomes  obvious, 
that  by  plucking  the  cases  in  the  winter 
time,  and  burning  them,  you  can  effectu- 
ally rid  your  trees  of  them,  and  we  advise 
all  who  desire  healthy  trees  to  do  this 
before  the  buds  begin  to  burst  in  the 
spring.  Where  this  is  not  done  the 
^worms   will    continue  to    increase,   and 


partly    defoliating    the   tree   each   yeai 
slowly,  but  surely,  sap  its  life. 

SEED  CORN  WORM.— This  maggc 
greatly  resembles  the  Onion  maggots 
which  are  known  to  attack  the  onion  ii 
this  country,  and  its  work  on  corn  i 
similar  to  that  of  this  last-named  maggc 
on  the  onion  ,  for  it  excoriates  and  gnaw 
into  the  seed-corn,  as  shown  at  Figure  1  j 
and  finally  causes  such  seed  to  rot. 

After  having  become  full  fed,  thes 
maggots  usually  leave  the  kernels  fo 
the  surroundin 
earth,where  the 
contract  int 
smooth,  hare 
ligh  t-browi 
pupae,  and  ii 
about  a  week  al 
terwardsthepei 
feet  fly  pushes  open  a  little  cap  at  th 
anterior  end,  and  issues  forth  to  the  ligh 
of  day.  In  this  state  it  is  a  two-wingei 
fly  belonging  to  the  order  Diptera,  am 
quite  inconspicuous  in  its  markings  am 
appearance. 

Remedies. — It  is  difficult  to  suggest ; 
remedy  for  this  pest,  as  its  presence  i 
not  observed  till  the  mischief  is  done 
Hot  water  has  been  found  effectual  ii 
killing  the  Onion  maggot,  without  injur 
ing  the  onions,  and  would  doubtless  prov 


Fig. 


15. — Seed  Corn 
Worm. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      371 


a»  effectual  for  this  Corn  maggot,  where 
a  iew  hills  of  some  choice  variety  are 
attacked,  which  it  is  very  desirable  to 
•save.  But  its  application  in  a  large  field, 
•even  if  one  knew  where  to  apply  it, 
would  be  impracticable,  and  we  can  only 
•suggest  soaking  the  seed,  before  planting, 
in  gas-tar  or  copperas. 

WHITE  GRUB.— In  its  perfect  state 
this  larva  is  called  the  May-bug  or  May- 
beetle,  and  closely  resembles  the  Euro- 
pean cockchafer.  In  the  latter  part  of 
July  and  in  August  the  grubs  are  very 


Fig.  16. — White  Grub. 
numerous  in  old  meadows  and  pastures. 
Attention  is  drawn  to  them  by  spots  of 
sward  becoming  dead,  as  if  killed  by 
•drought.  On  turning  up  some  of  the 
dead  turf  the  grass  roots  are  found  to  be 
eaten  off  an  inch  or  two  below  the 
surface,  permitting  the  turf  to  be  rolled 
up  like  a  carpet.  They  carefully  reject 
every  root  of  clover.  It  is  known,  how- 
ever, that  they  eat  the  roots  of5  young 
fruit  trees,  and  sometimes  do  great  injury 
to  strawberry  plants,  Indian  corn,  wheat, 
and  potatoes. 

Remedy. — In  all  States  they  are  preyed 
upon  by  various  animals.  No  doubt  an 
immense  number  might  be  destroyed  by 
turning  hogs  into  the  fields  where  the 
grass  has  been  killed.  "  Where  the  ground 
has  been  overrun  by  the  grubs  it  is  fre- 
quently advisable  to  plow  it,  and  either 
sow  it  to  winter  wheat  or  rye,  or  reseed  it 
to  grass."  As  the  larva  of  the  insect,  at 
the  approach  of  winter,  descends  into  the 
ground  to  a  greater  depth  than  can  be 
easily  reached  by  the  plow,  it  cannot  be 


thus  turned  up  to  be  killed  by  the  frost 
late  in  the  fall. 

THE  PLUM  GOUGER— This  name 
was  given  by  Mr.  Walsh  to  another  indi- 
genous weevil.  It  is  easily  distinguished 
from  either  ot  the  preceding  weevils,  by 
its  ochre-yellow  thorax  and  legs,  and  its 
darker  wing-covers,  which  are  dun-color- 
ed, or  brown  with  a  leaden-gray  tint,  and 
have  no  humps  at  all.  Its  snout  is  not 
much  longer  than  the  thorax,  but  as  in 
the  Apple  Curculio,  projects  forwards,  or 
downwards,  but  cannot  be  bent  under  as 
in  the  Plum  Curculio. 

The  Plum  Gouger  seems  to  be  un- 
known in  the  Eastern  States,  or  at  least  is 
not  common  there;  but  it  is  very  gener- 
ally distributed  throughout  the  Valley  ot 
the  Mississippi.  As  a  rule  it  is  much  less 
common  and  does  much  less  injury  than 
the  little  Turk,  though  in  some  few  dis- 
tricts it  is  found  equally  abundant. 

The  Plum  Gouger  is  often  found  on 
wild  crab-trees,  and  may,  like  the  Plum 
Curculio,  occasionally  deposit  and  breed 
in  pip-fruit ;  but  it  is  partial  to  smooth- 
skinned  stone-fruit,  such  as  prunes,  plums 
and  nectarines,  and  it  does  not  even 
seem  to  relish  the  rough-skinned  peach. 
This  beetle  appears  in  the  spring  about 
the  same  time  as  the  Plum  Curculio,  but 
as  no  eggs  are  deposited  alter  the  stone 
of  the  fruit  becomes  hard,  and  as  its  larva 
requires  a  longer  period  to  mature  than 
that  of  the  latter,  its  time  of  depositing 
is  shorter,  and  the  old  beetles  generally 
die  off  and  disappear  before  the  new  ones 
eat  their  way  out  of  the  fruit,  which  they 
do  during  August,  September  and  Octo- 
ber, according  to  the  latitude. 

Remedies. — This  Plum  Gouger  is 
about  as  hard  to  deal  with  as  the  Apple 
Curculio.  It  drops  almost  as  reluctantly, 
and  we,  therefore,  cannot  do  much  by 
the  jarring  process  to  diminish  its  num- 
bers. Moreover,  it  takes  wing  much  more 
readily  than  the  other  weevils  we  have 
mentioned ;  and  though  fruit  that  is  bad- 
ly punctured  for  food,  often  falls  prema- 
turely to  the  ground,  yet,  according  to 
Mr.  Walsh,  that  infested  with  the  larva 
generally  hangs  on  the  tree,  until  the 
stone  is  hard  and  premature  ripening  sets 
in.  In  all  probability  the  stunted  and 
prematurely  ripened  fruit  containing  this 
insect  will  jar  down  much  more  readily 
than  the  healthy  fruit. 


372 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


PLUM  CURCULIO,  or  Plum-WeeviL— 
The  plum-weevil,  commonly  known  as 
the  "  curculio,"  was  said  by  Dr.  Walsh  to 
be  double-brooded,  he  stating  that  the 
first  brood  at  Rock  Island,  Illinois,  ap- 
pears from  July  19  to  August  4,  and  the 
second  brood  from  August  23  to  Septem- 
ber 28;  but  Mr.  Riley  states  distinctly 
that  it  is  single-brooded,  and  that  it  hy- 
bernates  in  the  perfect  or  weevil  state, 
and  not  in  the  larval  or  pupal,  as  was 
formerly  imagined.  The  beetle  also  is 
more  nocturnal  than  diurnal  in  habit,  and 
is  very  active  at  night;  but  during  the 
daytime,  especially  in  bright  sunny  weath- 
er, rests  among  the  leaves  and  branches, 
or  under  some  shelter.  It  was  formerly 
stated  that  the  female  first  bored  a  cres- 
cent-shaped cut  or  incision  with  her  beak, 
and  then  deposited  an  egg  in  the  cut ; 
but  Dr.  F.  C.  Hill,  of  Ohio,  states  that 
the  female  first  bores  a  round  hole  with 
her  snout,  not  straight  in,  but  slanting 
backward,  so  that  the  cavity  is  just  below 
the  skin;  she  deposits  her  egg  in  the 
hole,  and  then  cuts  the  usual  crescent- 
shaped  slit  in  front  of  it  so  as  to  under- 
mine the  egg,  and  leave  it  in  a  kind  of 
flap  formed  by  the  little  piece  of  flesh  of 
the  fruit  which  she  has  undermined,  in 
order  to  meet  the  piece  around  the  egg, 
and  prevent  the  growing  fruit  from  crush- 
ing it.     The  insect  in  the  perfect  state  is 


Fig.  28.— Plum  Curculio. 
a,  Larva;   b,  Pupa,   into  which  the  larva  is 
transformed  within  a  little  cavity  underground 
and  of  the  perfect  curculio  (a). 

said  by  Dr.  Riley  to  gouge  holes  in 
peaches  and  apples,  and  also  to  feed  on 
bark  and  tender  twigs,  and  to  gnaw  holes 
in  the  leaves.  In  regard  to  the  new 
remedy  proposed  during  1875  by  Mr. 
Ransom,  of  St.  Joseph,  Michigan,  in  the 
Prairie  Farmer  and  elsewhere,  we  quote 
from  Mr.  Ransom  himself:  Some  experi- 


ments were  made  by  laying  pieces  of 
bark,  etc.,  on  the  ground  under  the  trees, 
as  a  shelter  under  which  the  curculio* 
could  hide.  The  first  night,  about  sun- 
set, he  prepared  two  hundred  and  fifty 
trees,  and  in  the  morning  went  around,, 
and  in  about  three  hours  caught  six  hun- 
dred and  forty-seven  curculios ;  the  next, 
day  having  finished  the  orchard  of  four 
hundred  trees,  he  killed  four  thousand 
one  hundred  and  seventy-one  curculios.. 
The  total  number  of  curculios  killed  by 
him  in  one  season  was  seventeen  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  forty-five.  The 
Michigan  Farmer,  in  commenting  upon 
this  article,  says  that  the  State  entomolo- 
gist of  Illinois,  and  the  horticultural 
editor  of  the  Prairie  Farmer,  having 
been  at  St.  Joseph,  examining  into  the 
workings  of  the  method  proposed  by  Dr. 
Ransom  to  destroy  the  plum  curculio,. 
stated  that  the  traps  were  pieces  of  bark 
three  or  four  inches  long,  and  about  half 
as  wide.  Before  putting  them  down,  the 
ground  was  smoothed  and  the  earth 
pressed  close  to  the  trunks,  so  as  to  leave 
no  hiding  place  for  the  curculio  to  enter. 
The  pieces  of  bark  were  then  laid  close 
around  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  three  or 
four  pieces  to  a  tree,  and  pressed  down 
in  contact  with  the  earth,  so  that  only 
very  small  openings  should  be  left  under 
them.  The  pieces  laid  close  to  the 
ground,  with  one  edge  touching  the  tree, 
were  generally  selected  by  the  insects, 
whose  object  was  to  shelter  themselves,, 
while  at  rest,  from  observation  and  possi- 
bly from  the  cold.  On  further  inquiry,- 
this  method  appears  to  have  been  only 
partially  effective,  and  the  fruit-growers 
near  St.  Joseph  found  that,  though  they 
destroyed  many  insects  by  this  trapping 
method,  more  were  destroyed  by  jarring 
the  trees.  When  the  weather  became 
warm,  the  curculios  were  taken  under  the 
trees  in  diminished  numbers,  while  in 
fact  their  numbers  were  rapidly  augment- 
ed in  the  trees.  The  conclusions  arrived 
at  are  briefly  as  follows:  The  trapping 
system  will  help  to  thin  out  the  curculio 
before  the  season  for  stinging  the  fruit 
commences ;  that  it  will  not  do  to  dis- 
pense with  jarring  the  trees;  and,  fur- 
thermore, that  pieces  of  bark  for  a  short 
time,  early  in  the  season,  when  the  days 
are  sometimes  warm  and  the  nights  cold, 
and    before    the  peach    blossoms    have 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       373 


■withered  away,  are  useful  for  capturing 
curculios,  but  that  after  the  fruit  is  as 
large  as  a  hazel-nut  this  remedy  is  not 
successful.  It  is  recommended  to  place 
the  traps  of  bark  under  the  trees  as  soon 
as  the  frost  is  fairly  out  of  the  ground. 

In  small  orchards  it  will  be  found  most 
profitable  to  drive  a  spike  into  the  trunk 
of  each  tree  and  to  use  two  sheets 
stretched  on  frames,  which  can  both  be 
dragged  or  carried  and  placed  in  position 
by  one  man,  while  a  second  person  gent- 
ly taps  the  iron  spike  with  a  mallet.  To 
bring  the  Curculio  down,  it  requires  a 
light,  sudden  tap  which  jars,  rather  than 
a  blow  which  shakes,  and  if  the  frames 
are  each  made  so  as  to  fold  in  the  mid- 
dle, it  will  facilitate  disposing  of  those 
which  fall  upon  it. 

In  conclusion,  the  intelligent  fruit-grow- 
er can  draw  many  a  lesson  from  this  ac- 
count of  the  Curculio — already  somewhat 
lengthy.  Thus  in  planting  a  new  orchard 
with  timber  surrounding,  the  less  valua- 
ble varieties  should  be  planted  on  the 
outside,  and  as  the  little  rascals  congre- 
gate on  them  from  the  neighboring 
woods  in  the  early  part  of  the  season, 
they  should  be  fought  persistently.  It 
will  also  pay  to  thin  out  all  fruit  that  is 
known  to  contain  grubs,  and  that  is  with- 
in easy  reach ;  while  wherever  it  is  prac- 
ticable all  rubbish  and  underbrush  should 
be  burnt  during  the  winter,  whereby 
many,  yes  very  many,  of  them  will  be  de- 
stroyed in  their  winter  quarters. 

The  old  remedy  of  keeping  hogs  in  a 
plum,  peach  or  apple  orchard,  to  eat  the 
infested  fruit  as  soon  as  it  falls  to  the 
ground,  appears  to  be  very  successful 
when  practiced  for  two  or  three  years, 
^nd  where  there  are  no  other  orchards  in 
the  vicinity. 

THE  CRANBERRY  CUECULIO.— The 
perfect  insect  of  another  small  curculio, 
Anthonomus  guadrigibbus  (Say),  is  accused 
of  eating  round  holes  in  apples,  plums, 
etc.,  both  for  food  and  as  a  place  in 
which  to  deposit  her  eggs.  In  the 
American  Entomologist,  however,  it  is 
stated  that  it  never  attacks  stone 
fruit,  and  goes  into  the  ground  to 
change  into  the  pupa  state,  but  trans- 
forms in  the  fruit  itself.  Another  of  this 
genus  Anthonomus  suiuralis,  (Lee.,)  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  W.  C.  Fish,  in  a  report  to 
the  Cape  Cod  Cranberry  Grower's  Asso- 


ciation, is  called  the  cranberry  weevil. 
The  female  deposits  its  eggs,  about  the 
middle  of  May,  in  the  buds  of  the  cran- 
berry. Selecting  a  bud  not  quite  ready 
to  open,  and  clinging  to  it,  she  works  her 
snout  deep  into  its  center;  an  egg  is  then 
deposited  in  the  hole  thus  made;  the 
beetle  climbs  the  stem,  and  cuts  it  off 
near  where  it  joins  the  bud,  and  the 
shoot  drops  to  the  ground.  The  larva 
feeds  inside  the  bud,  and  the  weevil,  when 
mature,  eats  its  way  out.  The  perfect  in- 
sect is  also  said  to  eat  into  the  fruit.  The 
only  remedy  that  could  be  suggested, 
should  the  insect  become  troublesome,  is 
to  flood  the  cranberry  patch,  if  possible, 
for  a  short  time,  provided  it  does  not  oc- 
cur at  a  period  when  the  future  crop 
might  be  injured  by  being  under  water. 

AMERICAN  MEROMYZA.— About  the 
middle  of  the  month  of  June,  1875,  in  all 
the  wheat  fields  which  we  examined  we 
noticed  that  a  great  many  of  the  ears  had 
prematurely  ripened,  had  turned  yellow 
and  were  stunted  and  shorter  than  the 
rest,  and  upon  examination  the  kernels 
proved  to  be  withered  and  shrunken.  In 
most  fields  about  one  per  cent,  of  the  ears 
were  thus  affected,  but  in  two  fields,  from 
three  to  four  per  cent  were  injured  in  this 
manner.  This  appearance  was  variously 
attributed  to  Hessian  fly,  Midge,  etc., 
etc,  no  one  seeming  to  know  the  true 
cause.  Upon  examination 
we  found  that  the  last  or 
ear-bearing  joint  could  in- 
variably be  pulled  out  of  its 
sheath  with  but  a  slight  ef- 
I  fort,  and  that  it  was  perfect- 
ly yellow  and  dry,  while  the 
lower  end  bore  an  irregular 
and  gnawed  appearance. 
Upon  splitting  open  the  first 
joint  of  the  stalk,  a  space  of 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
was  found  to  be  completely 
corroded,  so  to  speak,  and 
filled  with  excrementitious 
matter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17, 
a.  In  this  space  would  gen- 
erally be  found  a  pale  watery-green  mag- 
got of  the  form  of  Fig.  17,  b,  attenuated 
at  one  end  and  blunt  at  the  other.  We 
took  a  number  of  infested  stalks  home, 
and  many  of  the  maggots  changed  to 
green  pupae  of  the  form  and  appearance 
of  Fig.   17,  c.     Before  changing  to  pupa 


Fig.  17. 


374 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR 


the  maggot  would  sometimes  crawl  away 
from  the  joint  and  get  nearer  the  head, 
between  the  stalk  and  the  sheath.  The 
pupa  state  lasted  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
days,  and  the  first  flies  emerged  during 
the  first  week  in  July. 

Remedies. — Much  can  be  done  in  an 
artificial  way  by  cutting  off  and  destroy- 
ing all  the  infested  stalks,  which  may 
readily  be  recognized  by  the  signs  al- 
ready described;  but  even  if  this  plan 
should  faithfully  be  carried  out,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  would  pay  in  a  coun- 
try where  labor  is  so  scarce  and  de- 
mands such  high  wages  as  in  ours. 
We  therefore  have  to  fall  back  on  the 
only  practical  means  within  our  reach, 
viz. :  that  of  varying  the  culture  by  alter- 
nate courses,  and  this  style  of  cultivation 
will  have  to  be  more  generally  adopted, 
should  this  pigmy  foe  sufficiently  increase 
as  to  greatly  diminish  the  yield  of  the 
"staff  of  life."  There  is  every  reason  to 
believe,  however,  that  nature  has  her 
own  means  of  keeping  these  flies  within 
due  bounds,  for  they  are  known  to  be 
preyed  upon  by  parasitic  Ichneumon 
flies  in  Europe,  and  we  noticed  many 
flies  of  this  last  description,  of  polished 
hues  and  active  movements,  deftly  darting 
through,  and  resting  upon  the  wheatplants 
of  the  fields  infested  with  the  Meromyza. 

CURRANT  WORSE.— The  imported 
currant  worm,  or  saw-fly,  was  very  de- 
structive during  1875.  The  insect  is  stated 
to  have  been  imported  first  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Rochester,  and  to  have  trav- 
eled about  twenty-five  miles  a  year. 
The  perfect  fly  comes  out  of  the  ground 
about  April  or  May,  and  lays  her  eggs 
along  the  principal  veins  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves.  The  lame  have 
twenty  legs,  black  heads,  and  are  of  a 
greenish  color,  spotted  with  black,  but  af- 
ter the  last  molt  they  become  entirely  of 
a  green  color,  with  large,  dark,  eye-like 
spots  on  each  side  of  the  head.  When 
fully  grown  the  larvae  are  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  length.  They  then 
burrow  into  the  earth,  or  hide  under 
dead  leaves,  and  spin  a  thin  oval  cocoon 
of  brown  silk,  in  which  the  pupa  is 
formed.  The  perfect  insect  appears  about 
June  or  July,  and  the  second  brood 
does  not  come  out  until  the  following 
spring.  The  native  currant-worm,  is  said 
not  to  be  as  injurious  as  its  foreign  rela- 


tive, and  differs  from  it  by  being,  in  the 
larval  state,  always  of  a  uniform  green 
color,  without  the  black  dottings  always, 
found  on  the  imported  species,  except  af- 
ter the  last  molt.  The  cocoon  is  also- 
spun  among  the  twigs  and  leaves  of  the 
bushes  on  which  it  feeds,  and  it  does  not 
go  under  ground  to  form  its  cocoon. 
The  insects  are  only  about  three-fourths- 
the  size  of  the  imported  pest,  and  the 
sexes  are  alike  in  coloration,  while  the 
female  of  the  imported  species  has  the 
body  mostly  of  a  bright  honey-yellow, 
the  male  being  principally  black;  the 
venation  of  the  wings  also  varies.  The 
larvce  of  both  feed  upon  the  currant  and 
gooseberry,  and  some  were  said  to  have 
been  found  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  the 
strawberry,  planted  around  the  currant 
bushes.  The  best  remedy  is  dusting  the 
bushes  with  pulverized  white  hellebore — 
the  root  of  the  Veratrum  album  of  Eu- 
rope— which  may  be  found  at  any  drug- 
gist's. The  success  of  our  native  species,. 
Veratrum  viride,  of  Gray,  the  American 
white  hellebore,  or  Indian  poke,  has  not 
yet  been  reported  on,  but  should  be  tried. 
Syringing  the  plants  with  a  strong  de- 
coction of  hellebore  is  said  to  kill  the  in- 
sect also,  and  although  it  is  poisonous  in 
large  quantities,  the  American  Entomol- 
ogist states  that  in  minute  doses  there  is. 
no  reason  to  be  afraid  of  it.  Dr.  Fitch 
states,  as  a  proof  of  its  innocuous  proper- 
ties, that  it  has  long  been  in  use  as  the. 
basis  of  certain  snuffs.  It  would  be  wellr 
however,  to  wash  the  fruit  before  using  it. 

NEW  YORK  WEEVIL.— This  large 
gray  beetle  often  does  considerable 
damage  to  fruit  trees.  It  kills  the  twig 
by  gnawing  off  the  tender  bark,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  season,  before  the  buds 
have  put  out,  and  later  in  the  year  it  de- 
stroys the  tender  shoots  which  start  out 
from  old  wood,  by  entirely  devouring; 
them.  It  eats  out  the  buds,  and  will  also 
frequently  gnaw  off  the  leaves  at  the  base 
of  the  stem,  after  they  have  expanded. 
It  attacks,  by  preference,  the  tender 
growth  of  the  apple,  though  it  will  also 
make  free  with  that  of  peach,  plum,  pear 
and  cherry,  and  probably  of  other  fruit  as. 
well  as  forest  trees. 

Remedy. — This  insect  is  more  active 
at  night  than  day,  and  is  often  jarred  down 
upon  a  sheet  of  curculio-cacher,  for  it  falls 
about  as  readily  as  the  Plum  Curculio. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      375 


COTTOHT  ARMY  WORM.»The  caterpil- 
lar, or  cotton  army  worm,  appear  in  count- 
less myriads,  destroying  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  cotton,  and  in  many  instances 
totally  ruining  the  planters  who  relied 
upon  cotton  alone  as  their  main  crop.  It 
is  also  to  be  feared,  if  effectual  means  are 
not  soon  devised  for  their  extermination, 
that  the  planting  of  cotton  must  be  aban- 
doned, for  a  time  at  least,  in  the  most 
Southern  States,  where  these  insects  par- 
ticularly abound,  and  most  probably  orig- 
inate. In  the  more  northern  cotton 
States  the  cotton  army  worm  is  only  an 
occasional  visitor,  becoming  rare  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  north.  In  the  extreme 
south  they  appear  every  season  in  greater 
or  less  numbers.  As  heavy  frosts  kill 
caterpillar,  chrysalis,  and  perfect  moth,  its 
periodical  appearance  in  certain  districts 
is  most  probably  owing  to  climatic  influ- 
ences, the  insect  being  exterminated  for 
the  time  whenever  there  has  been  cold 
weather,  and  not  appearing  in  that  neigh- 
borhood again  until  replaced  by  fresh  mi- 
grations of  moths  from  more  southern  lo- 
calities, where  the  frost  had  not  reached. 
An  old  cotton  planter  in  South  Carolina 
states  that  the  moth  made  its  appearance 
periodically  every  twenty-one  years  in  his 
district,  having  been  very  destructive  in 
the  years  1804,  1825  and  1846.  "More- 
over, it  had  actually  been  foretold  that  in 
the  year  1867  the  caterpillars  might  be 
expected  to  destroy  the  crops." 

As  false  alarms  about  the  appearance 
of  the  cotton  worm  in  certain  districts  are 
frequently  inserted  in  the  southern  news- 
papers by  persons  interested  in  the  sale  of 
cotton  when  the  worms  seen  in  the  field 
are  merely  boll  worms,  grass  worms,  or 
some  other  comparatively  harmless  cater- 
pillar, we  will  mention  some  distinguish- 
ing marks  by  which  the  cotton  moth  may 
be  recognized  in  either  the  egg,  caterpil- 
lar, chrysalis,  or  perfect  state.  In  the  first 
place,  the  egg  of  the  cotton  worm  is 
round  and  very  much  flattened  in  form, 
and  of  a  green  color,  whereas  the  egg  of 
the  boll  worm  moth  is  round,  somewhat 
bluntish,  conical  in  shape,  and  of  a  yel- 
low color.  The  egg  of  the  cotton  worm 
is  mostly  deposited  on  the  leaf  or  branch- 
es, while  the  egg  of  the  boll  worm  is  usu- 
ally placed  in  the  so-called  "ruffle"  or  en- 
velope of  the  flower. 

The  catterpillarof  the  cotton  worm  has 


six  pectoral  or  front  feet,  two  anal,  and 
eight  ventral,  the  two  foremost  of  the 
ventral  feet  being  very 
small,  apparently  use- 
less, and  not  employed 
for  grasping,  like  the 
other  six ;  while  in  the 
grass  worm  the  legs  are 
perfectly  formed  and  all 
used  when  creeping 
from  leaf  to  leaf.  Ow- 
ing to  this  imperfection 
in  the  formation  in  the 
first  pair  of  ventral  teet, 
the  cotton  caterpillar 
always  moves  like  the 
span  worm  or  looper, 
Fig.  19.  that  is,   by   alternately 

contracting  and  expanding  its  body,  hold- 
ing fast  by  means  of  its  hind  feet  to  the 
object  on  which  it  rests,  while  the  head 
and  fore  feet  are  extended  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, the  stalk  or  leaf  being  securely  grasp- 
ed by  the  pectoral  feet,  the  hinder  part 
and  legs  are  suddenly  brought  up  to  them, 
so  that  at  every  step  the  body  assumes 
the  shape  of  an  arch ;  whereas  the  grass 
worm  glides  along  by  moving  its  feet  al- 
ternately and  gradually  without  raising 
the  middle  of  its  body  from  the  leaf.  The 
cotton  worm  has  also  a  habit  of  doubling 
itself  up  suddenly  when  disturbed,  and 
springing  to  a  distance,  but  the  grass, 
worm  merely  rolls  itself  up  somewhat 
like  a  snake  when  coiled.  The  cotton 
worm,  when  about  to  change,  spins  a  very 
loose  web  or  cocoon  among,  or  in  the 
leaves  or  branches  of  the  cotton  plant  or 
weeds  infesting  the  field,  at  some  distance 
from  the  ground.  The  grass  worm,  on 
the  contrary,  comes  down  from  the  plant 
it  has  fed  on  and  retires  under  stones, 
loose  earth,  or  buries  itself  in  the  ground 
before  forming  its  cocoon.  The  perfect 
moth  of  the  real  cotton  worm  is  much 
more  angular  and  graceful  in  form,  with 
the  upper  wings  of  a  somewhat  reddish 
or  claret  colored  brown,  and  there  is  al- 
ways a  darker  spot  having  a  light  centre, 
more  or  less  defined  in  the  middle  of 
these  wings,  while  the  under  wings  are  of 
a  dark  ash  color.  The  grass  worm  moth 
is  much  more  clumsy  in  form,  its  upper 
wings  being  clouded  and  barred  with 
dark  and  light  grayish  brown,  while  the 
under  wings  are  lighter  colored. 

Whether  the  cotton  caterpillar  feeds 


.37^ 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC—REMEDIES  F0& 


upon  any  other  plants  or  not  we  are  un- 
able to  say,  never  having  found  it  eating 
anything  but  cotton,  and  even  when  seen 
on  weeds  in  cotton  fields  the  worm  has 
merely  wandered  away  to  find  some  suit- 
able locality  in  which  to  spin  its  cocoon. 
Several  cotton  worms,  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose of  experiment,  constantly  refused  to 
eat  anything  but  cotton,  although  supplied 
daily  with  iresh  leaves  of  all  the  weeds  or 
plants  in  the  neighborhood,  and  several 
actually  starved  to  death  rather  than 
touch  anything  but  cotton  as  a  food. 

As  far  as  the  habits  of  the  cotton  cater- 
pillar are  known,  whenever  they  have 
appeared  in  Georgia  or  South  Carolina 
they  almost  invariably  came  from  the 
southward,  and  committed  great  ravages 
some  twenty  or  thirty  miles  off,  a  fortnight 
or  three  weeks  before  making  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  localities  named.  The 
second  and  third  broods  of  moths  still 
traveling  further  north,  spread  destruction 
and  devastation  wherever  they  deposited 
their  eggs,  until  providentially  killed  by 
the  frost.  If  this  theory  of  their  north- 
ward migration  is  correct,  it  would  be 
well  for  the  planters  to  give  a  small  re- 
ward to  the  discoverer  of  the  first  cotton 
•caterpillars  in  their  neighborhood,  and 
then  combine  to  turn  their  hands  en  masse 
on  the  infested  plantation,  to  crush,  burn, 
and  destroy  the  insect  in  all  its  forms,  as 
worm,  chrysalis  in  cocoon,  or  fly,  even  if 
they  have  to  burn  the  field  to  get  rid  of 
them,  and  to  pay  the  proprietor  for  the 
damage  done ;  for  they  may  rest  assured 
that  if  allowed  to  become  moths,  and 
multiply  without  any  effort  being  made  to 
destroy  them,  the  flies  will  undoubtedly 
migrate  to  all  the  neighboring  plantations, 
and  their  own  crop  will  eventually  be  de- 
stroyed among  the  rest.  Many  remedies 
have  been  proposed  for  their  extermina- 
tion. Fires  built  at  twilight  in  and  near 
cotton  fields  would  doubtless  burn  up  a 
great  many  moths,  yet  it  is  very  question- 
able if  these  fires  will  not  also  attract 
moths  from  other  plantations,  which  es- 
caping the  fire  will  found  new  colonies, 
when  they  otherwise  might  have  been 
content  to  remain  where  they  were  as 
long  as  there  was  any  cotton  foliage  left 
for  their  progeny  to  devour.  Large 
shallow  plates  or  dishes  filled  with 
molasses  or  syrup  with  vinegar,  or  some 
.strong  aromatic    substance,   have    been 


used  in  dry  weather  on  a  small  scale  with 
success,  epecially  when  the  moth  makes 
its  first  appearance,  as,  being  attracted  by 
the  sweet  scent,  they  crowd  into  the  plate 
and  are  drowned.  Perhaps  if  a  prepara- 
tion of  arsenic  or  some  tasteless  poison 
were  mixed  with  the  syrup  it  would 
answer  better,  as  doubtless  most  ot  the 
moths  visiting  the  plate,  after  satisfying 
their  appetite,  escape  being  caught  by 
the  viscid  substance  and  fly  off  to  the 
neighboring  plants.  Hard  wood  boards 
or  shingles  thickly  coated  on  one  side 
with  the  poisoned  preparation  might  be 
used  as  a  substitute  for  the  plates,  but  in 
this  case  the  boards  should  either  be 
placed  under  temporary  shelter,  or  in  a 
slanting  position  with  the  prepared  side 
underneath,  so  that  heavy  rains  could  not 
wash  off  the  poisoned  mixture.  Syrup 
and  rum  painted  or  smeared  on  the 
trunks  of  trees  are  extensively  used  by 
continental  entomologists  to  attract  the 
night-fly  moths. 

If  poison,  however,  in  any  shape  is 
used  for  exterminating  noxious  insects, 
the  hands  working  on  the  plantation 
should  be  warned  of  it,  otherwise  many 
of  the  young  negroes  might  mysteriously 
disappear  with  the  moths,  and  it  should 
on  no  account  whatever  be  used  where 
there  are  bee-hives  in  the  neighborhood. 
This  poisoning  process  has  nevertheless 
been  found  to  answer  very  well  in  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  where  tobacco  is  the 
staple  crop.  The  sweetened  poison  being 
dropped  into  the  flower  of  the  Jamestown 
weed  {Stramonium),  or  the  tobacco  blos- 
soms themselves  after  having  been  cut 
from  the  plant,  the  moth  is  attracted  by 
the  flower  and  perfume  in  the  early  twi- 
light, inserts  its  large  flexible  trunk,  and 
after  imbibing  the  poison  dies  before  hav- 
ing time  to  deposit  its  eggs.  This  plan 
has  been  practiced  with  decided  success 
in  Florida  by  the  planters  of  tobacco. 

The  eggs  of  the  cotton  moth  are  fre- 
quently destroyed  by  several  species  of 
small  ants,  which  are  said  to  bite  the  egg 
open  when  just  deposited  and  to  abstract 
the  substance.  Many  caterpillars,  especi- 
ally if  weak  or  somewhat  disabled,  fall. 
victims  to  the  voracity  of  the  restless 
myriads  of  ants  always  abounding  in  the 
fields,  and  feeding  upon  the  honey  dew 
secreted  by  the  cotton  louse  or  aphis,  and 
the  bodies  of  such  other  insects  as  they 


CABBAGK  wokm,  (  B u 1 1 erfly,  > 
See  pagM  377-60*. 


0ABBA6E    WORM LAKYA. 

Sec  pages  377-603. 


GRAIN  WBEYIL. 


TLB*    I.IOB, 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  PACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      377 


■can  overcome.  The  cotton  caterpillar  is 
also  destroyed  by  a  small  yellow  and 
black  banded  ichneumon  fly,  which  de- 
posits its  eggs  in  the  worm.  This  egg 
hatching  produces  a  footless  grub,  which 
feeds  in  the  oody  of  the  caterpillar,  at 
first  avoiding  all  the  vital  parts  and  de- 
vouring merely  the  fatty  matter,  leaving 
the  larva  with  strength  to  spin  its  cocoon 
and  change  into  the  chrysalis,  with  its 
internal  foe  still  in  its  body.  The  grub 
then,  after  devouring  the  remainder  of 
interior,  changes  into  a  pupa,  and  finally 
emerges  from  the  dried  chrysalis'  skin  as 
•a  full-formed  four-winged  fly,  somewhat 
resembling  a  very  diminutive  wasp. 

PEAR  SLUG. — The  pear  slug,  a  brown- 
ish-green, slimy  slug,  feeding  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  pear  tree,  deposits  its  eggs 
singly  in  June,  in  incisions  made  by  the 
piercer  of  the  female  under  the  skin  of 
the  leaf.  The  larvae,  hatching,  eat  the 
substance  of  the  leaf,  leaving  the  veins 
and  under  skin  untouched.  The  pupa  is 
formed  in  oblong  oval  cavities  under 
ground.  The  insect  appears  in  about 
fifteen  days  after  the  slug  has  gone  into 
the  ground,  in  June  and  August,  and  lays 
its  eggs  for  the  second  crop,  which  go  in- 
to the  ground  in  September  and  October, 
and  remain  until  the  following  spring, 
when  the  perfect  flies  come  out  to  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  foliage.  Mr.  Saun- 
ders, of  Canada,  states  that  this  insect 
is  readily  destroyed  by  dusting  the  tree 
with  air-slacked  lime.  Coal  oil  will  in- 
jure the  trees,  and  road-dust  is  of  little 
value  when  dusted  over  the  trees.  For 
another  insect  of  the  same  genus,  Har- 
ris recommends  syringing  with  strong 
soap-suds.  The  Rose  Slug  and  other  in- 
jurious slug  worms  can  be  destroyed  by 
dusting  the  plants  with  the  powdered  hel- 
lebore, or  syringing  with  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  the  same  root. 

PLANT  LICE.=~To  destroy  common 
plant  lice  [Amp hides)  and  other  insects  in 
the  greenhouse  and  garden,  the  following 
remedy  has  been  recommended  by  M. 
Cloetz,  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  in 
Paris :  Three  and  one-half  ounces  quassia 
chips,  five  drachms  of  stavesacre  seeds, 
powdered  and  placed  in  seven  pints  of 
water,  and  boiled  until  reduced  to  five 
pints. 

Dr.  Hull  recommends  dusting  slacked 
lime  on   the   trees  or  bushes  when  the 


foliage  is  wet ;  syringing  with  soap-suds 
or  tobacco-water,  or  a  strong  decoction 
of  quassia  with  soap-suds;  also,  a  weak 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime  is  said  by 
Mr.  Andrews  to  preserve  plants  from 
insects  if  sprinkled  over  them.  The  fol- 
lowing recipe  is  also  highly  recommended 
in  an  English  horticultural  journal  as 
being  almost  infallible  "  for  mildew,  scale, 
mealy  bug,  red  spider,  and  thrips : "  Two 
ounces  flour  of  sulphur  worked  into  a 
paste  with  water,  two  ounces  washing 
soda,  one-half  ounce  common  shag  to- 
bacco, and  a  piece  of  quicklime  about 
the  size  of  a  duck's  egg.  Pour  them  all 
into  a  saucepan  with  one  gallon  of  water, 
boil  and  stir  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and 
let  the  whole  settle  until  it  becomes  cold 
and  clear.  It  should  then  be  poured  off, 
leaving  the  sediment.  In  using  it,  add 
water  according  to  the  strength  or  sub- 
stance of  the  foliage.  It  will  keep  good 
for  a  long  time  if  kept  closed. 

CABBAG3  BUG.— The  harlequin  cab- 
bage-bug, which  appeared  in  187 1,  has 
been  much  complained  of  the  past  year. 
The  perfect  insect  hybernates  in  sheltered 
places,  and  the  female  deposits  her  eggs 
in  March  and  April,  in  two  rows,  cemented 
together,  mostly  on  the  under-side  of  the 
leaf,  and  generally  ten  to  twelve  in  num- 
ber. In  about  six  days  the  first  broods 
make  their  appearance,  the  young  larvae* 
resembling  the  perfect  insect,  with  the 
exception  of  being  wingless.  About  six- 
teen to  eighteen  days  elapse  from  the 
deposition  of  the  eggs  to  the  development 
of  the  perfect  insect.  A  second  brood 
appears  in  July,  which  probably  hyber- 
nates (in  North  Carolina)  in  sheltered 
places.  It  is  said  that  fowls  and  birds 
will  not  eat  them,  and  the  only  remedy 
recommended  is  handpicking,  and  as  they 
hybernate  in  the  perfect  state  beneath 
bark,  under  brush  heaps  or  stones,  like 
the  cotton  red-bug,  it  would  be  well  in 
winter  to  search  for  them  in  such  situa- 
tions, and  in  spring  to  destroy  them  on 
their  first  appearance  upon  the  plants, 
before  they  have  had  time  to  deposit 
their  eggs ;  or  if  little  heaps  of  rotting 
vegetables  were  left  as  places  of  shelter, 
here  and  there  during  the  winter,  so  that 
they  might  be  induced  to  hybernate 
under  them,  they  might  readily  be  de- 
stroyed in  spring  by  burning  straw  over 
the  heaps. 


37» 


INSECTS—DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


BOCKY  MOUNTAIN  LOCUST.— These 
insects  appear  in  vast  armies,  devouring 
every  green  thing,  like  the  locusts  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures,  and  which  may 
be  reckoned  yet  among  the  plagues  of  the 
Eastern  States. 

The  female  locust,  in  the  autumn,  de- 
posits her  eggs  in  small  holes  or  cells 
made  in  the  earth  by  means  of  her  ovi- 
positor. Most  of  these  eggs  remain 
all  winter  uninjured  by  the  frost,  and 
hatch  the  following  spring,  earlier  or  later, 
according  to  the  influences  of  climate. 
Cold  rains  in  the  spring,  however,  are 


fig.  ooo.— Rocky  Mountain  Locust. 
a,  a,  a,  female  in  different  positions,  ovipositing;   b,  unripe  red  peppers. 
«E£^xira^edfr™^  a  remedy  for  the  west 

SHOW  nf   hOW  th«»    Peers   arc     opmbtoH  •     /•     t    fa-ur  «»(Trrc    Iwnd  € 


escape  by  a  rapid  and  prolonged  flight. 
When  young  they  feed  near  the  place 
where  they  were  hatched,  and  upon  what- 
ever  vegetation  is  growing  in  the  vicinity. 
When  fully  grown,  with  perfect  wings, 
they  collect  together,  pair,  and  emigrate  in 
countless  myriads  to  other  places  in  search 
of  food  and  proper  places  in  which  to  depos- 
it their  eggs  for  the  next  year's  crop,  after 
doing  which  they  soon  die  and  disappear. 
In  the  Practical  Entomologist,  Dr.  Walsh 
states  that  he  does  not  think  the  hateful 
grasshopper  will  ever  cross  the  Mississippi 
to  pass  onward  to  the  Eastern  States,  and 
recommends  the  authorities  to  offer 
a  bounty  for  every  bushel  of  eggs. 

The  western  grasshopper  differs 
from  its  eastern  relative,  the  red- 
legged  locust,  merely  by  having  the 
wings  much  more  elongated,  so  as 
to  be  adapted  for  long  flights.     In 
habits   they   are  much   alike;   the 
red-legged  locust    feeds   on   grass, 
leaves  and  vegetables,  and  is  also 
migratory.     The  red-legged  locust, 
2;  in  certain  seasons,  collects  in  great 
g*  numbers,  and   some  years  ago,  in 
p~  certain  parts  of  New  York,  did  con- 
F"  siderable  damage,  especially  to  gar- 
den  vegetables,  not  sparing  even 
A  planter  in 


showing  how  the  eggs  are  arranged ;  c.  a  few  eggs  lying 

loose  on  the  gronnd;  d,  e,  shows  the  earth  partially  re-  ern  locust  or   grasshopper,   recom- 
moved,  to  illustrate  an  egg-mass  already  in  place,  and  one  mends  that :   "As  soon  as  the  grass- 
being  placed ;  /,  shows  where  such  a  mass  has  been  cov-  hopper  has  laid   its   eggs   the  plan- 
ters plow  their  fields  and  turn  the 


ered  up. 

said  to  destroy  the  young  insects.  The 
grasshoppers  when  first  hatched  exactly 
resemble  the  old  insects  in  form,  with  the 
exception  that  they  have  no  wings  or 
wing  cases.  Rudimentary  wings  and 
wing  cases  are  developed  when  they  cast 
their  skins,  but  they  are  as  yet  perfectly 
incapable  of  flight,  and  can  merely  walk 
or  jump  from  plant  to  plant;  and  it  is 
only  when  they  have  shed  their  skins  for 
the  last  time  that  they  acquire  fully  de- 
veloped wings  and  are  capable  of  any 
flight  whatsoever.  This  insect,  from  the 
egg  to  the  perfect  state,  is  injurious,  de- 
vouring almost  any  vegetable  substance, 
(sorghum  and  osage  orange  alone  being 
excepted  by  some  of  our  correspondents,) 
and  is  most  easily  destroyed  by  wholesale 
when  young  and  unable  to  fly,  as  the  per- 
fect insect  when  disturbed  can  readily 


soil  over  so  that  the  eggs  will  be  buried 
under  a  layer  of  earth,  which  will  crush 
them  and  thus  destroy  the  spring  crop  of 
grasshoppers.  This  experiment  has 
been  made  in  small  spots  of  ground 
where  myriads  of  eggs  were  deposited, 
and  not  a  grasshopper  came  from  under 
the  layer  of  soil  that  covered  the  eggs." 

Besides  the  remedies  already  mention- 
ed for  destroying  the  eggs  of  the  western 
locust  or  grasshopper,  crushing  and  killing 
the  young  insects  by  means  ot  a  large 
roller,  has  been  spoken  of;  the  young 
grasshopper,  however,  being  exceedingly 
agile,  many  doubtless  would  make  their 
escape.  It  has  been  proposed  not  to 
burn  the  prairies  in  the  autumn,  as  is 
usually  the  practice,  but  to  defer  it  until 
spring,  when  the  young  grasshoppers  are 
yet  wingless  and  the  grass  dry,  then  to- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      379 


set  fire  to  it  in  circles  as  much  as  possible, 
so  that  the  insects  cannot  escape  from  the 
ring  of  fire,  but  be  driven  by  the  heat 
and  smoke  into  the  centre,  where  they 
will  eventually  perish  in  the  flames.  In 
the  Eastern  States,  where  the  red-legged 
grasshopper  abounds,  the  nets  already 
mentioned  could  be  used  with  advantage, 
and  if  the  insects  have  been  killed  by  im- 
mersion in  boiling  water,  they  could  be 
given  as  food  to  poultry,  etc.,  kept  in  en- 
closures where  they  cannot  find  any  in- 
sects. The  only  trouble  yet  found  with 
this  net  is  that  it  sometimes  collects  a 
great  deal  of  rubbish,  such  as  leaves, 
sticks,  etc.,  and  the  centre  opening  is  lia- 
ble to  become  clogged  with  such  sub- 
stances if  not  examined  and  cleaned  out 
every  few  minutes. 

THE  QUINCE  CURCULIO.— This  in- 
sect has  been  called  the  Quince  Curculio 
by  Dr.  Trimble,  and  though  it  breeds  in 
other  fruits,  the  name  is  a  good  one,  as  it 
will  enable  us  to  distinguish  it  at  once 
from  our  other  fruit  snout-beetles. 

Though  belonging  to  the  same  genus 
as  our  Plum  Curculio,  and  having  very 
much  the  same  form,  as  may  be  seen  by 
referring  to  the  figure,  (Figure  19  a  side 
view;  b  back  view),  yet  it  differs  remark- 
ably in  its  habits 
from  both  of  the 
preceding  wee- 
vils. It  is,  like 
them,  an  indigen- 
ous species,  and 
its  original  fruit 
was  evidently  the 
wild  Haw,  which 
in  the  West  it  yet 


Fig.  19. 


seems  to  prefer  to  the  cultivated  fruits, 
But  in  the  East  it  has  become  very  inju- 
rious to  the  Quince,  and,  as  we  might 
naturally  expect,  also  attacks  the  Pear, 
and  especially  the  Lawrence  and  other 
late  varieties. 

Remedies. — Very  fortunately  this  in- 
sect drops  as  readily  when  alarmed  as 
does  the  Plum  Curculio,  and  the  jarring 
process  will  be  found  just  as  effectual  in 
catching  it,  with  the  additional  advantage 
that  the  jarring  need  only  be  carried  on 
for  about  ten  weeks  of  the  year,  namely, 
from  about  the  first  of  June  to  the  middle 
of  August  in  this  latitude.  Moreover,  in 
accordance  with  its  late  appearance,  we 


find  that,  according  to  Dr.  Trimble, 
whenever  it  attacks  pears,  it  prefers  the 
late  ripening  varieties.  Again,  it  is,  like 
the  Plum  Curculio,  nocturnal  in  its  hab- 
its, and  secretive  during  the  day,  so  that 
the  Ransom  process  will  undoubtedly 
prove  effectual  with  it,  if  used  at  the  right 
season.  All  fruit  that  falls  should  be  de- 
stroyed, and  as  we  know  that  the  larva 
hibernates  in  the  ground,  many  of  them 
will  be  injured  and  destroyed  by  late  stir- 
ring of  the  soil. 

GRASS,  OR  ARMY-WORM.  —  The 
grass  or  army-worm;,  ihough  it  appears 
every  season,  is  not  always  troublesome. 
The  eggs  are  probabiy  deposited  at  the 
base  of  perennial  grass-stalks,  and  the 
larvae  at  times  appear  in  immense  multi- 
tudes in  the  Northern,  Middle  and  West- 
ern States,  where  they  destroy  grass,  grain 
and  other  crops.  Leaving  one  field,  after 
having  eaten  it  out,  they  march  or  crawl 
to  those  in  the  neighborhood  in  search  of 
food;  hence  the  vulgar  name  of  army 
worm.  The  insect  by  day  hides  in 
tufts  of  grass.  When  the  larvae  are 
migratory,  or  on  the  march  for  food,  their 
march  is  stated  to  be  at  the  rate  of  two 
to  six  rods  per  hour.  These  pests  are 
said  to  multiply  much  faster  in  dry  sea- 
sons when  the  swamps  are  dry,  and  when 
they  are  thus  multiplied  a  wet  season  and 
overflowing  swamps  drive  the  insects 
from  their  lurking  places  in  flocks,  and 
they  alight  here  and  there  over  the  coun- 
try. There  is  generally  but  one  brood  in 
the  Northern  States  in  one  season,  but  in 
the  South  there  are  probably  two,  the 
last  of  which  hybernates  as  pupae.  Sev- 
eral remedies  have  been  proposed  for 
their  prevention  and  destruction,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  burning  over 
the  meadows  in  winter  or  very  early  in 
spring,  or  plowing  late  in  the  fall  or  early 
in  spring,  which  will  probably  destroy  all 
their  eggs.  Judicious  ditching  will  pre- 
vent their  migration  from  infested  fields 
to  those  as  yet  unjured,  and  these  ditch- 
es should  be  dug,  if  possible,  with  almost 
perpendicular  sides,  or  sloping  inward 
from  the  top  on  the  side  to  be  protected, 
so  that  the  caterpillars  cannot  readily 
crawl  out.  When  the  ditches  are  filled, 
with  the  struggling  caterpillars,  if  dry 
straw  is  scattered  over  them  and  fire  ap- 
plied it  will  kill  them  and  clear  the  ditch, 
for  another  lot. 


.38° 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


WESTERN  POTATO  BUG,  Colorado 
bug,  or  ten-lined  spearman,  has  been 
very  injurious  to  the  potato  crops  during 
the  last  few  years  in  the  Western  States. 
It  appears  to  be  rapidly  spreading  to- 
wards the  East,  the  rate  of  progress  east- 
ward assumed  to  be  about  fifty  miles  a 


year.  The  habits  of  the  western  potato 
beetle  are  as  follows :  The  eggs  are  de- 
posited by  the  female,  to  the  number  of 
about  seven  hundred,  at  intervals  during 
forty  days,  on  the  leaves  of  the  potato, 
in  somewhat  regularly  arranged  loose 
clusters.    After  the  lapse  of  about  six 


Fig.  2i. — Colorado  Potato-Beetle. 

■• 
Colorado  Potato-Beetle:  a,  a  eggs;  b,  b,  b,  larvae  of  different  sizes;  c,  pu- 
pa; d,  d,  beetle ;  e,  left  wing-coyer  magnified  to  show  lines  and  punctures ; 
f,  leg,   enlarged,     Colors   of  egg,    orangl ;  of  larvae,  Venitian-red ;    of 
beetle,  black  and  yellow. 


'days  they  hatch  into  larva;,  which  feed 
upon  the  foliage  of  the  plant  about  sev- 
enteen days;  they  then  descend  to  the 
ground,  where  they  change  into  pupae  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  perfect 
beetle  appears  about  ten  to  fourteen  days 
after  the  pupa;  is  formed,  begins  to  pair 
in  about  seven  days,  and  on  the  four- 
teenth day  commences  to  deposit  her 
•eggs,  thus  requiring  about  fifty  days  from 
egg  to  egg  again.  This  period  may, 
however,  vary  somewhat  according  to 
the  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  abun- 
dance or  paucity  of  food  when  in  the 
larva  state.  There  is  another  insect  al- 
most exactly  similar  in  color,  size,  and 
form  to  this  potato  beetle,  found  in  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States,  which  is  men- 
tioned in  Melsheimer's  catalogue  as  a 
synonym  under  he  name  of  Doryphora. 
This  insect  merely  differs  from  the  decim 
iineata  by  having  the  second  and  third 
stripes  always  united  behind,  and  the 
edges  of  all  the  stripes  with  a  single  row 
of  punctures ;  the  legs  also  have  a  black 
spot  in  the  middle  of  all  the  thighs. 
This  insect  (the  D.   juncta)  we  found  in 


South  Carolina  upon  the  horse  nettle,  and 
several  specimens  in  Alabama,  where 
they  fed  upon  potatoes  and  egg  plants, 
being  reported  as  especially  injurious  to 
the  latter. 


Fig.  22.— Bogus  Colorado  Potato-Beetle. 

a>  eggs,  b,  b,  larva,  c,  Beetle,  d,  left  wing- 
cover  enlarged,  retaining  marks  and  punctures ; 
e,  leg  enlarged;  colors  of  egg,  pale  yellow;  of 
larva,  cream  yellow ;  of  beetle,  black,  yellow 
and  brown. 

A  remedy  we  propose  is  "  a  weak  lime 
sprinkled  over  the  plants  between  sun- 
down and  dark,  three  applications  to  be 
made  at  different  times,"  and  adds  in  a 
postscript,  "  this  remedy  was  tried  in  the 
year  1867,  and  proved  effectual."  *If 
brine  is  used,  however,  great  care  should 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      381 


be  taken  not  to  have  too  strong  or  too 
much  of  it,  else  the  remedy  would  be  as 
bad  as  the  disease,  and  both  potato  bee- 
tles and  plants  would  be  killed  at  the 
same  time.  Straw  placed  loosely  over 
the  plants  will  protect  them  somewhat 
from  the  insect,  but  would  cost  too  much 
when  spread  over  a  large  field.  If  the 
larvae  and  perfect  beetles  are  beaten  off 
the  plants  into  pans,  as  is  frequently 
done,  it  would  be  advantageous  to  have 
the  vessels,  which  are  to  receive  them 
when  they  fall  from  the  plants,  made  of 
smooth  tin,  shaped  somewhat  like  a  spit- 
toon but  much  deeper,  with  the  slope  in- 
wards to  the  central  hole  in  the  top,  or  a 
much  greater  inclination  so  that  the  in- 
sects would  readily  slide  down  and  fall 
into  the  main  case,  where,  once  in,  they 
could  not  possibly  escape.  This  top 
might  also  be  made  much  larger,  and 
shallow,  funnel-shaped,  if  desired,  to  cov- 
er more  space,  and  be  attached  to  a  bag. 
The  same  vessels  might  be  used  for  the 
rose  beetle  and  other  insects  which  fall  to 
the  ground  when  disturbed.  When  open 
mouth  bags  or  sweeping  nets  are  used  to 
sweep  them  off  the  foliage,  this  plan 
might  be  modified  by  using  a  net  or  bag 
and  somewhat  like  the  fish-baskets  in  rivers 
and  creeks — that  is,  with  a  double  net  or 
bag  attached  to  a  hoop,  the  outer  one  being 
very  long,  conical,  and  with  an  opening 
at  the  lower  end,  which  can  be  closed  by 
means  of  a  string,  and  through  which 
the  insects  captured  can  be  shaken  into 
hot  water ;  the  inner  net  to  be  also  coni- 
cal but  shallower,  with  a  smooth  round 
hole  in  the  centre,  through  which  the 
beetles  are  swept  when  the  net  is  forced 
over  or  under  the  plants.  This  orifice 
might  be  made  of  tin  and  closed  with  a 
cork  when  the  net  is  nearly  full,  or  when 
not  in  use.  Such  a  net  could  be  made 
of  any  size  or  shape,  and  would  un- 
doubtedly be  of  much  utility,  as  the  in- 
sects, once  swept  into  the  inner  part, 
could  not  possibly  escape,  as  is  frequently 
the  case  when  open-mouthed  sweeping 
nets  are  used.  The  ring  of  the  net  by 
which  the  mouth  is  kept  open  can  readily 
be  made  of  common  telegraph  wire ;  any 
straight  and  strong  stick  will  answer  for 
a  handle,  and  the  bags  may  be  made  of 
canvas  or  strong  muslin.  The  edges  ot 
the  hoop  to  which  the  net  is  fastened 
ought  to  be  protected  by  a  covering  ot 


leather  or  some  such  material,  as  the 
muslin  is  subject  to  be  worn  away  by 
friction  when  beating  the  plants.  Pow- 
dered hellebore  is  reported  to  have  been 
used  with  effect  as  a  means  of  destroying 
both  the  Colorado  potato  bug  and  the 
gooseberry  or  currant  worms,  if  dusted 
over  and  under  the  foliage  when  the 
plants  are  wet  with  dew.  Hellebore, 
however,  is  a  somewhat  dangerous  reme- 
dy, on  account  of  its  poisonous  qualities. 

The  true  remedy  consists  in  preventing 
them  from  becoming  numerous  so  late  in 
the  season.  Watch  for  the  beetles  in 
early  spring,  when  the  vines  are  just  peep- 
ing out  of  the  ground.  Ensnare  as  many 
of  them  as  you  can  before  they  get  a 
chance  to  pair,  by  making  a  few  small 
heaps  of  potatoes  in  the  field  planted;  to 
these  the  beetles  will  be  attracted  for  food, 
and  you  can  easily  kill  them  in  the  morn- 
ing. Keep  an  eagle  eye  for  the  eggs  which 
are  first  deposited.  Cultivate  well  by  fre- 
quently stirring  the  soil.  Plant  early  varie- 
ties in  preference  to  iate  ones,  because  the 
bugs  are  always  more  numerous  late  in 
the  season  than  they  are  during  the  spring 
and  early  summer.  Give  the  preference 
to  the  peach-blow,  early  rose  and  such 
other  varieties  as  have  been  found  most 
exempt  from  attack,  and  surround  your 
fields  on  the  outside  by  rows  of  such  ten- 
der-leaved varieties  as  the  Mercer, 
Shaker,  Russet,  Pinkeye  and  early  Good- 
rich ;  but,  above  all,  isolate  your  potato 
field  as  much  as  possible,  either  by  using 
land  surrounded  with  timber,  or  by  plant- 
ing in  the  centre  of  a  cornfield.  Carry 
out  these  suggestions  thoroughly  and  you 
will  not  have  much  use  for  Paris  green, 
and  still  less  for  the  scorching  remedy. 

THE  APPLE  CUCTJLIO.— The  Apple, 
or  Four-Humped  Curculio,  (Fig.  23, 
a  natural  size;  b,  side  view;  c,  back 
view,)  is  a  smaller  insect  with  a  snout 
which  sticks  out  more  or  less  hori- 
zontally and  cannot  be  folded  under,  and 
which  in  the  male  is  about  half  as  long, 
and  in  the  female  is  fully  as  long  as  the 
whole  body.  This  insect  has  narrow- 
shoulders  and  broadens  behind,  where  it 
is  furnished  with  four  very  conspicuous 
humps,  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  It 
has  neither  the  polished  black  elevations 
nor  the  pale  band  of  the  Plum  Curculio. 
In  short,  it  differs  generically,  and  never 
attacks  stone  fruit. 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


The  size  varies  from  i-2oth  to  nearly 
i-i  ?th  of  an  inch,  but  the  colors  are  quite 
uniform,  the  body  being  ferruginous  or 
rusty-brown,  often  with  the  thorax  and 
anterior  third  of  the  wing-covers  ash-gray 
— the  thorax  having  three  more  or  less 
distinct  pale  lines. 

Remedies  and  Preventive  Meas- 
ures.— Notwithstanding  we  have  had  re- 
ports, published  in  the  columns  of  our  ag- 
ricultural papers,  of  the  relative  number 
of  Apple  and  Plum  Curculios  captured 
from  peach  trees  by  jarring  with  the  Cur- 
culio-catcher,  we  are  fully  convinced  that 


Fig.  23. 
such  reports  were  not  based  on  facts,  and 
that  we  may  never  expect  to  subdue  this 
insect  by  the  jarring  process.  It  is  not  as 
timid  or  as  much  inclined  to  drop  as  the 
Plum  Curculio,  and  though  it  can  occa- 
sionally be  brought  down,  it  generally  re- 
mains defiantly  on  the  fruit  or  on  the 
bough,  through  the  gentlest  as  well  as  the 
severest  jarring  of  the  tree.  Indeed,  its 
habit  of  transforming  in  the  fruit  places  it 
in  a  great  measure  beyond  our  control, 
and  we  fear  that  this  is  one  of  the  few  in- 
sects with  which  we  can  do  but  little  by 
artificial  means.  But  we  have  only  just 
commenced  to  understand  this  foe,  and 
there  is  much  yet  to  learn  about  it.  We 
sincerely  hope  that  the  few  facts  which 
have  been  here  given  will  increase  the 
reader's  interest  in  this  insect  and  enable 
him  to  carry  on  future  observations  and 
experiments  with  a  better  understanding ; 
so  that  they  will  at  last  result  in  making 
us  masters  of  this  rather  difficult  situa- 
tion. Mr.  H.  Lewelling,  of  High  Hill, 
Montgomery  county,  Missouri,  who  has 
had  much  of  his  fruit  injured  by  this  in- 
sect, informs  me  that  Tallman's  Sweet  is 
preferred  by  it  to  all  other  varieties,  and 
our  observations  should,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, tend  in  the  direction  of  deciding 
which  varieties  are  most  subject  to,  and 


which  most  exempt  from  its  attacks ;  and 
which  varieties  fall  most  readily  when  in- 
fested by  it. 

THE  PEA-WEEVIL.— The  pea-weevil, 
or  pea-bug,  does  not  deposit  its  eggs  in 
the  flowers  of  the  pea  within  the  pod,  as 
is  sometimes  taught,  but  on  the  surface  of 
the  young  pods,  without  special  reference 
to  particular  parts.  They  are  attracted 
to  the  outside  of  the  pod  by  a  "  viscid' 
fluid  which  dries  white,  and  glistens  like 
silk.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  are  hatched, 
the  larvae  bore  directly  through  the  pod, 
one  entering  each  pea  and  making  a 
puncture  smaller  than  a  pin-hole.  As  the 
pea  and  pod  enlarge,  the  puncture  closes 
up,  and  the  larva  excavates  a  small  cavi- 
ty in  one  side  of  the  pea,  leaving  its  out- 
er coating  whole.  In  this  cavity  it 
assumes  the  pupa  state,  and  comes  out  a 
perfect  beetle  the  next  year,  usually  about 
the  time  the  young  peas  are  in  bloom. 
If  the  weevils  are  in  the  peas  when  sown, 
they  remain  in  the  ground  till  the  proper 
time  to  come  out  and  deposit  their  eggs. 

Remedy. — Inclose  the  peas,  after  they 
are  perfectly  dry,  in  a  tight  cask,  and 
keep  them  over  to  the  second  year  before 
sowing,  which  will  kill  the  weevils;  to 
put  them  into  water  just  before  sowing, 
when  the  sound  ones  will  mostly  sink, 
and  those  containing  the  weevil  will  rise 
to  the  surface.  Also  immerse  them  in 
hot  water  for  one  or  two  minutes,  by 
which  most  all  the  weevils  will  be  killed 
and  the  sprouting  of  the  peas  not  in- 
jured. 

All  peas  intended  for  seed  should  be 
examined,  and  it  can  very  soon  be  de- 
termined whether  or  not  they  are  infested. 
The  thin  covering  over  the  hole  of  the 
peas  that  contain  weevils  and  which 
may  be  called  the  eye-spot,  is  generally 
somewhat  discolored,  and  by  this  eye- 
spot  those  peas  which  ought  not  to 
be  planted  can  soon  be  distinguished. 
Where  this  covering  is  off  there  is  little 
danger,  for  in  that  case  the  weevil  has 
either  left,  or,  if  still  within  the  pea,  is 
usually  dead.  It  would,  of  course,  be 
tedious  to  carefully  examine  a  large  lot  of 
peas,  one  by  one,  in  order  to  separate 
those  that  are  buggy,  and  the  most  expe- 
ditious way  of  separating  the  sound  from 
the  unsound,  is  to  throw  them  into  wa- 
ter, when  the  sound  ones  will  mostly  sink 
and  the  unsound  swim. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       383 


Choice  lots  of  seed,  if  found  to  be  in- 
fested when  received  from  the  seedsman, 
may  be  thrown  into  hot  water  for  a  min- 
ute or  two,  and  the  sprouting  of  the 
peas  will  be  quickened,  and  most  of  the 
weevils,  but  not  all,  be  killed.  But  what- 
ever plan  be  adopted  to  obtain  sound 
seed,  it  should  be  every  man's  aim,  in 
duty  to  himself  and  to  his  neighbors,  to 
plant  none  but  bugless  peas. 

GRAPE  LEAF-FOLDER.— The  subject 
of  this  sketch  has  long  been  known  to 
depredate  on  the  leaves  of  the  grape-vine 
in  many  widely  separated  parts  of  North 


America.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Canada 
West,  and  is  found  in  the  extreme  south- 
ern parts  of  Georgia.  It  appears  to  be 
far  more  injurious,  however,  in  the  inter- 
mediate country,  or  between  latitude 
thirty-five  and  forty  degrees,  than  in  any 
other  sections,  and  in  Southern  Illinois 
and  Central  Missouri  proves  more  or  less 
injurious  every  year. 

The  moth  of  the  Grape  Leaf-folder  is 
a  very  pretty  little  thing,  expanding  on 
an  average  almost  an  inch,  with  a  length 
of  body  of  about  one-third  of  an  inch. 
It  is  conspicuously  marked,  and  the  sexes 


Fig.  25. 


•differ  sufficiently  to  have  given  rise  to  two 
names,  the  female  having  been  named 
Botys  bicolor.  The  color  is  black  with  an 
•opalescent  reflection,  and  the  under  sur- 
face differs  only  from  the  upper  in  being 
less  bright;  all  the  wings  are  bordered 
with  white.  The  front  wings  of  both 
sexes  are  each  furnished  with  two  white 
spots;  but  while  in  the  male  (Fig.  25,  4), 
there  is  but  one  large  spot  on  the  hind 
-wings,  in  the  female  (Fig.  25,5)  this  spot 
is  invariably  more  or  less  constricted  in 
the  middle,  especially  above,  and  is  often 
•entirely  divided  into  two  distinct  spots. 
The  body  of  the  male  has  but  one  dis- 
tinct transverse  band,  and  a  longitudinal 
white  dash  at  its  extremity  superiorly, 
while  that  of  the  female  has  two  white 
bands.  The  antennae,  as  already  stated, 
are  still  more  characteristic,  those  of  the 
male  being  elbowed  and  thickened  near 
the  middle,  while  those  of  the  female  are 
•simple  and  thread-like. 

There  are  two  broods — and  probably 
three — during  the  year;  the  first  moths 
appearing  in  June,  the  second  in  August, 
and  the  worms  produced  from  these  last 
hibernating  in  the  chrysalis  state.  The 
eggs  are  scattered  in  small  patches  over 
the  vines,  and  the  worms  are  found  of  all 
sizes  at  the  same  time.     These  last  change 


to  chrysalids  in  twenty-four  to  thirty  days 
from  hatching,  and  give  one-fourth  the 
moths  in  about  a  week  afterwards. 

The  worm  (Fig.  25,  1)  folds  rather 
than  rolls  the  leaf,  by  fastening  two  por- 
tions together  by  its  silken  threads ;  and 
for  this  reason,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  many  leaf-rollers,  may  be  popularly 
known  as  the  "  Grape  Leaf-folder."  It 
is  of  a  glass-green  color,  and  very  active, 
wriggling,  jumping  and  jerking  either 
way  at  every  touch.  The  head  and  tho- 
racic segments  are  marked  as  at  Figure 
25,  2.  If  let  alone,  these  worms  will 
soon  defoliate  a  vine,  and  the  best  meth- 
od of  destroying  them  is  by  crushing  sud- 
denly within  the  fold  of  the  leaf,  with 
both  hands.  To  prevent  their  appear- 
ance, however,  requires  far  less  trouble. 
The  chrysalis  is  formed  within  the  fold 
of  the  leaf,  and  by  going  over  the  vine- 
yard in  October,  or  any  time  before  the 
leaves  fall,  and  carefully  plucking  and 
destroying  all  those  that  are  folded  and 
crumpled,  the  supply  for  the  following 
year  will  be  cut  off.  This  should  be  done 
collectively  to  be  positively  effectual,  for 
the  utmost  vigilance  will  avail  but  little  if 
one  is  surrounded  with  slovenly  neigh- 
bors. 

COMMON  YELLOW  BEAR.— This  is 


3*4 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC— REMEDIES  FOR. 


one  of  the  most  common  North  American 
insects.  The  moth  (Figure  26),  which  is 
very  generally  dubbed  "The  Miller," 
frequently  flies  into  our  rooms  at  night; 
and  there  are  quite  a  number  of  our 
farmers  who,  somehow  or  other,  have  got 
the  idea  that  this  "  Miller  "  is  the  insect 


Fig.  26 — Common  Yellow  Bear. 
that  infests  their  beehives— that  it  is.  in 
short,  the  Bee-moth. 

Though  the  moth  is  so  common,  how 
few  persons  ever  think  of  it  as  the  parent 
of  that  most  troublesome  of  caterpillars, 
which  Harris  has  so  aptly  termed  the 
Yellow  Bear  (Figure  26.)  These  cater- 
pillars are  quite  frequently  found  on  the 
Grape-vine. 

The  Yellow  Bear  is  found  of  all  sizes 
from  June  to  October;  and  though  quite 
fond  of  the  vine,  is  by  no  means  confined 
to  that  plant.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  very  general 
feeder,  being  found  on  a  great  variety  of 
herbaceous  plants,  both  wild  and  culti- 
vated, as  butternut,  lilac,  beans,  peas, 
convolvulus,  corn,  currant,  gooseberry, 
cotton,  sunflower,  plantain,  smart-weed, 
verbenas,  geraniums,  and  almost  any 
plant  with  soft,  tender  leaves.  These 
caterpillars  are  indeed  so  indifferent  as  to 
their  diet,  that  we  have  actually  known 
one  to  subsist  entirely,  from  the  time  it 
cast  its  last  skin  till  it  spun  u  on  dead 
bodies  of  the  Camel  Cricket. 

The  best  time  to  destroy  these  worms 
is  soon  after  they  hatch  from  their  little 
round  yellow  eggs,  which  are  deposited 
in  clusters;  for,  as  already  intimated, 
they  then  feed  together. 

SQUASH  BUG.— The  common  squash 
bug  has  been  extremely  injurious  to  the 
squash  family  in  many  parts  of  the 
Middle  States,  injuring  the  plants  in 
larva,  pupa,  and  perfect  states,  by  con- 


gregating in  great  numbers  around  the 
stem  near  the  ground,  or  on  the  leaves, 
and  sucking  out  the  sap  by  means  of  their 
strong  beaks.  The  eggs  of  this  insect 
are  deposited  in  little  patches  fastened  to 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves  in  June  and 
July.  It  is  stated,  however,  that  all  the 
eggs  are  not  deposited  at  the  same  time. 
The  young  insects  live  in  families,  punc- 
turing the  leaves  and  stem,  and  draining 
the  sap  from  the  plant.  The  perfect 
insects  hybernate  in  crevices  of  walls 
andfences,and  have  been  found  in  Ma- 
ryland in  midwinter  under  the  bark  of 
rotting  trees,  from  whence  they  come  out 
in  summer  to  deposit  their  eggs  for  the 
first  generation.  One  of  the  remedies 
recommended  is  to  remove  all  the  earth 
from  the  roots  as  far  as  they  will  bear, 
and  fill  up  with  a  mixture  of  dry  ashes 
and  salt,  which  will  prevent  the  insects 
from  burrowing  near  the  root.  Another 
remedy  is  to  trim  off  the  under  leaves 
early  in  the  season,  laying  them  in  the 
evening  under  and  close  to  the  plant; 
the  insects  hiding  under  them  can  be 
found  and  destroyed  in  the  morning.  It 
has  been  suggested  to  lay  pieces  of  boards 
along  the  rows,  a  little  raised  from  the 
ground  by  small  stones.  During  the 
night  the  insects  will  congregate  under 
the  trap;  the  boards  and  leaves,  however, 
should  be  examined  very  early  in  the 
morning,  for  as  soon  as  warmed  by  the 
sun  the  insects  will  disperse  over  the 
vines. 

CUCUMBER  MOTH.— The  larva  of 
cucumber  moth  was  taken  several 
years  ago  in  Florida  boring  holes  in 
the  fruit  of  the  squash  and  feeding  on 
the  flesh  inside.  Last  year  the  larva  of 
this  insect  was  reported  as  very  injurious 
to  melons  and  cucumbers  in  Missouri,  by 
eating  holes  in  the  fruit,  from  July  to  the 
end  of  September,  as  many  as  four  being 
sometimes  found  in  one  cucumber.  The 
pupae  are  formed  in  slight  cocoons  of 
white  silk  on  leaves  near  the  ground,  and 
the  perfect  moth  appears  in  eight  to  ten 
days,  and  probably  hybernates  as  a  perfect 
insect.  This  larva  is  said  also  by  Guenc 
to  feed  on  potatoes.  To  destroy  this  pest 
it  has  been  recommended  to  examine  the 
cucumbers  and  melons  early  in  the  season, 
and  to  destroy  the  first  worms  that  appear 
and  also  all  infested  fruit.  The  upper 
wings  of  the  moth  are  of  a  yellowish- 


t*     be 


9  =» 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       385 


brown  color,  with  a  semi-transparent,  ir- 
regular, yellow  spot,  while  the  hind  wings 
are  ot  the  same  semi-transparent  yellow 
color,  with  a  broad  dark  border. 

PYRAMIDAL  GRAPE-VINE  WORM. 
Another  worm,  never  hitherto  mentioned 


Fig.  27 — Pyramidal  Grape- Vine  Worm. 


as  injurious  to  the  Grape-vine,  is  often 
found  resting  upon  it  in  the  posture 
shown  in  Figure  27,  and  may  be  at  once 
distinguished  from  all  others  that  are 
known  to  attack  it,  by  having  a  pyramidal 
hump  near  the  end  of  its  body.  This 
worm  we  have  also  found  upon  the  Red 
Bud,  Raspberry  and  the  Poplar,  but  it  is 
only  as  a  vine-feeder  that  it  can  be  con- 
sidered injurious.  It  is  of  the  form 
shown  in  the  figure  and  of  a  delicate 
green  color,  marked  with  pale  yellow  or 
cream-colored  lines  and  spots,  as  there 
indicated.  It  is  found  on  the  vines  dur- 
ing the  month  of  May  with  us,  and  during 
the  forepart  ot  June  descends  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  where  it  spins  a  loose 
cocoon  of  whitish  silk,  generally  con- 
structed between  some  fallen  leaves. 
Within  this  cocoon  it  remains  some  time 
in  the  larva  state,  but  eventually  becomes 
a  shiny  mahogany-brown  chrysalis  from 
which  emerges  a  moth  with  the  front 
wings  bark  brown  and  glossy  and  marked 
with  dark  brown  and  pale  grayish-brown 
as  in  the  cut ;  and  with  the  hind  wings 
of  a  lustrous  copper  color,  from  which 
character  it  may  be  called  in  popular 
language  the  American  Copper  Under- 
wing. 

Remedies. — The  worm  is  easily  kept 
in  check  by  hand-picking,  and  though  its 
moth  is  attracted  by  sweets,  it  has  never 
been  numerous  enough  in  the  past  to 
warrant  this  mode  of  capturing  it.  We 
have  no  good  description  of  this  insect 
in  the  English  language. 

ONION  FLY.— The  larvae  of  a  small 
fly,  or  the  Onion  Fly,  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  miniature  house  fly,  are  very  de- 
structive to  the  onion  crop  in  the  Eastern 
States.  The  eggs  of  this  fly  are  laid  on 
the  leaves  close  to  the  earth,  and  the  lar- 
vae destroy  the  root,  and  cause  the  plant 

25 


to  turn  yellow,  wither  and  die.  The  larva 
state  lasts  about  two  weeks,  the  pupa  is 
formed  in  the  bulb  itself,  or  in,  the  earth 
near  it,  and  the  fly  appears  in  two  or  three 
weeks  afterward,  and  it  is  stated  that 
there  are  sometimes  as  many  as  three 
generations  in  one  season.  The  insect 
was  imported  about  forty  years  ago.  A 
dressing  of  sand  and  spirits  of  tar  is  said 
to  be  effective  in  preventing  the  ravages 
of  Psila  Hosae,  a.  small  fly  of  somewhat 
similar  habits,  which  attacks  carrots,  etc.r 
in  Europe,  and  might  be  used,  perhaps,, 
with  advantage  with  our  onion  flies,  or  pe- 
troleum, coal  tar,  or  oil  might  probably 
be  used  with  sand  in  a  similar  manner. 
In  order  to  create  a  bad  smell  to  drive 
away  this  insect  and  similar  flies  injuring 
onions,  carrots,  turnips,  radishes,  etc.,  it 
has  been  recommended  to  water  near  the 
plants  with  a  mixture  of  one  gallon  of 
soap  suds  to  four  quarts  of  gas  water,  or 
two  quarts  of  tar.  This  is  said  to  keep  the 
flies  away  from  the  plants,  so  that  they 
do  not  deposit  their  eggs  on  them ;  but  it 
is  doubtful,  unless  it  is  constantly  re- 
newed, especially  after  rains,  and  even 
then  might  injure  the  young  plants  if  it 
came  in  contact  with  them.  Dr.  Harris, 
suggests  sowing  the  seed  on  ground 
where  a  quantity  of  straw  has  been 
burned.  Tar  and  water,  wood-ashes,, 
lime,  powdered  charcoal,  flour  of  sulphur, . 
lime-water  and  soot,  etc,,  etc.,  have  all 
been  highly  spoken  of  as  remedies.  Mr. 
Sanborn  recommends  petroleum  sprinkled 
along  the  rows,  and  watering  with  soap- 
suds, soot,  or  pyroligneous  acid.  Curtis 
recommends  lime  and  salt  to  destroy  the 
maggots ;  boiling  hot  water  poured  over 
the  root  is  highly  recommended  by  many, 
and  is  said  to  destroy  the  maggots  with- 
out injuring  the  plants.  The  eggs  of 
this  fly  are  said  to  be  destroyed  by  the 
larva  of  a  Chrysopa  (a  neuroperous; 
insect). 

For  another  species  of  Onion  fly„ 
Ortalis  flexa,  found  in  the  Western  States, 
it  is  said  that  a  pound  of  copperas  dis- 
solved in  a  pailful  of  soft  soap,  when 
thinned  with  water,  and  applied  to  the 
onions,  is  good  to  keep  off  the  maggots, 
and  also  to  promote  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  A  preventive  is  suggested  in  Mr.. 
Packard's  last  report,  which  is  to  sow  the 
seeds  deeper  than  usual,  so  that  the  fly 
cannot  so  readily  get  at  it  to  lay  its  eggs;.. 


336 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


it  is,  however,  especially  recommended 
that  all  yellow  or  diseased  onions  (or 
other  bulbs  and  roots)  should  be  at  once 
removed  from  the  beds,  with  as  much  of 
the  roots  and  fibres  as  possible,  and  burnt 
or  otherwise  destroyed  immediately. 
GRAPE-ROOT    BORER. —The    most 


Fig. 


Male  Grape  Root  Borer. 


known  as  THE  Grape-root  Borer.  It 
bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to  the 
•common  Peach  Borer,  both  in  habit,  and 
in  the  size  and  general  appearance  of 
the  larva,  but  it  is  a  somewhat  larger 
•insect  and  the  moths  differ  materially. 

Unlike  the  Peach  Borer  which  makes 
its  abode  quite  near  the  surface,  this  borer 
lives  exclusively  under  ground,  and  unlike 
the  Gigantic  root-borers  which  hollow  out 
.  and  bore  up  along  the  heart  of  the  roots, 
it  confines  itself  almost  entirely  to  bark 
^and  sap-wood,  and  the  effects  of  its  work 
.  are  consequently  more  fatal  to  the  vine. 
Roots  attacked  by  it  look  "as  if  a  drunk- 
en carpenter  had  been  diligently  scoop- 
ing away  the  sap-wood  with  a  quarter- 
inch  gouge.". 

Remedies. — It  has  been  ascertained  by 

•  observation  and  experiment  that  the  Scup- 
pernong  grape-vine — which,  according  to 
^Gray,  is  a  cultivated  variety  of  the  South- 

•  ern  Fox  Grape  (vitis  vulpind) — is  never 
;  attacked  by  this  borer,  and  consequently 
that  other  varieties  grafted  on  to  the 
'•Scuppernong  share  its  immunity  from  at- 
tack. This  is  a  very  easy  mode  of  pre- 
venting its  ravages  in  the  more  Southern 
States  where  the  Scuppernong  flourishes ; 
and  if  this  borer  should  ever  become  very 
numerous  with  us,  it  may  be  deemed  ad- 
visable to  introduce  that  stock  here.  At 
present  we  have  no  other  pi eventive  than 
mounding,  and  the  insect  is  so  compara- 
tively scarce  that  we  have  not  yet  had  an 
•opportunity  ot  testing  whether  such 
•mounding  would  work  as  well  as  it  does 
with  the  Peach  Borer.     When  it  is  once 


common  root-borers  of  the  Grape-vine  in 
the  West  are  those  which  we  have  termed 
Gigantic  Root-borers,  namely,  the  larva? 
of  two  large  beetles  (Prionus  laticollis  and 
P.  imbricornis).  The  insect  now  under 
consideration  is  a  moth  and  not  a  beetle, 
and  has  for  a  number  of  years  been 


Fig.  29. — Female  Grape  Root  Borer. 


ascertained  that  the  borers  are  at  work  on 
a  vine,  they  may  be  destroyed  by  clear- 
ing away  the  earth  and  applying  hot 
water  to  the  roots. 

COTTON  LOUSE.— The  cotton  louse 
and  the  rust  are  also  prone  to  attack  the 
plant  in  its  infancy.  Brisk  cultivation  and 
a  top  dressing  of  ashes  and  plaster  of 
Paris  are  the  best  remedies  for  both.  Rust 
is  generally  the  worst  in  soils  of  moderate 
depth,  which  have  been  planted  in  cotton 
for  a  number  of  successive  years.  Rota- 
tion of  crops,  and  a  liberal  application  of 
manures,  especially  those  that  are  rich  in 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  will,  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  relieve  the  cotton  field 
of  this  malady.  It  is  not  until  the  plant 
has  nearly  reached  its  growth,  and  in 
many  cases  begun  to  whiten  for  the  har- 
vest, that  cotton  is  liable  to  the  onset  of 
its  three  most  destructive  enemies.  These 
are  the  boll-worm,  the  cotton-worm  or 
caterpillar,  and  the  army-worm. 

BEAN  WEEVIL.  — A  weevil  which 
appeared  about  ten  years  ago  in  Rhode 
Island,  and  is  now  found  in  some  parts 
of  New  York,  Illinois,  and  Missouri.  It 
infests  beans  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
pea-weevil  infests  peas,  except  that  sev- 
eral larvse  usually  enter  the  same  bean. 
It  is  about  half  as  large  as  the  pea-weevil, 
and  of  a  tawny  gray  color.  It  is  re- 
garded as  indigenous  to  this  country, 
and  as  likely,  if  not  checked,  to  extend 
itself  through  the  country,  and  prove  as 
destructive  to  beans  as  the  pea-weevil  has 
to  peas.  The  same  preventives  may  be 
used  as  for  destroying  the  pea- weevil. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      387 


THE  GRAPE-VINE  FLEA-BEETLE.— 

The  Grape- Vine  Flea-Beetle  (Fig.  31,  d,) 
■often  goes  by  the  cognomen  of  "Steel-Blue 
Beetle,"  and  is  even  dubbed  "Thrips"  by 
some  vineyardists.  The  latter  term,  how- 
ever, is  entirely  inapplicable.  The  former 
.name  is  not  sufficiently  characteristic,  be- 


Fig.  31. 
•C&use  the  color  varies  from  steel-blue  to 
metallic  green  and  purple,  and  because 
there  are  many  other  flea-beetles  to  which 
it  would  equally  apply. 

The  Grape- Vine  Flea-Beetle  is  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  the 
Canadas,  and  it  habitually  feeds  on  the 
Alder  as  well  as  upon  the  wild  and  cul- 
tivated grape-vine. 

They  are  generally  found  on  the  up- 
per surface  of  the  leaf,  which  they  so 
riddle  and  devour  as  to  give  it  the  ap- 
pearance represented  in  Figure  31,  a. 

Remedy.  — The  larva  can  be  more 
easily  destroyed  by  an  application  of 
dry  lime,  used  with  a  common  sand- 
blower  or  bellows.  This  has  been  found 
to  be  more  effectual  than  either  lye  or 
soap-suds,  and  is  withal  the  safest,  as  lye, 
if  used  to  strong,  will  injure  the  leaves. 

TOBACCO  WORM.  —  The  tobacco 
hawk-moth,  or  "horn-blower"  of  Mary- 
land, is  a  large  moth,  the  caterpillar  of 
which,  commonly  known  as  the  tobacco 
worm  in  the  Middle  States,  is  very  des- 
tructive to  the  leaf  of  the  tobacco  plant, 
when  the  worm  is  young,  by  eating  holes 
in  the  leaves,  thus  spoiling  them  for  use 
as  wrappers  for  cigars,  and  when  old  by 


devouring  the  whole  of  the  leaf  itself. 
These  worms  appear  of  all  sizes,  during 
late  summer  and  autumn,  in  the  tobacco 
fields  in  Maryland,  the  first  brood  of  eggs 
hatching  in  May  or  June.  The  egg  is  de- 
posited singly  on  the  leaf  of  the  tobacco 
or  tomato  plant,  and  the  young  worm, 
when  first  hatched  out  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  commences  to  eat  holes  in  the  leaf  of 
the  plant,  and  sheds  its  skin  several  times 
before  attainfhg  its  full  size ;  it  then  goes 
into  the  earth,  and  the  pupae  is  formed  in 
a  subterranean  cell,  the  late  broods  re- 
maining as  pupae  all  winter,  and  coming 
out  as  the  perfect  fly  the  following  spring. 
The  insect  appears  from  June  and  July 
until  late  fall.  It  hovers  in  the  twilight 
like  a  humming  bird  over  flowers,  es- 
pecially honeysuckle  and  Jamestown 
weed,  sucking  the  nectar  by  means  of  its 
long,  flexible  tongue,  which,  when  the  in- 
sect is  at  rest,  is  coiled  up  like  a  watch- 
spring  under  the  head.  The  tongue  when 
unrolled  measures  four  to  six  inches  in 
length;  and  the  caterpillar  feeds  also  on 
the  potato,  red-pepper  and  tomato,  as 
well  as  the  tobacco.  This  insect  is  al- 
most exactly  like  the  northern  so-called 
potato- worm  in  all  the  states  of  larva,  pupae 
and  insect,  and  can  scarcely  be  distinguish- 
ed from  it  by  young  entomologists ;  but  in 
the  "tobacco-worm"  the  anal  horn  on  the 
tail  of  the  caterpillar  is  reddish  instead  of 
bluish ;  it  also  has  no  longitudinal  white 
stripe,  the  pectoral  feet  are  ringed  with 
black,  the  body  is  more  hirsute,  and  the 
insect  itself  is  more  indistinctly  marked, 
and  always  has  a  white  mark  at  the  base  of 
its  wings  and  partly  on  the  thorax,  which 
the  moth  of  the  potato-worm  has  not. 

The  potato-worm  is  also  found  feeding 
on  the  tobacco  in  Maryland,  and  frequently 
a  black  or  nearly  black  variety  of  the 
worm  is  taken,  especially  towards  the  end 
of  the  season.  The  potato  or  tomato 
worm  has  also  been  accused  of  being  poi- 
sonous, but  this  is  entirely  erroneous,  as  the 
horn  on  the  tail  of  the  caterpillar  is  inca- 
pable of  inflicting  any  serious  wound,  and 
has  no  poisonous  properties  whatever. 
The  potato-worm  is  the  northern  species, 
and  in  Maryland  the  two  species  meet,  and 
and  are  found  indiscriminately  together  in 
the  tobacco  fields,  yet  never  mixing,  but 
remainining  perfectly  distinct,  although  so 
nearly  allied  in  appearance,  habits  and 
food. 


3&& 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


Remedies.  —  There  are  several  para- 
sites, and  one  in  particular,  that  is  very 
useful  in  destroying  the  potato  and  tobac- 
co worm.  It  is  a  minute,  four-winged 
fly,  {Microgaster  congregata,)  which  depos- 
its its  eggs  in  the  caterpillar,  and  eventu- 
ally kills  it.  The  eggs  of  this  parasite,  to 
the  number  of  one  hundred  or  more,  are 
deposited  in  the  back  and  sides  of  the 
caterpillar,  in  small  punctures  made  by 
the  ovipositor  of  the  fly.  The  larvae, 
when  hatched,  feed  upon  the  fatty  sub- 
stance, and  when  fully  grown  eat  a  hole 
in  the  skin,  and  each  maggot  spins  for  it- 
self a  small  white  oval  cocoon,  one  end 
of  which  is  fastened  to  the  skin  of  the 
worm,  and  the  caterpillar  appears  as  if 
covered  with  small  oval  white  eggs. 
Eighty-four  flies  were  obtained  from  one 
caterpillar  by  Say,  and  Fitch  counted  one 
hundred  and  twenty-four  cocoons  on  an- 
other worm,  so  that  these  insects  must 
destroy  a  great  number  of  worms.  The 
parasite,  however,  is  said  to  be  destroyed 
by  another  hymenopterous  insect,  (Plero- 
malus  tobacum,)  which  deposits  its  eggs 
in  the  cocoons  of  the  microgaster.  An- 
other species,  forming  an  immense  mass 
of  loose  woolly  cocoons,  is  also  said  to  kill 
the  caterpillar  of  the  potato-sphinx,  and 
most  probably  attacks  also  that  of  the  to- 
bacco-worm in  a  similar  manner.  It  is, 
theretore,  of  great  consequence  when  de- 
stroying the  caterpillars  by  hand-picking, 
to  avoid  crushing  or  injuring  any  cater- 
pillars which  appear  to  have  either  white 
floss  or  egg-like  cases  on  their  backs  or 
sides,  as  these  are  the  cocoons  of  a  very 
useful  insect,  which,  if  left  undisturbed, 
would  produce  multitude  of  flies,  which 
would  destroy  an  immense  number  of 
these  injurious  worms. 

The  hornets,  and  an  orange-colored 
wasp,  devour  the  caterpillar  when  young 
and  small.  The  best  remedy  against 
these  insects,  however,  is  to  poison  the 
fly  which  produces  either  the  potato  or 
tomato  worm,  by  dropping  a  mixture  of 
"blue  stone"  of  the  druggists,  or  crude 
black  arsenic,  into  the  flower  of  the 
Jamestown  weed,  or  stramonium,  in  the 
evening,  when  the  fly  will  come  and  in- 
sert its  long  proboscis  into  the  flower,  sip 
up  the  poisonous  mixture,  and  die  before 
depositing  its  eggs. 

A  tobacco  planter  in  Tennessee  finds 
it  advantageous  to  cultivate  a  few  plants 


of  the  Jamestown  weed  among  his  tobac- 
co, and  then  to  poison  the  blossoms,  as 
they  appear,  with  the  above  mentioned 
liquid,  every  evening,  and  has  thereby 
saved  a  great  part  of  his  crop  ininjurecL 
In  Maryland  some  tobacco-growers  util- 
ize young  turkeys  by  driving  them  into 
the  tobacco-field,  where  they  pick  the 
worms  from  the  leaves.  Some  planters 
also  pay  a  small  premium  to  children  for 
the  dead  millers  or  flies,  which  are  readily 
killed  with  a  piece  of  shingle  or  board  as. 
they  hover  over  the  flowers  in  the  even- 
ing twilight. 

FLEAS. — Fleas,    although    not    men- 
tioned by  Loew  or  Ostensacken  among 
the  diptera,  by  many  other  entomologists 
are   classed   with    them,   and    Professor 
Verrill  regards  them  as  "  degraded  dip- 
tera in  which  the  wings  are  represented 
only  by  two  pairs  of  stiff  scales,  which 
have  little   or    no   power    of   motion." 
These  insects  are  very  abundant  in  the 
neighborhood  of  hog-sties,  etc.,  and  may 
be  driven  away  by  scattering  quicklime 
about  their  haunts.    The  principal  remedy 
against  them  is  cleanliness,  and  should 
the  house  dogs  be  permitted  to  sleep  on 
the  door-mats  or  rugs,  these  should  be 
scalded  every  week  or  two  to  destroy  the 
living  inmates  as  well  as  their  eggs  and 
larvae,  which  are  in  the  form  of  small 
footless  white  maggots,  and  live  upon  de- 
caying vegetable  and  animal  matter  found 
in  the  dirt  and  rubbish.    When  dogs  are 
kept  in  kennels,  the  straw  or  shavings 
upon  which  they  sleep  should  be  carefully 
burned  every  few  weeks,  as  door-mats 
and  old  refuse  straw  are  perfect  nurseries 
for  these  insects.      When    the  animals, 
themselves  are  very  much  infested  with 
fleas,  a  thorough  washing  in  strong  soap- 
suds or  a  decoction  of  tobacco  will  drive 
many  of  them  away.     Professor  Verrill 
says,  "  to  remove  fleas  from  the  animals 
themselves,  a  wash  containing  six  to  ten 
per  cent,  of  petroleum,  naphtha,  or  ben- 
zine, well  shaken  together,  may  be  used ; 
a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  about 
two  or  three  parts  to  one  hundred  parts 
of  water,  will   also  be   efficacious."     A 
mixture  of  ten  parts  benzine,  five  parts 
soap,  and  eighty-five  parts  water  has  been 
recommended.     Great  care  should,  how- 
ever, be  taken  not  to  make  any  of  these 
mixtures  too  strong,  as  otherwise  they  are 
very  apt  to  injure  the  animals  to  which  they 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       389 


are  applied.  Camomile  flowers  are  said 
to  be  very  obnoxious  to  fleas,  and  to  drive 
them  away.  Persian  insect  powder,  which 
is  the  powdered  flowers  of  Pyrethrum 
roseum,  or  caucasicum,  rubbed  in  among 
the  hair,  will  drive  off  the  fleas,  but  the 
animals,  when  operated  upon  with  it, 
should  be  taken  out  of  doors,  as  a  small 
portion  of  this  powder  paralyzes  the  fleas 
only,  and  if  they  fall  on  the  carpet  they 
are  apt  to  revive  in  a  few  hours.  The 
animal,  after  an  application  of  the  Persian 
powder,  should  be  well  washed  with  soap 
and  water.  The  flowers  of  feverfew, 
camomile,  and  even  of  ox-eye  dairy  have 
a  somewhat  similar  effect,  but  much 
slighter,  and  when  applied  to  common 
liouse-flies  appear  partially  to  paralyze 
them. 

THE  SPOTTED  PELIDNOTA.— This  is 
the  largest  and  most  conspicuous  beetle 
that  attacks  the  foliage  of  the  grape-vine, 
and  in  the  beetle  state  it  seems  to  subsist 
entirely  on  the  leaves  of  this  plant,  and 
of  the  closely  allied  Virginia  Creeper. 
Though  some  years  it  becomes  so  abund- 


Fig.  31. — The  Spotted  Pelidnota. 

ant  as  to  badly  riddle  the  foliage  of  our 
vineyards,  yet  such  instances  are  excep- 
tional; and  it  usually  occurs  in  such 
small  numbers,  and  is  so  large  and  clum  • 
sy,  that  it  can  not  be  considered  a  very 
redoubtable  enemy. 

Its  larva  has,  for  a  number  of  years, 
been  known  to  feed  on  the  decaying  roots 
of  different  trees,  and  is  a  large,  clumsy 
grub  (Fig.  31  a)  bearing  a  close  resem- 
blance to  the  common  White  Grub  of  our 
meadows,  and  it  differs  from  that  species 
principally  in  being  less  wrinkled,  and  in 


having  the  chitinous  covering  (or  skin,  so 
called,)  more  polished  and  of  a  pure 
white  color,  and  in  the  distinct  heart- 
shaped  swelling  above  the  anus  (Fig  31 
d).  Towards  the  latter  part  of  June  we 
have  found  this  larva  in  abundance,  in 
company  with  the  pupa  (Fib.  31  d),  in 
rotten  stumps  and  roots  of  the  Pear.  In  pre- 
paring for  the  pupa  state,  the  larva  forms 
a  rather  unsubstantial  cocoon  of  its  own 
excrement,  mixed  with  the  surrounding 
wood.  The  pupa  state  lasts  but  from 
eight  to  ten  days,  and  the  beetle  (Fig.  31 
c)  is  found  on  our  vines  during  the  months 
of  July,  August  and  September.  It  is  not 
yet  known  how  long  a  time  is  required 
tor  the  development  of  the  larva,  but 
from  analogy  we  may  infer  that  the  insect 
lives  in  that  state  upwards  of  three  years. 

Remedy. — It  is  easily  kept  in  check  by 
hand-picking. 

HESSIAN  FLY.— The  >  eggs  of  the 
Hessian  Fly  are  deposited  in  longitudinal 
creases  in  the  blade  of  the  plant  of  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  etc.,  in  autumn  and  spring. 
These  eggs  hatch  in  from  four  to  twenty 
days,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weath- 
er. The  larvae  or  grubs  crawl  down, 
working  their  way  between  the  leaf  and 
main  stalk  till  they  come  to  a  joint,  where 
they  remain  and  suck  the  sap.  They  at- 
tain their  full  growth  in  from  four  to  six 
weeks.  The  pupa  is  formed  in  the  same 
place,  its  outer  covering  or  puparium  re- 
sembling a  flaxseed.  The  winged  insects 
appear  in  April  and  May,  and  lay  their 
eggs  in  wheat  and  other  cereals.  Curtis 
says  that  feeding  the  wheat  off  with  sheep 
in  winter  might  possibly  save  the  crop 
from  the  Hessian  Fly.  Dr.  Harris  rec- 
ommends the  same  as  a  partial  remedy. 
Mr.  Herrick  states  that  the  stouter  varie- 
ties, of  wheat  should  be  chosen,  and  the 
land  kept  in  good  condition.  If  fall 
wheat  is  sown  late  some  eggs  will  be 
avoided,  but  the  risk  of  winter-killing  will 
be  incurred.  Great  numbers  of  the  pupae 
may  be  destroyed  by  burning  the  stubble 
immediately  after  harvest,  and  then  plow- 
ing and  harrowing  the  land.  Steeping 
the  grain  and  rolling  it  in  plaster  or  lime 
tends  to  promote  a  vigorous  growth,  and 
is,  therefore,  beneficial.  Quicklime  strew- 
ed over  the  field  immediately  after  the 
grain  is  cut  would  doubtless  destroy  many 
of  the  pupce. 


39° 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR 


CORN  "WORM,   alias  Boll  Worn.  —  , 
This  is  a  Avorm  Avhich  is  every  year  more 
or  less  destructive  to  our  corn  in  the  ear, 
and  Avhcse  ravages   are  increasing  Avith 
every  successive  year. 

This  glutton  is  not  even  satisfied  Avith 
ravaging  these  tAvo  great  staples  of  the 


Fig.  32. 

country— cotton  and  corn — but,  as  Ave  dis- 
covered in  1875,  it  voraciously  attacks  the 
tomato,  eating  into  the  green  fruit  (Fig. 
32),  and  thereby  causing  such  fruit  to  rot. 
In  this  manner  it  often  causes  serious  loss 
to  the  tomato-grower,  and  it  may  justly 
be  considered  the  worst  enemy  to  the  to- 
mato in  that  section  of  the  country.    Mr. 


deeply. 


Fig.  33. 

Glover  also  found  it  feeding  in  a  young 
pumpkin,  and  it  has  been  ascertained  by 
Mrs.  Mary  Treat,  of  Vineland,  New 
Jersey,  not  only  to  feed  upon  the  unde- 
veloped tassels  of  corn,  and  upon  green 
peas,   but  to  bore  into  the  stems  of  the 


garden  flower  known  as  Gladiolus,  and. 
in    confinement    to    eat   ripe    tomatoes.. 
Last  summer  it  Avas  also  found  by  Miss  M. 
E.   Murtfeldt  in  common   string   beans,, 
around  KirkAvood,  Mo.,  and  in  Europe 
it    is   recorded  by  M.    Ch.   Goureau  a* 
not  only  infesting  the  ears  of  Indian  corn, 
but  as   devouring   the  heads  ot 
hemp,  and  leaves  of  tobacco,  and 
of  lucern.     The  fact  of  its  attack- 
ing a  kind  of  pea,  namely,  the 
chick  pea  or  coffee-pea,  has  also 
been  recorded  by  M.  J.  Fallou  in 
certain  parts  of  France,  the  young 
worms  feeding  on  the  leaves,  but 
the     larger     individuals     boring 
through  the  pods  and  devouring 
the  peas. 
>  But  for  the  present  Ave  will  con- 
sider this  insect  only  in  the  two 
roles  of   Boll-Avorm    and    Corn- 
worm,  because  it  is  as  such  that 
it  interests  the  practical  man  most 
The  egg  from  which  the  Avorm 
hatches  (Fig.  35,  a,  side  vieAv;  b,  top  view 
magnified)  is  ribbed  in  a  someAvhat  simi- 
lar manner  to  that  of  the  Cotton-worm, 
but  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  being 
less  flattened,  and  of  a  pale  straAV  color 
instead  of  green.     It  is  usually  deposited 
singly  on  the  outside  of  the  involucel  or 
outer  calyx    of   the  flower  or  young 
boll,  and  each  female  moth  is  capable 
of  thus    consigning   to   their  proper 
places,  upwards  of  five  hundred  eggs. 
Mr.  Glover,  in  his  account  of  the  Boll- 
worm,  says :   "  Some  eggs  of  the  Boll- 
worm  moth  hatched  in  three  or  four 
days,  after  being  brought  in  from  the 
field,  the  enclosed  worms  gnawing  a 
hole  through  the  shell  of  the  egg  and 
then  escaping.  They  soon  commenced 
feeding   upon  the  tender  fleshy  sub- 
stance of  the  calyx,  near  the  place, 
where  the  egg  had  been   deposited. 
When  they  had  gained  strength,  some 
of  the  worms  pierced  through  the  calyx, 
and  others  through  the  petals  of  the 
closed    flower -bud,    or    even    pene- 
trated into   the    young    and   tender 
boll  itself.    The  pistils  and  stamens, 
of   the  open    flower,  are  frequently 
found  to  be  distorted  and  injured  without 
any  apparent  cause.     This  has  been  done: 
by  the  young  Boll-worm ;  when  hidden  in 
the  unopened  bud,  it  has  eaten  one  side 
only  of  the  pistils  and  stamens,  so  that 
Avhen  the  flower  is  open  the  parts  injured 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       39r 


are  distorted  and  maimed)  and  very  fre 
quently  the  flower  falls  without  forming 
any  boll  whatever.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, the  young  worm  bores  through  the 
bottom  of  the  flower  into  the  immature 
boll  before  the  old  flower  falls,  thus  leav- 
ing the  boll  and  involucel  or  envelope 
still  adhering  to  the  foot-stalk,  with  the 
worm  safely  lodged  in  the  growing  boll. 
The  number  of  buds  destroyed  by  this 
worm  is  very  great,  as  they  fall  off  when 
quite  small,  and  are  scarcely  observed  as 
they  lie  brown  and  withering  on  the 
ground  beneath  the  plant.  The  instinct 
of  the  Boll-worm,  however,  teaches  it  to 
forsake  a  bud  or  boll  about  to  fall,  and 
either  to  seek  another  healthy  boll,  or  to 
fasten  itself  to  a  leaf,  on  which  it  remains' 
until  at  length  it  acquires  size  and  strength 
sufficient  to  enable  it  to  bore  into  the 
nearly  matured  bolls,  the  interior  of  which 
is  nearly  destroyed  by  its  attacks,  as, 
should  it  not  be  completely  devoured, 
rain  penetrates  through  the  hole  made  by 
the  worm,  and  the  cotton  soon  becomes 
rotten  and  will  not  ripen.  .  .  .  One 
thing  is  worthy  of  observation,  and  that 
is,  whenever  a  young  boll  or  bud  is  seen 
Avith  the  involucel  spread  open,  and  of  a 
sickly  yellow  color,  it  may  be  safefy  con- 
cluded that  it  has  been  attacked  by  the 
Boll-worm,  and  will  soon  perish  and  fall 
to  the  ground.  .  .  .  The  buds  in- 
jured by  the  worms  may  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  a  minute  hole  where  it  has 
entered,  and  which,  when  cut  open,  will 
be  found  partially  rilled  with  small  black 
grains,  something  like  coarse  gunpowder, 
which  is  nothing  but  the  digested  food 
after  having  passed  through  the  body  of 
the  worm." 

This  insect  is  very  variable  in  the  larva 
state,  the  young  worms  varying  in  color 
from  pale  green  to  dark  brown.  When 
full  grown  there  is  more  uniformity  in  this 
respect,  though  the  difference  is  often 
sufficiently  great  to  cause  them  to  look 
like  distinct  insects.  Yet  the  same  pat- 
tern is  observable,  no  matter  what  may 
be  the  general  color;  the  body  being 
marked  as  in  the  above  figures  with 
longitudinal  light  and  dark  lines,  and 
covered  with  black  spots  which  give  rise 
to  soft  hairs.  Those  worms  which  Mrs. 
Treat  found  in  green  peas  and  upon  corn 
tassels  had  these  lines  and  dots  so  ob- 
scurely represented  that  they  seemed  to  be 


of  a  uniform  green  or  brown  color,  and: 
the  specimens  which  we  sometimes  see 
in  string  beans  are  of  a  dark,  glass- 
green  color  with  the  spots  inconspicuous, 
but  with  the  stripe  below  the  breathing 
pores  quite  conspicuous  and  yellow.  The 
head,  however,  remains  quite  constant 
and  characteristic.  Figure  32  may  be 
taken  as  a  specimen  of  the  light  variety,. 
and  Figure  $5  as  illustrating  the  dark 
variety.  When  full  grown,  the  worm 
descends  into  the  ground,  and  there  forms, 
an  oval  cocoon  of  earth  interwoven  with 
silk,  wherein  it  changes  to  a  bright  chest  • 
nut-brown  chrysalis  (Figure  33),  with  four 
thorns  at  the  extremity  of  its  body,  the 
two  middle  ones  being  stouter  than  the 
others.  After  remaining  in  the  chrysalis 
state  from  three  to  four  weeks,  the  moth 
makes  its  escape.  In  this  last  and  per- 
fect stage,  the  insect  is  also  quite  variable 
in  depth  of  shading,  but  the  more  com- 
mon color  of  the  front  wings  is  pale  clay- 
yellow,  with  a  faint  greenish  tint,  and 
they  are  marked  and  variegated  with  pale 
olive  and  rufous,  as  in  Figure  33,  e  show- 
ing the  wings  expanded,  and  /represent- 
ing them  closed,  a  dark  spot  near  the 
middle  of  each  wing  being  very  conspicu- 
ous. The  hind  wings  are  paler  than  the 
front  wings,  and  invariably  have  along 
the  outer  margin  a  dark  brown  band,, 
interrupted  about  the  middle  by  a  large, 
pale  spot. 

Mr.  Glover  says  that  there  are  at  least, 
three  broods  each  year  in  Georgia,  the 
last  brood  issuing  as  moths  as  late  as 
November.  With  us  there  are  usually 
but  two,  though,  as  already  hinted,  there 
may  be  exceptionally  three.  Most  of 
the  moths  issue  in  the  fall,  and  hibernate 
as  such,  but  some  of  them  pass  the 
winter  in  the  chrysalis  state  and  do  not 
issue  till  the  following  spring.  We  have 
known  them  to  issue,  in  this  latitude,, 
after  the  1st  of  November,  when  no  frost 
had  previously  occurred. 

Remedies. — It  is  the  general  experi- 
ence that  this  worm  does  more  injury  t& 
very  early  and  very  late  corn  than  to  that 
which  ripens  intermediately,  for  though 
the  broods  connect  by  late  individuals  of 
the  first  and  early  individuals  of  the 
second,  there  is  nevertheless  a  period 
about  the  time  the  bulk  of  our  corn  is 
ripening,  when  the  worms  are  quite 
scarce.      We  have  never  yet  observed 


392 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC —REMEDIES  FOR. 


their  work  on  the  green  tassel,  as  it  has 
been  observed  in  New  Jersey,  and  do 
not  believe  that  they  do  so  work  with  us. 
Consequently  it  would  avail  nothing  as  a 
preventive  measure,  to  break  off  and 
destroy  the  tassel,  and  the  only  remedy 
when  they  infest  corn  is  to  kill  them  by 
hand.  By  going  over  a  field  when  the 
ears  are  in  silk,  the  presence  of  the  worms 
can  be  detected  by  the  silk  being  prema- 
turely dry  or  by  its  being  partially  eaten. 

In  the  South  various  plans  have  been 
adopted  to  head  off  the  Boll-worm,  but 
we  believe  none  have  proved  very  suc- 
cessful. The  following  experiment  with 
vinegar  and  molasses  was  made  by  B. 
A.  Sorsby,  of  Columbus,  Ga.,  as  quoted 
by  Mr.  Glover: 

"  We  procured  eighteen  common-sized 
dinner  plates,  into  each  of  which  we  put 
.a  gill  of  vinegar  and  molasses,  previously 
prepared  in  the  proportion  of  four  parts 
of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter.  These 
plates  were  set  on  small  stakes  or  poles 
•  driven  into  the  ground  in  the  cotton 
field,  one  to  about  each  three  acres,  and 
reaching  a  little  above  the  cotton  plant, 
with  a  six-inch  square  board  tacked  on 
the  top  to  receive  the  plate.  These 
arrangements  were  made  in  the  evening, 
:  soon  after  the  flies  had  made  their  appear- 
ance; the  next  morning  we  found 
eighteen  to  thirty-five  moths  to  each 
plate.  The  experiment  was  continued 
lor  five  or  six  days,  distributing  the  plates 
overthe  entire  field;  each  day's  success 
increasing  until  the  numbers  were  reduced 
to  two  or  three  moths  to  each  plate,  when 
it  was  abandoned  as  being  no  longer 
worthy  of  the  trouble.  The  crop  that 
year  was  but  very  little  injured  by  the 
Boll-worm.  The  flies  were  caught  in 
their  eagerness  to  feed  upon  the  mixture 
by  alighting  in  it  and  being  unable  to 
<escape." 

FALL  WEBB  WORN.— The  Tent- 
caterpillar  of  the  Forest  and  the  com- 
mon Orchard  Tent-caterpillar  are  often 
confounded  with  another,  which  in  re- 
ality has  nothing  in  common  with  them, 
except  that  it  spins  a  web.  The  insect 
we  refer  to  is  known  by  the  appropriate 
name  of  Fall  Web- worm,  and  whenever 
we  hear  accounts  of  the  Tent-caterpillars 
taking  possession  of  trees  and  doing  great 
injury  in  the  fall  of  the  year  (and  we  do 
.hear  such  accounts  quite  often),  we  may 


rest  assured  that  the  Fall  Web-worm  is 
the  culprit,  and  has  been  mistaken  for  the 
Tent-caterpillars,  which  never  appear  at 
that  season  of  the  year. 

We  do  not  know  how  injurious  this  in- 
sect is  in  the  more  Southern  States,  but 
he  who  travels  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  with 
an  eye  to  the  beauties  of  the  landscape, 
through  any  of  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States,  especially  towards  the  Atlantic 
sea-board,  will  find  the  beauty  fearfully 
marred  by  the  innumerable  webs  or  nests 
of  this  worm.     The  Web-worm  is  found 


Fig.  34.— Fall  Webb  Worm. 
on  a  great  many  kinds  of  trees,  though 
on  some  more  abundantly  than  others ; 
but  with  the  exception  of  the  different 
grape-vines,  the  evergreens,  the  sumachs 
and  the  Ailanthus,  scarcely  any  tree  or 
shrub  seems  to  come  amiss  to  its  vora- 
cious appetite. 

Remedies. — As,  therefore,  nothing  can 
be  done  to  materially  affect  this  insect 
during  the  winter,  we  must  do  all  the  fight- 
ing when  the  worms  first  hatch.  Their  web 
soon  betrays  them,  and  the  twig  or  branch 
containing  it  may  be  pruned  off  in  the 
same  manner  described  for  the  Tent- Cat- 
erpillars. As  the  worms  are  always  un- 
der the  tent,  the  operation  in  this  case 
can  be  performed  at  any  time  of  the  day 
without  the  risk  of  missing  any  wan- 
derers. 

TENT-CATERPILLAR  of  the  FOR- 
EST.—The  Tent-caterpillar  of  the  Forest 
differs  from  the  common  Orchard  Tent- 
caterpillar  principally  in  its  egg-mass  be- 
ing docked  off  squarely,  instead  of  being 
rounded  at  each  end;  in  its  larva  having 
a  row  of  spots  along  the  back,  instead  of 
a  continuous  narrow  line,  and  in  its  moth 
having  the  color  between  the  oblique 
lines  on  the  front  wings  as  dark,  or  else 
darker,  instead  of  lighter  than  the  rest  of 
the  wing.     It  feeds  on  a  variety  of  both 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      393 


forest  and  orchard  trees;  makes  a  web 
which,  from  its  being  usually  fastened 
•close  to  the  tree,  is  often  overlooked;  is 
often  very  destructive,  and  is  most  easily 
fought  in  the  egg  state. 

Remedies. — From  the  time  they  are 
born  till  after  the  third  moult  these 
worms  will  drop  and  suspend  themselves 
in  mid  air,  if  the  branch  upon  which  they 
are  feeding  be  suddenly  jarred.  There- 
fore when  they  have  been  allowed  to 
multiply  in  an  orchard  this  habit  will 
suggest  various  modes  of  destroying 
them.  Again,  as  already  stated,  they 
can  often  be  slaughtered  en  masse  when 
collected  on  the  trunks  during  the  last 
moulting  period.  They  will  more  gen- 
erally be  found  on  the  leeward  side  of  the 
tree  if  the  wind  has  been  blowing  in  the 
same  direction  for  a  few  days.  The  co- 
coons may  also  be  searched  for,  and 
many  of  the  moths  caught  by  attracting 
them  towards  the  light.  But  pre-emi- 
nently the  most  effective  artificial  mode 
of  preventing  this  insect's  injuries  is  to 
search  for  and  destroy  the  egg-masses  in 
the  winter  time  when  the  trees  are  leaf- 
less. Not  only  is  this  course  the  more 
efficient  because  it  is  more  easily  pur- 
sued, and  nips  the  evil  in  the  bud,  but 
for  the  reason  that,  in  destroying  the 
eggs  only,  we  in  a  great  measure  evade 
killing,  and  consequently  co-operate  with, 
the  natural  parasites  presently  to  be  men- 
tioned, which  infest  the  worms  them- 
selves. A  pair  of  pruning  shears  attached 
to  the  end  of  a  pole,  and  operated  by 
a  cord,  will  be  found  very  useful  in  clip- 
ping off  the  eggs ;  or,  as  recommended 
by  Mr.  Ferris,  a  more  simple  instrument 
may  be  made  by  fastening  a  piece  of  an 
old  scythe  to  a  pole.  If  the  scythe  is 
kept  sharp,  the  twigs  may  very  handily 
be  clipped  with  this  instrument.  Tarred 
bandages,  or  any  of  the  many  remedies 
used  to  prevent  the  female  Canker  worm 
from  ascending  trees,  can  only  be  useful 
with  he  Forest  Tent-caterpillar  when  it 
is  intended  to  temporarily  protect  an  un- 
infested  tree  from  the  straggling  worms 
which  may  travel  from  surrounding  trees. 

BLUE  SPANGLED  PEACH  WORM.— 

In  examining  peach  orchards  about  the 
first  week  of  May  a  large  number  of  the 
young  twigs  of  the  trees  are  observed  to 
be  killed  at  the  extreme  point  or  end  for 


a  distance  of  one  to  two  and  a  half  inch- 
es, and  the  terminal  buds  entirely  destroy- 
ed. On  cutting  open  these  dying  twigs, 
the  injury  is  found  to  be  caused  by  a  very 
minute  caterpillar,  which,  entering  the 
twig  near  a  bud,  entirely  eats  out  the  pith  \ 
and  interior,  leaving  only  its  "frass"  and  | 
the  exuded  gum  to  mark  the  spot  where 
it  had  entered.  When  confined  in  a  glass 
case,  after  about  a  couple,  of  weeks,  seve- 
ral of  the  larva?  left  the  injured  twigs  and 
formed  very  loose  cocoons  on  the  sides 
of  the  box,  or  among  the  rubbish  and  old 
leaves  lying  scattered  on  the  earth,  and 


35. — Blue  Spangled  Peach  Worm. 

in  about  six  to  ten  days  the  perfect  moth 
appeared.  The  tail  of  the  pupa  is  at- 
tached to  a  little  button  of  silk,  in  an  ex- 
ceedingly slight  cocoon.  There  was 
scarcely  a  single  young  tree  in  the  peach 
orchard  examined  that  was  not  more  or 
less  injured. by  this  little  pest,  and  at  least 
as  many  as  twenty  to  fifty  injured  twigs 
were  found  on  some  very  young  trees. 
After  the  insect  leaves  the  twig  the  injur- 
ed part  dries  up  and  breaks  off.  This  in- 
sect was  also  seen  though  in  much  small- 
er numbers,  in  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
and  apple  trees  are  also  frequently  ob- 
served injured  in  a  similar  manner  in  Ma- 
ryland, and  it  is  probable  that  the  dam- 
age is  done  by  the  same  worm. 

Remedy. — The  only  way  to  destroy 
them  is  to  go  around  the  peach  orchard 
in  May  and  June  and  cut  off  such  ter- 
minal shoots  as  appear  to  be  withering  or 
drying  up,  and  then  burn  them  with  the 
caterpillars  inside.  This  at  least  would 
prevent  their  multiplying  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  be  very  injurious  at  present. 
When  not  so  very  numerous,  they  appear 
only  to  serve  to  somewhat  prune  the 
trees,  as  they  take  off  merely  the  tips  of 
the  branches. 


394 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


FALL  ARMY  WORM.— A  new  worm 
has  for  the  past  few  years  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  West,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  Army  Worm.  Fig.  34  is  the 
true  Army  Worm,  while  Fig.  35,  is  what 
is  called  the  Fall  Army  Worm.  By  exam- 
ining the  two  worms,  many  characteristic 
differences  appear,  as  will  be  seen  by  com- 
paring Fig.  34,  which  represents  the  true 
Army  Worm,  with  Fig.  35,  which  repre- 
sents at  a  the  Fall  Army 
I  Worm,  natural  size,at£ 
its  head  magnified,  at 
c  a  magnified  dorsal 
view  of  one  of  the  joints, 
and  at  d  a  magnified 
view  of  the  same. 

It  commences  its  de- 
predations in  August, 
and  devours  wheat, 
oats,  corn,  turnips, 
buckwheat,  grass,  to- 
matoes, etc.  It  travels 
in  immense  numbers, 
and  destroys  whole 
Fig.  34.  fields  of  grain  or  grass 

in  a  very  short  time.  A  gentleman  who 
bred  the  insects,  found  that  they  pro- 
duced at  least  two  broods  in  a  year,  some- 
times three  or  four.  As  preventives  of  its 
ravages,  he  recommends  to  plow  ground, 
intended  for  fall 
wheat,  early  in 
the  season,  and 
to  keep  it  clear 
from  all  vege- 
tation till  the 
wheat  is  sown ; 
also  to  plow  late 
in  the  season 
land  on  which 
worms  have 
been  numerous, 
in  order  to  kill 
the  pupae  and 
Fig.  35.  larvae   which 

have  entered  the  ground  to  spend  the 
winter.  When  they  are  infesting  grain- 
fields  and  covering  the  ground  in  large 
numbers,  to  roll  the  land  with  a  heavy 
roller,  which  will  kill  the  worms  but  not 
injure  the  grain. 

APPLE  TREE  TENT-CATERPILLAR, 
or  AMERICAN  LACKEY  MOTH— What 
orchardist  in  the  older  States  of  the  Union 
is  not  familiar  with  the  white  web-nests  of 
this  caterpillar  ?     As  they  glisten  in  the 


sun,  before  the  trees  have  put  on  their  full 
summer  dress,  these  nests,  which  are  then 
small,  speak  volumes  of  the  negligence 
and  slovenliness  of  the  owner  of  the 
orchard,  and  tell  more  truly  than  almost 
anything  else  why  it  is  that  he  fails  and 
has  bad  luck  with  his  apple  crop.  Where 
ever  these  nests  abound  one  feels  morally 
certain  that  the  borers,  the  Codling-moth, 
and  many  other  enemies  of  the  good  old 
apple  tree,  have  full  play  to  do  as  they 
please,  unmolested  and  unnoticed  by  him 
whom  they  are  ruining;  and  when  we  pass 
through  an  orchard  with  two,  three  or 
more  "tents"  on  every  tree,  we  never 
pity  the  owner,  because  there  is  no  insect 
more  easily  kept  in  check. 


The  small,  bright  and  glistening  web, 
if  unmolested,  is  soon  enlarged  until  it 
spreads  over  whole  branches,  and  the  cat- 
erpillars which  were  the  architects,  in  time 
become  moths,  and  lay  their  eggs  for  an 
increased  supply  of  nests  another  year. 

This  insect,  in  all  probability,  extends 
wherever  the  wild  blackberry  (Cerasus 
serotina)  is  found,  as  it  prefers  this  tree  to 
all  others;  and  this  is  probably  the  reason 
why  the  young  so  often  hatch  out  before 
the  apple  buds  burst,  because,  as  is  well 
known,  the  cherry  leafs  out  much  earlier. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACT.S.  £OR  THE  PEOPLE.      395 


Besides  the  Cherry  and'Apple,- both  wild 
and  cultivated,  the  Apple-tree  tent-cater-, 
pillar  will  feed  upon  Plum,  Thorn,  Rose, 
and  perhaps  on  most  plants  belonging  to 
the  Rose  family,  though  the  Peach  is 
not  congenial  to  it,  and  it  never  attacks 
the  Pear,  upon  which,  according  to  Dr. 
Trimble,  it  will  starve.  It  does  well  on 
Willow  and  Poplar,  and  even  on  White 
Oak,  according  to  Fitch,  who  also  found 
it  on  White  Hazel  and  Beech. 

Remedies. — Cut  off  and  burn  the  egg- 
clusters  during  winter,  and  examine  the 
trees  carefully  in  the  spring  for  the  nests 
from  such  clusters  that  may  have  eluded 
the  winter  search.  The  eggs  are  best  cut 
off  in  the  manner  presently  to  be  de- 
scribed for  the  Tent-caterpillar  of  the 
Forest.  Though  to  kill  the  caterpillars 
numerous  methods  have  been  resorted  to, 
such  as  burning,  and  swabbing  with  oil, 
soap-suds,  lye,  etc,  they  are  all  unneces- 
sary, for  the  nests  should  not  be  allowed 
to  get  large,  and  if  taken  when  small  are 
most  easily  and  effectually  destroyed  by 
going  over  the  orchard  with  the  fruit- 
ladder,  and  by  the  use  of  gloved  hands. 
As  the  caterpillars  feed  about  twice  each 
day,  once  in  the  forenoon  and  once  in 
the  afternoon,  and  as  they  are  almost 
always  in  their  nests  till  after  nine 
a.  M.,  and  late  in  the  evening,  the  early 
and  late  hours  of  the  day  are  the  best  in 
which  to  perform  the  operation.  As  a 
means  of  facilitating  this  operation,  it 
v.-ould  be  a  good  plan,  as  Dr.  Fitch  has 
iv.ggested,  to  plant  a  few  wild  cherry 
trees  in  the  vicinity  of  the  orchard,  and 
as  the  moths  will  mostly  be  attracted  to 
such  trees  to  deposit  their  eggs,  and  as  a 
hundred  clusters  on  a  single  tree  are  de- 
stroyed more  easily  than  if  they  were 
scattered  over  a  hundred  trees,  these  trees 
will  well  repay  the  trouble  wherever  the 
Tent-caterpillar  is  known  to  be  a  grievous 
pest 

TURNIP  FLEA  BEETLE.— The  tur- 
nip is  exposed  to  numerous  depredators, 
of  which  the  turnip  flea-beetle  is  the  most 
inveterate.  It  attacks  the  plant  as  soon 
as  the  first  leaves  expand,  and  often  de- 
stroys two  or  three  successive  sowings. 
The  black  caterpillar,  slugs,  wire- worms, 
and  numerous  other  insects,  grubs  and 
aphides  prey  upon  and  greatly  diminish 
the  crop. 


Remedies  have  been  tried  to  an  al~ 
most  indefinite  extent,  but  none  hitherto* 
with  more,  than  very  partial  success- 
Liberal  sowing  and  rapid  growth  best  in- 
sure the  plant  from  injury ;  and  to  effect 
this,  the  seed  thould  be  plentifully  sown 
in  a  rich  soil,  and  if  possible,  when  the 
ground  is  moist.  Before  sowing  the  seed 
should  be  steeped  in  some  preparation, 
which  experience  has  shown  will  the 
most  quickly  develop  the  germ.  Solu- 
tions of  nitrates  or  sulphates,  urine,  soot- 
water,  liquid  guano,  or  currier's  oil,  im- 
pregnate the  first  leaves  with  substances 
distasteful  to  their  early  enemies,  and 
thus  a  short  respite  from  their  attacks  will 
be  secured.  Gypsum,  ashes,  bone-dust 
and  poudrette  drilled  in  with  the  seed,. 
are  excellent  forcers  for  the  young  roots. 
Charcoal  dust,  applied  in  the  same  way, 
has  been  found  to  increase  the  early 
growth  from  four  to  tenfold.  When  the 
fly  or  bug  is  discovered,  the  application 
of  lime,  ashes  or  soot,  or  all  combined, 
should  be  made  upon  the  leaves,  while 
the  dew  or  a  slight  moisture  is  on  them. 
This  leads  the  young  plant  along,  and 
kills  such  enemies  as  it  reaches,  Stale 
urine,  diluted  sulphuric  acid  (oil of  vitrol), 
and  other  liquid  manures  will  have  the 
same  effect.  Ducks,  chickens,  young 
turkeys  and  birds  will  devour  innumera- 
ble quantities,  and  their  presence  should 
always  be  encouraged,  not  only  on  this,, 
but  on  most  of  the  fields.  Dragging  the 
surface  with  fine,  light  brush,  will  lessen 
the  slugs  and  insects.  The  ground  should 
be  plowed  just  before  winter  sets  in, 
which  exposes  the  worms  and  the  larvae 
of  insects  to  the  frost,  when  they  are  un- 
able to  work  themselves  into  a  place  of 
safety.  The  seed  should  not  be  planted 
on  ground  recently  occupied  by  any  of 
the  order  of  plants  crucifera,  (cabbage, 
radish,  mustard,  charlock  and  water- 
cress), as  they  all  afford  food  for  the  ene- 
mies of  turnips,  and  thereby  tend  to  their 
multiplication. 

LOCUST  BORER,  To  Destroy.— To  de- 
stroy the  well-known  locust  borer,  a  beau- 
tiful variegated  black  and  yellow  beetle, 
it  has  been  recommended  to  apply  soft 
soap  to  the  trunks  of  very  young  trees 
every  summer,  about  the  first  of  August,, 
or  earlier. 

GOOSEBERRY  WORMS.— See  Cur- 
rant Worm. 


39$ 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


THE  CHINCH  BUG.  —  Few  farmers  in 
this  section  of  the  country  need  an  intro- 
duction to  this  insect;  but  lest  there  be  those 
who  are  so  blessed  as  not  to  know  the 
gentleman  by  sight,  we  annex  his  portrait. 
He  subsists  by  sucking 
with  his  sharp-pointed 
beak  the  grasses  and 
cereals,  thereby  caus- 
ing them  to  shrink, 
wilt  and  wither,andnot 
by  biting  their  sub- 
.  stance  as  many  persons 
suppose.  Like  the  other 
species  of  its  suborder, 
•it  undergoes  no  very 
sudden  transforma- 

Fig  39.-CHINCH  BuG.tions-  Bom  ■■  a  little 
Hair  line  underneath  pale,  yellow  Six-legged 
showing  natural  size,  atom,  scarcely  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  and  with  a  tinge  of  red 
near  the  middle  of  the  body,  it  goes 
through  four  molts  before  acquiring  wings. 
It  is  bright  red,  with  a  pale  band  across 
the  middle  of  the  body  after  the  first; 
somewhat  darker,  with  the  merest  rudi- 
ments of  wing-pads  after  the  second,  and 
quite  brown,  with  distinct  wing-pads,  but 
with  the  pale  transverse  band  still  visible, 
after  the  third,  in  which  it  assumes  the 
pupa  state,  and  from  which,  in  the  fourth 
molt,  it  escapes  as  a  winged  bug. 

The  chinch  bug  injures  by  suction,  not 
by  biting.  It  winters  in  the  perfect  winged 
state,  mostly  dormant,  principally  in  the 
old  rubbish,  such  as  dead  leaves,  corn- 
shucks,  corn-stalks,  and  under  weeds  and 
prostrate  fence  rails  and  boards  that  gen- 
erally surround  grain  fields ;  also,  in  what- 
ever other  sheltered  situation  it  can  get  in 
adjacent  woods;  hence  the  importance  of 
fighting  the  pest  in  the  winter  time,  either 
by  trapping  it  under  boards  laid  for  the 
purpose,  or  by  burning  it  with  its  afore- 
mentioned shelter.  Such  burning  will  not 
destroy  all  the  dormant  hosts,  but  will 
practically  render  the  species  harmless, 
especially  where  whole  communities  com- 
bine to  practice  it.  It  issues  from  its  win- 
ter quarters  during  the  first  balmy  days  of 
spring,  when  those  females  which  were 
impregnated  the  previous  fall,  and  which 
are  most  apt  to  survive  the  winter,  com- 
mence ovipositing  at  once,  if  suitable  con- 
ditions are  at  hand.  Others  take  readily 
to  wing  and  scatter  over  our  fields,  at- 
tracted by  preference  to  grain  growing  in 


loose  and  dry  soil,  into  which  they  pene- 
trate to  consign  their  eggs.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  on  the  roots,  and  the  young 
bugs,  which  are  red,  remain  under  ground, 
sucking  the  roots  during  the  early  part  of 
their  lives,  or  until  they  are  forced  from 
necessity  to  travel  from  one  plant  to 
another.  These  spring-hatched  bugs,  con- 
stituting the  first  brood,  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
acquire  wings  till  after  wheat  is  cut.  It  is, 
therefore,  during  and  just  after  wheat  har- 
vest, that  they  congregate  and  travel  in 
such  immense  swarms  as  to  attract  atten- 
tion. In  July,  as  these  acquire  wings, 
they  scatter  over  grass,  late  grain  and 
corn-fields,  where  they  lay  their  eggs;  but 
the  second  brood,  hatching  from  these 
eggs,  generally  attracts  less  attention  and 
does  less  injury  than  did  the  first,  because 
of  its  more  scattered  nature  and  the  greater 
maturity  and  resisting  power  of  the  plants. 
Anything  that  will  prevent  the  mother 
bug  from  getting  at  the  roots  of  the  grain, 
will  prevent  the  injury  of  her  progeny. 
Hence  the  importance  in  this  connection 
of  fall  plowing  and  using  the  roller  upon 
land  that  is  loose  and  friable ;  and  hence, 
if  old  corn  ground  is  sufficiently  clean,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  harrow  in  a  crop  of 
small  grain  upon  it  without  plowing  at 
all.  The  earlier  also,  that  wheat  gets  well 
started  and  matures,  the  less  it  will  suffer; 
because  it  may  be  harvested  before  the 
bugs  acquire  their  greatest  growth  and 
power  for  harm.  Hence,  and  from  the 
greater  compactness  of  the  ground,  winter 
wheat  suffers  less  than  spring  wheat. 
Heavy  rains  are  destructive  to  the  chinch 
bug.  Hence,  if  such  occur  in  the  fall,  the 
farmer  may  plant  with  little  fear  of  injury 
the  following  year,  while  if  they  occur  in 
May,  he  need  suffer  no  anxiety,  so  far  as 
chinch  bugs  are  concerned ;  hence,  also, 
where  irrigation  is  practicable,  the  pest 
may  at  all  times  be  overcome.  It  injures 
no  other  plants  than  grasses  and  cereals. 
In  its  migrations  from  field  to  field  it  may 
be  checked  by  a  line  of  tar  poured  on  the 
ground,  or  by  deep  furrows  or  trenches, 
but  the  tar  must  be  kept  soft  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  furrows  friable  and  pulverized. 
THE  FLAT-HEADED  APPLE-TREE 
BORER.  —  This  insect,  owing  to  the  en- 
teebled  condition  of  many  fruit  and  shade 
trees  —  a  condition  superinduced  in  part 
by  excessive  drouth,  in  part  by  defolia- 
tion, in  the  country  ravaged  by  locusts — 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       397 


has  been  exceedingly  injurious  all  over 
the  country. 

Considering  the  fatality  of  its  work  and 
the  number  of  valuable  fruit  and  shade 
trees  which  it  attacks,  few  insects  are  more 
to  be  dreaded  than  this  same  Flat-headed 
Apple-tree  Borer.  The  Oak,  Mountain 
Ash,  Linden,  Box -elder,  Beech,  Plum, 
Pear,  Cherry  and  Peach  alike  succumb 
to  its  attacks.  We  have  reared  the  beetle 
from  Oak,  Apple,  Mountain  Ash,  Box- 
elder,  Peach  and  Pear,  and  found  the 
larva;,  judged  to  be  the  same  after  critical 
comparison,  in  the  other  trees  mentioned. 
While  the  Apple  is  so  subject  to  its 
injuries  that  no  man  who  does  not  under- 
stand this  enemy  and  is  not  willing  to 
give  some  little  time  to  mastering  it,  can 
hope  to  succeed  in  growing  apple  trees ; 
and  in  reality  the  time  and  money  spent 
in  planting  young  apple  orchards, 
especially  in  the  West,  is  generally  wasted 
for  the  want  of  the  necessary  precautions 
against  this  insect. 

Remedies. — In  treating  of  the  means 
to  be  employed  against  this  Flat-headed 
borer,  one  important  fact  should  be  borne 
in  mind.  The  natural  breeding  place  of 
the  insect  is  undoubtedly  in  the  old  de- 
caying oaks  of  our  woods,  and  we  have 
know  it  to  swarm  in  old  post-oak  stumps 
from  which  the  tops  had  been  felled  for  a 
number  of  years.  In  fact,  it  prefers  par- 
tially dead  or  injured  trees  to  those  which 
are  thrifty  and  vigorous,  and  partly  for 
this  reason,  and  partly  because  rough, 
cracked  bark  forms  a  better  nidus  for  the 
female  to  lay  her  eggs,  the  species  is 
more  abundantly  found  on  the  south- 
west side  of  young  apple  trees  where 
they  are  most  apt  to  get  injured  by  sun- 
scald.  Sickliness  in  the  tree,  injury  from 
the  whiffletree  or  other  cause,  therefore, 
predispose  to  its  attacks.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  transplanted  trees,  checked  as 
they  are  in  growth,  usually  fare  badly. 
But  there  is  yet  one  other  predisposing 
cause  which  few  people  suspect,  and  that 
is  reckless  and  careless  pruning,  especially 
of  the  larger  branches.  Many  a  fine 
orchard  tree,  and  many  more  city  shade 
trees  receive  their  death  shock  from  the 
reckless  sawing  off  of  limbs  without  effort 
being  made  to  heal  the  wounds  by  coat- 
ing with  grafting  wax,  clay  or  other  pro- 
tecting substances.  Around  such  an  un- 
protected sawed  limb,  as  around  the  frus- 


tum of  a  felled  tree,  the  rain  and  other 
atmospheric  influences  soon  begin  their 
work  ot  causing  decay  between  the  bark 
and  the  solid  wood ;  and  this  is  but  the> 
forerunner  of  greater  injury  by  insects 
which  are  attracted  to  the  spot,  and  which,. 
though  hidden  meanwhile  from  view,  soon 
carry  the  destruction  from  the  injured  to 
the  non-injured  parts.  Among  the  in- 
sects thus  attracted,  Chrysobothris  plays 
no  mean  part,  where,  had  the  wounded 
limb  been  properly  protected,  its  presence 
would  never  have  been  known.  It  thus 
becomes  of  the  first  importance,  in  treat- 
ing this  insect,  to  keep  the  young  trees 
vigorous  and  healthy,  and  the  bark  as 
smooth  and  as  free  from  injury  as  possi- 
ble. Thus  in  planting  a  young  orchard 
in  this  part  of  the  country,  where  the  sun 
(whether  indirectly  or  directly  is  for  the 
vegetable  pathologist  to  determine)  is  apt 
to  injure  the  bark  on  the  southwest  side, 
it  will  prove  labor  well  spent  to  protect 
them  on  that  side  by  old  paling  or  lath. 
Young  trees  are  far  more  liable  to  be 
attacked  than  old  ones,  and  consequently 
require  greater  care. 

As  a  preventive  against  the  insect's 
attacks  there  is  nothing  better  than  coat- 
ing the  trunks  and  larger  branches  with 
soap  at  least  twice  a  year — once  towards 
the  end  of  May  and  again  in  July  or 
August.  The  soap  is  not  only  obnoxious 
to  the  beetle,  but  it  tends  to  keep  the  bark 
clean  and  smooth,  so  as  to  offer  no  at- 
traction to  the  female,  and  is,  withal,, 
beneficial  to   the  tree. 

But  whatever  preventive  measures  be- 
taken, trees  should  be  carefully  examined 
late  in  the  Fall.  At  this  season,  or  even 
in  the  Winter  time,  the  young  borers 
which  have  just  commenced  work,  are' 
easily  detected  and  destroyed  by  a  knife 
before  they  have  done  much  harm.  Trees 
presenting  those  conditions  which  we  have- 
already  stated  to  be  attractive  to  the  in- 
sect, should  be  especially  watched,  and 
any  tree  that  is  suddenly  checked  in 
growth  should  be  attended  to,  as  it  will 
probably  be  found  to  contain  the  borer,, 
though  the  outward  signs  of  its  presence 
may  not  at  first  be  so  manifest.  There  is 
a  very  general  impression,  also,  among 
orchardists,  that  this  insect  is  more  in- 
jurious on  low  lands  than  on  high  lands, 
and  orchards  on  Ioav  lands  should  be  more, 
particularly  watched. 


39S 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


-  The  presence  of  the  young  borer  is 
usually  indicated  by  a  discolored  spot,  a 
cracking  of  the  bark,  or  the  presence  of 
saw-dust  like  excrement.  It  will  pay  to 
look  over  the  trees  even  before  Fall,  for  as 
early  as  the  latter  part  of  June,  the  newly 
hatched  worm  may  sometimes  be  found 
just  entering,  when  its  presence  is  fre- 
quently indicated  by  an  exuding  drop  of 
moisture  on  the  bark,  and  when  it  may 
be  destroyed  by  cleanly  cutting  out  a 
small  slice  of  bark. 

It  is  useless  to  spend  time  in  trying  to 
reach  such  borers  as  have  already  pene- 
trated into  the  solid  wood.  They  are  with 
difficulty  attained. 

FLIES,  House. — The  common  house- 
fly, and  some  other  insects,  are  said  some- 
times to  be  dangerous  to  mankind  by 
conveying  infectious  disease  from  house 
to  house,  and  several  cases  have  been  re- 
ported where  the  bite  of  an  apparently 
common  fly  had  caused  dangerous  fester- 
ing sores.  In  such  cases,  however,  it 
was  presumed  that  the  fly  had  previously 
been  feeding  on  decaying  carrion,  and  had 
inoculated  the  wound  with  putrid  virus. 
There  is  a  small  fly,  resembling  in  general 
appearance  the  common  house-fly,  which 
stings  mankind,  horses,  and  cattle  very 
severely.  They  are  sometimes  very 
abundant,  especially  before  rain  in  dwell- 
ing houses,  and  more  especially  when  in 
the  vicinity  of  stables.  Horses  may  be 
protected  from  their  attacks  by  rubbing 
or  washing  the  animals  with  a  strong  de- 
coction of  tobacco  leaves,  of  smart-weed, 
or  the  leaves  of  the  English  walnut,  and 
doubtless  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
would  answer  the  same  purpose. 

GRAPE-VINE  HOPPER.— The  grape- 
vine hopper  is  a  very  small  insect,  about 
0.13  inch  in  length,  of  a  pale  yellow 
color,  with  two  blood-red  bands,  and  a 
third  dusky  band  across  the  wing-covers. 
It  is  supposed  by  most  entomologists  that 
these  insects  pass  the  winter  in  the  per- 
fect state,  hybernating  under  bark,  dead 
leaves,  and  rubbish.  It  therefore  appears 
probable  that  some  of  the  early  broods 
may  be  produced  from  eggs  laid  by  the 
parent  insect  the  previous  autumn,  either 
on  the  stem  of  the  vine  itself  or  on  foliage. 
The  first  perfect  grape-leaf  hopper  in 
1875  was  found  in  April,  and  had  prob- 
ably hybernated  on  the  stem  of  the  vine, 
under  the   bark,   as   before    mentioned. 


The  insects,  as  soon  as  hatched,  com- 
mence to  suck  the  sap  of  the  plant,  and 
change  their  skin  several  times  before 
attaining  their  full  size ;  and  these  cast-off 
white  skins  may  be  seen  in  the  autumn  in 
multitudes,  adhering  to  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves,  each  of  them  with  a  slit  down 
the  back,  through  which  the  perfect  insect 
has  escaped. 

As  larvae,  or  when  very  young,  they  do 
not  possess  any  wings,  and  it  is  only  in 
the  adult  state  that  the  perfect  wings  are 
acquired.  The  leaves  injured  by  these 
insects  appear  at  first  flecked  and  spotted 
with  whitish  marks,  showing  where  the 
sap  has  been  drawn  out  by  the  leaf- 
hopper.  They  then  assume  a  sickly  ap- 
pearance, and  if  the  insects  are  very 
numerous  the  foliage  will  finally  turn 
brown  and  fall  to  the  ground.  Some 
varieties  of  vines  suffer  more  from  this 
pest  than  others,  and  the  Clinton,  Dela- 
ware, and  other  thin-leaved  grapes  are 
said  to  suffer  the  most. 

Remedies. — The  remedies  already  pro- 
posed for  the  destruction  of  these  insects 
are  syringing  the  vines  with  strong  to- 
bacco-water or  soap-suds.  A  very  weak 
mixture  of  carbolic  acid  and  water  has 
also  been  recommended,  but  when  made 
too  strong  the  leaves  are  apt  to  be  injured. 
Dusting  the  vines  with  lime,  wood-ashes, 
lime  and  sulphur,  is  said  to  be  beneficial, 
and  fumigation  with  strong  tobacco,  when 
under  glass,  will  destroy  many  of  them. 
Mr.  Saunders,  of  Canada,  states  that  a 
lighted  torch  carried  through  a  vineyard 
at  night  will  destroy  multitudes,  as  they 
fly  to  the  light  and  are  burnt.  This 
should  be  repeated  several  times  at  short 
intervals.  He  also  says  that  constant 
stirring  the  earth  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  vines  in  spring  and  autumn  will 
probably  operate  to  disturb  the  perfect 
insect  and  eggs  by  exposing  them  to  the 
frost.  As  lights  also  attract  these  insects 
at  night,  if  a  lantern  were  placed  immedi- 
ately over  a  pail  or  tub  nearly  filled  with 
water,  on  the  surface  of  which  a  little  oil 
had  been  poured,  whenever  the  vines 
were  disturbed  the  insects  would  immedi- 
ately fly  toward  the  light  and  fall  into  the 
vessel  below  and  perish  by  hundreds. 
The  same  plan  would  also  answer  if 
lights  were  placed  before  or  on  boards 
painted  with  a  thick  syrup,  or  any  adhesive 
substance  like  the  celebrated  fly-paper 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       399 


CANKER-WORMS.— In  illustration  of 
the  remarks  on  the  two  species  of  Canker- 
Worm  which  have  very  generally  been 
considered  mere  varieties  of  one  species, 
and  about  which  there  has  been  no  little 
confusion,  we  have  prepared  figures  of 
each,  which,  in  connection  with  a  few  ex- 
planatory remarks,  will  enable  their  ready 
distinction. 

The  Spring  Canker-Worm. — This  spe- 
cies, which,  from  the  fact  that  the  great 
bulk  of  the  moths  issue  from  the  ground 
in  early  spring,  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  by  the  popular  name  here  given, 
is  the  true  Can- 
ker-Worm  orig- 
inally described. 
This  is  undoubt- 
edly the  species 
for  the  most 
part  spoken  of 
FlG-  41-  in   the   agricul- 

Spring  Canker-Worm.— tural  journals  of 
a,  full  grown  larva;  6,  egg.  the  countrV  and 
enlarged,  the  natural  size  ^e  country , ana 
shown  in  the  small  mass  at 'he  species  best 
side;  c,  an  enlarged  joint,  side  known  in  the 
view;  d,  do.,  back  view,  Mississippi  Val- 
showing  the  markings.  ^    This  Spring 

Canker-Worm  is  distinguished,  in  the 
light  of  recent  careful  discriminations,  by 
the  characters  following,  viz.:  by  each  of 
the  first  seven  joints  of  the  abdomen  in 
both  sexes  bearing  two  transverse  rows  of 
stiff,  red,  or  reddish-brown,  posteriorly  di- 
rected spines ;  by  the  front  wings  in  the 
male  having  three  transverse,  dusky  lines, 
and  a  somewhat  broader,  jagged,  pale 
submarginal  line ;  and  by  the  whole  body 
in  the  female,  as  also  the  legs  and  anten- 
nae, being  pubescent  with  pale  and  dusky 
hairs  —  the  color  being  rabbit-gray,  or 
speckled  black  and  white,  the  abdomen 
having  a  medio-dorsal  black  stripe.  The 
•dusky  stripes  on  the  front  wings  of  the 
male,  except  at  costa,  and  the  black  stripe 
•on  the  abdomen,  except  at  each  end,  are 
usually  more  or  less  obsolete,  and  indeed 
the  ornamentation  of  the  wings  is  ex- 
tremely variable.  In  many  specimens  the 
middle  portion  of  the  front  wings,  within 
the  three  dusky  lines,  is  quite  pale  and 
mottled  with  grayish-green,  while  the  ba- 
sal and  terminal  portions  are  marked  with 
brown,  thus  making  the  contrast  greater.' 
Others  again  are  absolutely  without  marks 
whatever,  even  when  fresh  from  the  chrys- 
alis;   while  captured   specimens   always 


have  the  marks  more  or  less  effaced  on 
account  of  the  looseness  of  the  scales. 
The  moths  rise  from  the  ground,  for  the 
most  part,  early  in  Spring,  and  only  rarely 
the  previous  Fall.  They  are  crepuscular 
in  habit,  and  are  most  active  soon  after 
dark  in  the  evening.  The  female,  by 
means  of  a  horny  and  extensile  ovipositor, 
thrusts  her  eggs,  to  the  number  of  from  50 
to  150,  under  the  loose  scales  of  bark  or  in 
any  crevice  or  sheltered  place,  and  is  very 
fond  of  availing  herself  for  this  purpose 
of  the  empty  cases  of  the  Rascal  Leaf- 
crumpler.  The  eggs  are  but  slightly 
glued  together,  and  have  the  form  of  a 
rather  elongate  hen's  egg,  the  shell  being 
very  delicate  and  smooth,  though  often 
appearing  roughened  by  transverse  and 
longitudinal,  irregular  depressions.  The 
larva  has  but  four  prolegs,  is  variable  in 
color,  and  one  of  its  distinguishing  char- 
acters, is  the  mottled  head  and  two  pale 
narrow  lines  along  the  middle  of  the 
back,  the  space  between  them  usually 
dark  and  occupied  on  the  anterior  edge 
and  middle  of  joints  by  black  marks 
somewhat  in  form  of  X;  these  marks  be- 
ing represented  by  dots  on  the  other 
joints.  There  are  two  rather  prominent 
tubercles  on  top  of  the  eleventh  joint, 
preceded  by  two  white  spots.  The  chrys- 
alis, so  far  as  our  comparisons  have  ena- 
bled us  to  judge,  does  not  differ  materi- 
ally from  that  of  the  other  species,  so  that 
the  two  species  could  hardly  be  distin- 
guished in  this  state.  This  is  the  species 
which  so  injuriously  affects  our  apple  or- 
chards. 

The   Fall   Canker-Worm.  —  This    in- 
sect is  easily  distinguished  from  the  pre- 


Fig.  42. — Fall  Canker-Worm. 
a,  b,  egg,  side  and  top  views;  c,  d,  joints  of 
larva,  side  and  top  views,  showing  markings — en- 
larged ;  e,  batch  of  eggs  ;  /,  full-grown  larva ;  g, 
female  chrysalis — natural  size;  h,  top  view  of 
anal  tubercle  of  chrysalis,  enlarged. 

ceding,  when  critically  examined.     It  is, 
on  the  average,   somewhat    larger  and 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


more  glossy ;  the  front  wings  of  the 
male  have  a  distinct  white  spot  on  the 
front  edge,  and  are  crossed  by  two  pale, 
jagged  bands,  along  the  sides  of  which 
there  are  several  blackish  dots.  The 
hind  wings  also  have  a  pale,  curved  line, 
more  or  less  distinct,  across  their  middle. 
The  female  is  uniformly  dark  ash-gray 
above,  paler  beneath,  with  the  antennae  na- 
ked, and  the  legs  and  abdomen  smooth  and 
glistening,  and  with  no  extensive  oviposi- 
tor. Thus  it  lacks  the  characteristic 
spines  ot  vernata,  the  dusky  marks  across 
the  front  wings,  and  the  pubescence  in 
the  female,  together  with  many  other 
minor  differences. 

The  moths  rise  mostly  late  in  the  fall, 
but  also  during  the  warm  weather  of  win- 
ter, even  to  spring.  The  eggs  are  tough, 
with  a  flattened  crown  of  a  purplish  color, 
and  having  a  dimple  in  the  centre,  and  a 
brown  ring  near  the  edge;  they  are  not 
secreted  or  hidden  under  scales,  but  are 
laid  in  regular  and  compact  batches,  of 
from  ioo  to  upwards  of  200,  on  the  sur- 
face of  twigs  or  of  the  trunk,  being  fas- 
tened by  a  strong  glue,  and  covered  with 
a  slight  coating  of  grayish  varnish.  The 
larva  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
Spring  Canker-worm  by  having  a  dark 
brown  back,  and  three  conspicuous  broad, 
pale  yellow  lines  each  side,  as  well  as  by 
having  a  third  pair  of  prolegs,  shorter 
than  the  others,  on  the  eighth  joint.  It 
develops  very  rapidly,  entering  the 
ground,  with  favorable  weather,  within 
three  weeks  after  hatching;  and,  singu- 
larly enough,  suffers  but  two  molts,  ex- 
clusive of  that  which  takes  place  under 
ground  in  transforming  to  the  chrysalis. 
It  is  found  principally,  on  the  Elm.  The 
female  chrysalis  is  stout,  and  has  a  little, 
decurved,  bifid  thorn  on  the  tip  of  the 
body  superiorly.  It  has  perfect  wing- 
sheaths,  though  the  moth  is  wingless. 
The  color  is  light  brown  with  darker 
wing-sheaths. 

Remedy. — In  the  case  of  the  Spring 
species,  the  scraping  of  loose  bark  from 
the  tree,  and  otherwise  cleansing  it  of 
dead  leaves,  coccons,  larva-cases,  etc.,  a 
short  time  before  the  hatching  of  the 
worms,  or  before  the  buds  of  the  tree 
commenced  to  open,  will  prove  an  effectual 
preventive  measure ;  as  thereby  many  of 
the  eggs  will  be  destroyed.  Moreover,  a 
tree  kept  clean  of  loose  bark  will  be  less 


subject  to  its  attacks.  The  same  argu- 
ment will  not  apply  to  the  fall  species, 
which  attaches  its  eggs  in  any  exposed 
position.  It  would  seem,  also,  that  the 
mode  of  trapping  the  moths  will  have  to 
be  somewhat  modified,  according  to  the 
species  to  be  dealt  with;  for  while  Dr. 
LeBarron  found  the  tin  and  rope  trap  so 
effectual  with  the  Spring  Canker-worm^ 
it  does  not  appear  to  afford  any  barrier  ta 
the  fall  species. 

CLOVER-HAY  WOBM.— This  is  a  very 
widely    distributed    little    insect,    for    it 


Fig.  42.— Asopia  Costalis. 

1,  2,  larva;  3,  cocoon;  4,  chrysalis;  5,  6,  moth 
with  wings  expanded  and  closed ;  7,  worm,  cov- 
ered with  silken  web. 

occurs  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and 
Canada,  and  is  quite  generally  found 
throughout  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
States,  and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

For  many  years  grievous  complaints 
were  made  in  this  country  of  a  worm 
which  infests  clover,  both  in  the  stack  and 
mow,  and  spoiled  it  for  feeding  purposes 
by  interweaving  and  covering  it  with 
abundant  white  silken  web  and  black 
excrement,  much  resembling  coarse  gun- 
powder. Frequently  the  silken  matting 
is  so  dense  that  the  hay  looks  moldy, 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  much  of 
the  "  clotting  "  and  "  burning  "  clover,  so 
often  referred  to  in  our  agricultural 
journals,  may  be,  in  reality,  the  work  of 
this  worm. 

Remedies. — From  what  we  now  know 
of  the  habits  of  this  insect  (and  there  is 
much  yet,  in  detail,  to  learn),  the  only 
way  to  defeat  its  attack  is  by  adopting 
certain  preventive  measures :  First,  as  the 
worms  feed  solely  on  dry  clover,  it  follows 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       401 


that  during  summer  they  must  be  confined 
to  such  unfed  hay  as  remains  over  from 
the  previous  year's  making.  Therefore, 
new  hay  should  never  be  stacked  in  con- 
tact with  old.  In  confinement,  the  worms 
show  a  tendency  to  work  their  way  to  the 
bottom  of  whatever  they  are  confined  in, 
and  we  may  conclude  that  this  tendency 
is  natural.  It  will  account  for  their  being 
found  so  generally  at  the  bottom  of  a 
stack.  Yet,  aside  from  this  tendency,  it 
follows  that  wherever  clover  is  stacked  for 
successive  years  on  the  same  foundation, 
the  bottom,  coming  in  contact  as  it  does 
with  the  infested  leavings  of  the  previous 
year,  will  necessarily  suffer  most.  Sec- 
ondly, as  the  worms  show  a  preference 
for  the  moister  and  more  compact  por- 
tions of  a  stack,  it  will  be  well  to  build 
on  a  good  log  or  rail  foundation.  This 
gives  an  air  passage  underneath,  and  is, 
besides,  a  commendable  practice.  Third- 
ly, we  should  recommend  salting  the  hay, 
especially  the  two  or  three  feet  near  the 
bottom ;  for  while  it  is  a  good  practice 
as  a  preventive  of  moldiness,  it  may  also 
prove  an  antidote  to  the  worm  nuisance. 

LEGGED  MAPLE  BORER.  —  Vieing 
with  the  Flat-headed  Borer,  in  destructive- 
ness,  but  generally  following  in  its  trail 
and  rendering  more  conspicuous  the 
damage  which  that  species  does  to  our 
shade  maples,  the  insect  under  consider- 
eration  deserves  notice.  It  may  be  called 
the  Legged  Maple  Borer,  because  the 
possession  of  sixteen  legs  at  once  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  Flat-headed  Borer. 
It  is,  indeed,  in  structure  similar  to,  and 
belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  common 
Peach-tree  Borer,  and  the  more  common 
Currant  Borer. 

The  worm  (Figure  43),  burrows  under 
the  bark  of  our  soft  maples,  feeding  on 
the  inner  bark  and  sap-wood  and  never 
penetrating  deeply  into  the  more  solid 
heart-wood.  It  is  so  numerous  at  times 
that  it  completely  girdles,  and  thus  kills 
outright,  trees  of  considerable  size ;  while 
smaller  trees  are  weakened,  and  rendered 
liable  to  be  broken  by  wind,  even  where 
the  worms  are  less  numerous. 

Remedy. — We  have  always  found  the 
worms  in  such  trees  as  had  been  injured, 
either  by  the  work  of  the  Flat-headed 
Borer,  the  rubbing  of  the  tree  against  a 
post  or  board,  or  in  some  other  way. 
Where  the  bark  is  kept  smooth,  they 
26 


never  seem  to  trouble  it,  the  parent  evi- 
dently preferring  to  consign  her  eggs  to 
cracked  or  roughened  parts.  For  this 
reason  the  worm  is  not  found  in  the 
smoother  branches,  but  solely  in  the  main 
trunk.  Whether  the  soap  application 
will  prevent  the  moth  from  depositing 
her  eggs,  is  not  known :  judging  from 
analogy,  probably  not.    Yet  it  will  tend 


Fig.  43. — ^Egeria  Acerni. 

a,  a,  larva,  dorsal  and  lateral  views;  b,  6,  it. 
cocoons  exposed  by  detachment  of  bark ;  c,  moth; 
d,  chrysalis  skin  as  it  is  often  left  remaining  in  the  ■ 
hole  of  exit 

to  keep  the  bark  smoother,  and,  in  being 
used  to  shield  the  tree  from  the  other 
borer,  it  will  indirectly  shield  it  from  this 
one. 

Mr.  Grannadius    recommends    white- 
washing  the    trunks,  and  filling  up    all 
holes  and  fissures  with  mortar,  so   as  to' 
render  the  bark  as  smooth  as  possible. 

MICE,  Field. — Field  mice,  which  are- 
sometimes  so  destructive  to  apple  trees; 
and  the  bulbs  of  herd  grass,  may  be 
trapped  and  destroyed  by  digging  a  few 
holes  in  the  form  of  a  post-hole  in  the 
fields  infested  by  them.  Having  occa- 
sion to  build  a  post-fence  on  one  side  of/ 
an  orchard  not  long  since,  about  a  dozen 
of  the  post-holes  were  left  unfilled  for  a 
couple  of  days,  and  on  going  to  set  the 
posts  from  one  to  eight  mice  were  found 
in  each  hole,  having  fallen  in  and  being 
unable  to  climb  the  smooth  sides  of  the^ 
hole. 


4'02 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


GRAPE    PHYLLOXERA.  —  Not  the 

least  interesting  feature  in  the  economy 
of  our  Phylloxera,  are  the  different  phases 
or  forms  under  which  it  presents  itself. 
Among  these  forms  are  two  constant  types, 
which  have  led  many  to  suppose  that  we 
have  to  do  with  two  species.  The  one 
<type,which  we  have,  for  convenience,  called 
gallacola,  lives  in  galls  on  the  leaves;  the 
.other,  which  we  have  called  radicicola,  on 
.swellings  of  the  roots. 

Type  Gallfflcola  or  Gall-inhabiting. — 

'The  gall  or  excresence  produced  by  this 

insect  is  simply  a  fleshy  swelling  of  the 

:  under    side   of   the  leaf,    more    or  less 

wrinkled  and  hairy,  Avith  a  corresponding 

,  depression  of  the  upper  side,  the  margin 

of  the   cup  being  fuzzy,  and  drawn  to- 

•  gether  so  as  to  form  a  fimbriated  mouth. 

It  is  usually  cup-shaped,  but  sometimes 

greatly  elongated  or  purse-shaped. 

Soon  after  the  first  vine  leaves  that  put 
,^out  in  the  spring  have  fully  expanded,  a 
few  scattering  galls  may  be  found,  mostly 
on  the  lower  leaves,  nearest  the  ground. 
These  vernal  galls  are  usually  large  (of 
-  the  size  of  an  ordinary  pea),  and  the 
normal  green  is  often  blushed  with  rose 
where  exposed  to  the  light  of  the  sun. 
On  carefully  opening  one  of  them  (Fig. 
43)  we  shall  find  the  mother-louse  dili- 


-    Fig.  43. — Under  Side  of  Leaf  Covered 
with  Galls. 

gently  at  work  surrounding  herself  with 
pale-yellow  eggs  of  an  elongate  oval  form, 
scarcely  .01  inch  long,  and  not  quite  half 
as  thick  (Fig.  44).  She  is  about  .04  inch 
long,  generally  spherical  in  shape,  of  a  dull 
.orange  color  and  looks  not  unlike  an  im- 


mature seed  of  the  common  purslane.   At 
times,  by  the  elongation  of  the  abdomen, 
the  shape  assumes,  more  or  less  perfectly, 
the  pyriform.  Her  members  are  all  dusky, 
and  so  short,  compared  to  her  swollen 
body,  that  she  appears  very  clumsy,  and 
undoubtedly  would  be  outside  of  her  gall, 
which  she  never  has  occasion  to  quit,  and 
which  serves  her  alike  as  dwelling-house 
and   coffin.      More   carefully  examined, 
her  skin  is  seen  to  be  shagreened  or  mi- 
nutely   granulated,    and    furnished    with 
rows  of  minute  hairs,  which  which  more 
particularly  described   elsewhere.      The 
eggs  begin  to  hatch  when  six  or  eight 
days  old,  into  active,  little,  oval,  hexapod 
beings,  which  differ  from  their  mother  in 
their  brighter  yellow  color  and  more  per- 
fect legs  and  antennae,  the  tarsi  being  fur- 
nished with  long,  pliant  hairs,  terminating 
in  a  more  or  less  distinct  globule.    These 
hairs  were  called  digituli  by  Dr.  Shinier, 
and  they  lose  their  globular  tips  and  be- 
come more  or  less  worn  with  age.     In 
hatching,   the    egg    splits   longitudinally 
from  the   anterior   end,  and   the  young 
louse,  whose  pale  yellow  is  in  strong  con- 
trast with  the  more  dusky  color  of  the  egg- 
shell, escapes  in  the  course  of  two  minutes. 
Issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  gall,  these 
young  lice  scatter  over  the  vine,  most  of 
them  finding  their  way  to  the  tender  ter- 
minal leaves,  where   they  settle  in   the 
downy  bed  which  the  tomentose  nature 
of  these  leaves  affords,  and  commence 
pumping  up  and  appropriating  the  sap. 
The  tongue-sheath  is  blunt  and  heavy, 
but    the    tongue    proper — consisting    of 
three  brown,  elastic,  and  wiry  filaments, 
which,  united,  make  so  fine  a  thread  as 
scarcely  to  be  visible  with  the  strongest 
microscope — is  sharp,  and  easily  run  un- 
der the  parenchyma  of  the  leaf.  Its  punc- 
ture causes  a  curious  change  in  the  tissues 
of  the  leaf,  the  growth  being  so  stimulated 
that  the  under  side  bulges  and  thickens, 
while  the  down  on  the  upper   side  in- 
creases in  a  circle  around  the  louse,  and 
finally  hides  and  covers  it  as  it  recedes 
more   and    more   within   the   deepening 
cavity.     Sometimes  the  lice  are  so  crowd- 
ed that  two  occupy  the  same  gall.     If, 
from  the  premature  death  of  the  louse,  or 
other  cause,  the  gall   becomes  abortive 
before  being  completed,  then  the  circle  of 
thickened  down  or  fuzz  enlarges  with  the 
expansion  of  the  leaf,  and  remains  (Fig. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       403 


44,  c)  to  tell  the  tale  of  the  futile  effort. 
Otherwise,  in  a  few  days  the  gall  if  formed, 
and  the  inheld  louse,  which  while  eating 
its  way  into  house  and  home,  was  also 
growing  apace,  begins  a  parthenogenetic 
maternity  by  the  deposition  of  fertile  eggs, 
as  her  immediate  parent  had  done  before. 
She  increases  in  bulk  with  pregnancy, 
and  one  egg  follows  another  in  quick 
succession,  until  the  gall  is  crowded. 
The  mother  dies  and  shrivels,  and  the 
young,  as  they  hatch,  issue  and  found 
new  galls.  This  process  continues 
during  the  summer  until  the  fifth  or 
sixth  generation.  Every  egg  brings 
forth  a  fertile  female,  which  soon  be- 
comes wonderfully  prolific.  The 
number  of  eggs  found  in  a  single  gall 
averages  about  200;  yet  it  will  some- 
times reach  as  many  as  500,  and,  if 
Dr.  Shimer's  observations  can  be  re- 
lied on,  it  may  even  reach  5,000.  As 
summer  advances,  they  do  frequently 
become  prodigiously  multiplied,  com- 
pletely covering  the  leaves  with  their 


all  species  of  the  grape-vine  cultivated  in 
the  Eastern  and  Middle  States,  and  on 
the  wild  cordifolia  ;  but  it  flourishes  only 
on  the  river-bank  grape,  and  more  espe- 
cially on  the  Clinton  and  Taylor,  with 
their  close  allies. 
As  already  indicated,  the  autumnal  in- 


f        ^    '  &  h 

Fig.  44. — Type  Galuecola. 
b,  newly-hatched  larva,  ventral  and  dorsal  view ; 


x    ..     J       ,  °.  ,  .  a,  6,  newly-hatched  larva,  ventral  and  dorsal  view ;  c, 

galls,   and    Settling    on    the    tendrils,  egg ;  d,  section  of  gall;  e,  swelling  of  tendril;  f,g,  h, 
leaf-  stalks,     and     tender     branches,  mother  gall-louse— lateral,  dorsal  and  ventral  views ;  i, 
where    they    also    form    knots     and her  antenna ;  J,  her  two-jointed  tarsus.    Natural  sizes  in- 
rounded  excresences   Fig.  44),  much  dM*ted  at  sides- 
resembling  those  made  on  the  roots.     In    dividuals  of  galltzcola  descend  to  the  roots, 


and  there  hibernate.     There  is  every  rea- 
son to  believe  also  that,  throughout  the 


such  a  case,  the  vine  loses  its  leaf  prema- 
turely. Usually,  however,  the  natural 
enemies  of  the  louse  seriously  reduce 
its  numbers  by  the  time  the  vine 
ceases  its  growth  in  the  fall,  and  the 
few  remaining  lice,  finding  no  more 
succulent  and  suitable  leaves,  seek 
the  roots.  Thus,  by  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, the  galls  are  mostly  deserted, 
and  those  which  are  left  are  almost 
always  infested  with  mildew  (Bottytis 
viticola,  Berkely),  and  eventually  turn 
brown  and  decay.  On  the  roots,  the 
young  lice  attach  themselves  singly 
or  in  little  groups,  and  thus  hibernate. 
The  male  gall-louse  has  never  been 
seen,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve he  has  no  existence.  Nor  does 
the  female  ever  acquire  wings.  In- 
deed, we  cannot  lay  too  much  stress 
on  the  fact  that  gallxcola  occurs  only 


Fig.  45. — Type  Radicicola. 

a,  roots  of  Clinton  vine,  showing  relation  of  swellings 
v»*  "»v-  wv*  m»vi»»«-n'»u.  uv-vuij  vui;  to  leaf-galls,  and  power  of  resisting  decomposition;  b, 
as  an  agamic  ana  apterous  lemaie  larva  as  it  appears  when  hibernating ;  c,  d,  antenna  and 
form.  It  is  but  a  transient  summer  leg  of  same;  e,f,g,  forms  of  more  mature  lice;  £,  gran- 
State,  not  at  all  essential  to  the  per-  ulations  of  skin;  *',  tubercle;  /,  transverse  folds  at  bor- 

petuation  of  the  species,  and  does,  der  of  Joints  '>  *>  simple  eyes. 

compared  with  the  other  type,  but  trifling  1  summer,  some  of  the  young  lice  hatched 

damage.  We  have  found  it  occasionally  on  |  in  the  galls  are  passing  on  to  the  roots; 


404 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


as,  considering  their  size,  they  are  great 
travelers,  and  show  a  strong  predisposi- 
tion to  drop,  their  natural  lightness,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  young  Cicada,  and  of  other 
insects  which  hatch  above,  but  live  under 
ground,  enabling  them  thus  to  reach  the 
earth  with  ease  and  safety.  At  all  events, 
we  know,  from  experiment,  that  the  young 
gallcecola,  if  confined  to  vines  on  which 
they  do  not  normally,  and  perhaps  can 
not,  form  galls,  will,  in  the  middle  of  sum- 
mer, make  themselves  perfectly  at  home 
on  the  roots. 

Type  Radicicola,  or  Root-inhabiting. — 
We  have  seen  that,  in  all  probability,  gal- 
lcecola exists  only  in  the  apterous,  sha- 
greened  non-tubercled,  fecund  female 
form.  Radicicola,  however,  presents  itself 
in  two  principal  forms.  The  newly- 
hatched  larvae  of  this  type  are  undis- 
tinguishable,  in  all  essential  characters, 
from  those  hatched  in  the  galls ;  but  in 
due  time  they  shed  the  smooth  larval 
skin,  and  acquire  raised  warts  or  tubercles 
which  at  once  distinguish  them  from  gal- 
Icecola.  In  the  development  from  this 
point  the  two  forms  are  separable  with 
sufficient  ease :  one  (a)  of  a  more  dingy 
greenish  yellow,  with  more  swollen  fore- 
body,  and  more  tapering  abdomen;  the 
other,  (b)  of  a  brighter  yellow,  with  the 
lateral  outline  more  perfectly  oval,  and 
with  the  abdomen  more  truncated  at  tip. 

The  first,  or  mother  form,  (Fig.  45,  f, 
g),  is  the  analogue  of  galcecola,  as  it  never 
acquires  wings,  and  is  occupied,  from 
adolescence  till  death,  with  the  laying  of 
eggs,  which  are  less  numerous  and  some- 
what larger  than  those  found  in  the  galls. 
We  have  counted  in  the  spring  as  many  as 
two  hundred  and  sixty-five  eggs  in  a  clus- 
ter, and  all  evidently  from  one  mother, 
who  was  yet  very  plump  and  still  occu- 
pied in  laying.  As  a  rule,  however,  they 
are  less  numerous.  With  pregnancy  this 
form  becomes  quite  tumid  and  more  or 
less  pyriform,  and  is  content  to  remain 
with  scarcely  any  motion  in  the  more  se- 
cluded parts  of  the  roots,  such  as  the 
creases,  sutures,  and  depressions  which 
the  knots  afford.  The  skin  is  distinctly 
shagreened  (Fig.  45,  h)  as  in  gallcecola. 
The  warts,  though  usually  quite  visible 
with  a  good  lens,  are  at  other  times  more 
or  less  obsolete,  especially  on  the  ab- 
domen. The  eyes,  which  were  quite  per- 
fect in  the  larva,  become  more  simple 


with  each  molt,  until  they  consist,  as  in 
gallcecola,  of  but  triple  eyelets  (Fig.  45,  k)r 
and  in  the  general  structure  this  form  be- 
comes more  degraded  with  maturity,, 
wherein  it  shows  the  affinity  of  the  species 
to  the  Coccidm,  the  females  of  which,  as 
they  mature,  generally  lose  all  trace  of  the 
members  they  possessed  when  born. 

The  second  or  more  oval  form  (Fig. 
45,  e)  is  destined  to  become  winged.  Its 
tubercles,  when  once  acquired,  are  always 
conspicuous;  it  is  more  active  than  the 
latter,  and  its  eyes  increase  rather  than 
diminish  in  complexity  with  age.  From 
the  time  it  is  one-third  grown,  the  little 
dusky  wing-pads  may  be  discovered,, 
though  less  conspicuous  than  in  the  pupa 
state,  which  is  soon  after  assumed.  The 
pupae  (Fig.  48,  <?,/,)  are  still  more  active, 
and,  after  feeding  a  short  time,  they  make 
their  way  to  the  light  of  day,  crawl  over 
the  ground  and  over  the  vines,  and  finally 
shed  their  last  skin  and  assume  the  winged 
state.  In  this  last  molt  the  tubercled  skin 
splits  on  the  back,  and  is  soon  worked  off, 
the  body  in  the  winged  insect  having 
neither  tubercles  nor  granulations. 

In  the  great  majority  of  insects  the 
wings  in  the  pupa  are  simply  compressed 
and  thickened  without  being  folded,  and 
in  the  imago  they  expand  without  mate- 
rial change  in  form.  Those  of  our  Phyl- 
loxera are  rolled  up  both  from  the  sides 
and  the  end,  and,  in  expanding,  they  un- 
roll; the  whole  operation  requiring  but 
about  five  minutes.  At  first,  and  for  some 
time  after  the  molt,  the  color  of  the  body 
of  the  new-fledged  Phylloxera  is  of  a  uni- 
form bright,  deep  yellow,  with  the  wings 
white  and  rather  opaque,  and  the  eyes 
brown.  The  dark  thoracic  band  and 
more  diaphanous  and  smoky  nature  of 
the  wings  are  gradually  acquired  in  the 
course  of  a  day,  and  the  insect  finally 
presents  the  appearance  of  Fig.  48,  g,  h.. 
The  wings  when  highly  magnified  are 
seen  to  be  thickly  covered  with  minute 
hooks. 

These  winged  insects  are  most  abund- 
ant in  August  and  September,  but  may 
be  found  as  early  as  the  first  of  July,  and 
until  the  vines  cease  growing  in  the  fall. 
The  majority  of  them  are  females,  with 
the  abdomen  large,  and  more  or  less 
elongate.  The  veins  of  the  front  wing 
are  not  connected,  and,  by  virtue  of  the 
large  abdomen,  the  body  appears  some: 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       4oS 


■what  constricted  behind  the  thorax. 
From  two  to  five  eggs  may  invariably  be 
found  in  the  abdomen  of  these,  and  are 
easily  seen  when  the  insect  is  held  be- 
tween the  light,  or  mounted  in  balsam 
or  glycerine.  A  certain  proportion  have 
an  entirely  different  shaped  and  smaller 
body,   the    abdomen  being  short,   con- 


Fig.  48. — Type  Radicicola. 


play  such  an  important  part  in  the  disease 
as  was  at  first  supposed,  may  be  controlled 
with  sufficient  ease  by  a  little  care  in  de- 
stroying the  first  galls  which  appear,  and 
in  pruning  and  destroying  the  terminal 
growth  of  infested  vines  later  in  the  sea- 
son. The  root-lice  are  not  so  easily 
reached.  As  the  effort  will  be  according 
to  the  exigency,  we  may  very  nat- 
urally look  to  France  for  a  direct 
remedy,  if  ever  one  be  discovered. 
But  of  all  the  innumerable  plans, 
patented  or  non -patented,  that 
have  been  proposed — of  all  the 
many  substances  that  have  been 
experimented  with  under  the  stimu- 
lus of  a  large  national  reward,  no 
remedy  has  yet  been  discovered 
which  gives  entire  satisfaction  or  is 
applicable  to  all  conditions  of  soil. 
Nor  is  it  likely  that  such  a  remedy 
ever  will  be  discovered.  A  large 
majority  of  the  remedies  proposed, 
such  as  the  planting  of  Madia  sat- 
iva  among  the  vines  to  catch  the 
insect  by  its  viscous  property,  or 
inoculating  the  vines  with  the  es- 
sence of  Eucalyptus  globulus,  are, 
upon  their  face,  unworthy  of  prac- 
tical consideration,  or  absurd. 
These  we  will  pass  by,  and  briefly 
mention  only  those  which  have 
been  more  or  less  productive  of 
good. 

Submersion,  where  practicable, 
and  where  it  is  total  and  suffi- 
ciently   prolonged,    is    a    perfect 


a,  shows  a  healthy  root;  6,  one  on  which  the  lice  are  .  Th-     •        ,     .  th 

working,  representing  the  knots  and  swellings  caused  byr<fmeay-  ,ims  ™  ™&t  even  ™e 
their  punctures  ;  c,  a  root  that  has  been  deserted  by  them,  closest  Student  might  expect,  as  he 
and  where  the  rootlets  have  commenced  to  decay;  d,  d,  d,  finds  that  excessive  moisture  is  very 
show  how  the  lice  are  found  on  the  larger  roots ;  e,  female  disastrous  to  the  lice  M  Louis 
pupa    dorsal  view;  /  same,  ventral  view;  g    winged  fe-j.  f  Graveson  "(Bouche  du 

male,  dorsal  view ;  h,  same,  ventral  view ;    t, .magnified  at- 1,?         \l    -r?  ^      r^°_j      V  ■""      ,        . 
tenna  of  winged  insect;  /,  side  view  of  the  wingless  female,  Rhone))   .France,   has  ■  abundantly 
laying  eggs  on  roots;   k,  shows  how  the  punctures  of  the  proved    its   efficacy,    and    has,   by 
lice  cause  the  larger  roots  to  rot.  means  of  it,  totally  annihilated  the 

tracted,  and  terminating  in  a  fleshy  and    insect  in  his  vineyard,  which  was  suffering 


dusky  penis-like  protuberance ;  the  limbs 
stouter,  and  the  wings  proportionately 
larger  and  stouter,  with  their  veins  con- 
necting. This  shorter  form  never  has  eggs 
in  the  abdomen,  but,  instead,  a  number  of 
vesicles  containing  granulations  in  sacs. 
These  granulations  have  much  the  appear- 
ance of  spermatozoa,  and  seem  to  have  a 
Brownian  movement,  but  are  without 
tails. 

Remedies. — The  leaf-lice,  which  do  not 


from  it  four  years  ago.  From  his  experi- 
ence we  may  draw  the  following  conclu- 
sions : 

1.  The  best  season  to  submerge  is  in 
autumn  (September  and  October),  when 
the  lice  are  yet  active  and  the  vines  have 
ceased  growing.  Submergence  for  25  to 
30  days,  at  this  season,  will  generally  rout 
the  lice.  2.  A  submergence  of  40  to  50 
days,  in  winter,  is  required.  3.  A  vine- 
yard should  never  be  inundated    for  a 


406 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FOR. 


longer  period  than  two  days  in  summer, 
or  during  growth ;  and  though  these  brief 
inundations  at  that  season  affect  only  a 
few  lice  near  the  surface,  and  are  by  no 
means  essential,  they  are  nevertheless  im- 
portant auxiliaries  to  the  more  thorough 
fall  or  winter  submersion,  as  they  destroy 
the  few  lice  which  are  always  invading  a 
vineyard  in  infested  districts.  These 
summer  inundations  will  be  necessary 
only  after  the  winged  insects  begin  to  ap- 
pear ;  and  three  or  four,  each  lasting  less 
than  two  days,  made  between  the  middle 
of  July  and  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  will  ef- 
fect the  end  desired.  4.  An  embankment 
should  be  made  around  the  vineyard  in 
order  that  the  water  may  evaporate  and 
permeate  the  earth,  but  not  run  off  and 
carry  away  any  nutritive  properties  ot  the 
soil. 

On  our  best  hilly  vine  land,  thorough 
submersion  is  impracticable;  but  on  our 
bottom  lands  some  of  the  grapes  which 
fail  now  may  be  made  to  succeed  by  its 
means. 

Carbolic  acid,  added  to  water  at  the 
rate  of  about  one  per  cent.,  applied  by 
pouring  into  deep  holes  made  by  a  crow- 
bar or  auger,  has  given  satisfactory  re- 
sults ;  and  a  thorough  application  of  soot 
has  also  been  strongly  advocated  by 
those  who  have  tried  it.  In  the  experi- 
ments that  we  have  been. able  to  make  in 
a  small  way,  a  thorough  mixing  with  the 
soil  of  a  cheap  carbolic  powder,  has  given 
good  results. 

The  advantages  of  grafting  are  too 
well  recognized  to  need  enforcing.  By 
its  means,  healthy,  vigorous  vines,  which 
do  not  fruit  well,  may  soon  be  made 
abundant  bearers ;  new  varieties  and  seed- 
lings be  quickly  tested,  and  a  less  desira- 
ble variety  replaced  by  one  more  desira- 
ble. Our  knowledge  of  the  Grape  Phyl- 
loxera has  of  late  pointed  out  other  co- 
gent advantages  that  may  be  derived  from 
grafting. 

BLACKBERRY  BUSH  BORER. — The 
Blackberry  bush  borer,  is  occasionally 
found  eating  out  the  pith  of  the  young 
canes  of  the  Raspberry  and  Blackberry, 
but  it  is  not  common.  The  beetle,  which 
is  the  parent  of  the  borer,  is  about  a  half 
inch  long,  black,  rusty  yellow  on  the 
breast,  and  on  top  of  the  thorax.  It  lays 
it  eggs  early  in  August  on  the  stems  of 
the  Blackberry  and  Raspberry,  generally 


at  the  base  of  a  leaf.  The  grub  pene- 
trates the  stem,  eating  out  the  pith,, 
causing  the  young  canes  to  wither.  A 
{cw  of  our  Blackberry  bushes  were 
attacked  by  this   insect  the  past  season. 

Remedy. — The  infested  canes  should 
be  pruned  offin  the  Fall  and  buried.  In 
Europe  there  is  a  beetle  which  deposits 
its  eggs  in  the  flower  of  the  Raspberry, 
which  produce  small  white  maggots  by 
the  time  the  fruit  is  ripe.  A  similar 
worm  is  quite  common  upon  our  Wild 
Red  Raspberry,  but  whether  it  is  the 
same  as  the  European  species,  or  one  of 
the  Ortalidians  (some  of  which  are 
known  to  deposit  the  eggs  in  the  Rasp- 
berry), we  are  unable  to  say,  as  they  are 
seldom  seen  upon  the  cultivated  varieties. 

GOOSEBERRY  MIDGE.— The  berries 
turning  red  prematurely  and  becoming 
putrid,  having  in  them  small,  bright 
yellow  maggots,  of  an  oblong-oval  form, 
and  slightly  divided  into  segments  by  fine 
impressed  transverse  lines;  changing  to 
pupae  in  the  berries,  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  July  giving  out  a  small,  two-winged  fly, 
resembling  a  musquito,.  of  beeswax  yellow 
color. 

Remedy. — The  berries  should  be  gath- 
ered so  soon  as  they  show  signs  of  prema- 
ture ripening,  and  fed  to  hogs,  or 
otherwise  destroyed. 

QUINCE  BORER — "Should  the  borer 
by  any  means  steal  in,  ferret  them  out 
carefully  with  a  piece  of  wire.  Should 
they,  however,  get  the  advantage  of  you,, 
and  your  trees  become  honey-combed, 
set  out  again  young  trees,  so  that  by  the 
time  the  old  ones  are  gone  the  young 
ones  will  be  finely  in  bearing.  We  have 
raised  these  quinces  in  perfection,  but  not 
caring  for  the  fruit,  they  were  removed 
when  they  were  about  to  die  from  the 
operations  of  the  worm." 

THE  JUMPING  SUMACH  BEETLE. 
— As  soon  as  vegetation  starts  in  the 
Spring,  the  beetles,  (Fig.  4&jf),  whichi 
had  passed  the  winter,  as  such,  in  shel- 
tered situations,  may  be  seen  upon  their 
foot-plants,  sometimes  in  great  numbers,, 
and  generally  coupled.  Though  not  as; 
shy  and  active  as  many  of  the  smaller 
flea-beetles,  they  yet  jump  with  alacrity 
by  means  of  their  thickened  hind  thighs 
— a  fact  which  has  been  doubted  by  some 
entomologists,  but  certainly  by  none  who 
have  known  the  insect  in  life.    The  wing- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      407- 


covers  are  of  a  bright  mahogany-brown, 
marked,  as  in  the  illustration  (/),  with 
white,  and  the  head  and  thorax  are  of  a 
bright  shining  green.  In  cabinet  speci- 
mens these  colors  fade,  and  the  general 
tint  is  more  yellowish  or  rust-colored. 
Very  soon  after  the  appearance  of  the 
beetle  the  stems  and  branches  of  the 
plants  named,  if  carefully  examined,  will 
be  found  more  or  less  covered  with  little 
elongate  pellets    of   excrement,  (b,    b), 

s 


Fig.  48. — Blepharida  Rhois. 

a'  egg  >  ^>  ^>  egg  masses  covered  with  excre- 
ment ;  c ,  c,  c,  c,  larvae  ;  d,  cocoon  ;  e,  pupa ;  /, 
beetle :  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  I,  mouth  parts  of  larvae. 

dark  when  fresh,  but  becoming  paler  and 
grayish-brown  when  dry.  These  pellets 
are  sometimes  so  numerous  as  to  form  one 
large  mass,  completely  covering  the  stem 
or  branch;  at  other  times,  especially 
when  on  the  leaf  or  leaf-stem,  they  are 
single.  If  more  critically  examined,  they 
will  each  be  found  to  contain  five  or  six 
pale  yellow  eggs  (a),  mostly  laid  side  by 
side,  and  separated  from  the  excrement  by 
a  thin  papery  layer  of  a  whitish,  opaque 
substance.  These  eggs  give  birth,  in  a 
very  few  days,  to  little  dark  yellow  worms 
with  a  conspicuous  black  head,  and  shiny 
plate  on  the  first  joint,  six  long,  black, 
thoracic  legs,  and  a  pale  anal  proleg. 
Remedies.— The  Smoke-tree  may  be 


protected  from  the  injuries  of  this  insect 
by  jarring  the  beetles,  in  early  spring, 
into  pans  of  water,  or  by  strewing  the 
ground  lightly  with  straw,  then  starting  a 
ring  of  fire  on  the  outside,  and  jarring 
the  beetles  into  it.  If  the  worms  have 
been  allowed  to  hatch,  the  Paris-green 
mixture  will  soon  dispose  of  them. 

OAK  PRUNER.— This  is  a  long- 
horned  brownish  beetle  which  cuts 
off  the  branches  of  oak,  apple,, 
peach,  hickory,  and  chesnut.  This 
beetle,  which  is  known  as  the  "oak- 
pruner,"  does  not  make  the  incision  from 
the  outside  of  the  branch,  like  the  twig- 
girdler,  but  the  larva  cuts  the  twig  from 
the  inside.  The  egg  is  deposited  in 
July,  on  a  twig  near  the  extremity  or 
a  branch.  The  larva  when  hatched  pene- 
trates into  the  wood,  and  forms  a  cylindri- 
cal burrow  several  inches  in  length  in  the 
interior  of  the  branch,  and,  when  full 
grown,  eats  away  parts  of  the  wood 
of  the  branch  in  which  it  resides, 
from  the  inside,  leaving  only  the 
bark  untouched,  so  that  these  branches  ' 
are  broken  off  in  autumn  by  the  first 
strong  wind,  and  fall  to  the  earth  with 
the  larvae  yet  in  them.  Professor  Peck 
considered  that  this  was  done  in  order 
that  the  branch  might  retain  sufficient 
moisture  from  lying  on  the  damp  ground 
to  enable  the  pupa  and  insect  to  be  per- 
fectly developed. 

Remedy. — If  this  insect  should  fn- 
crease  so  as  to  become  very  injurious,  it 
may  readily  be  destroyed  by  gathering  up 
all  fallen  branches  under  the  trees  in  win- 
ter or  spring,  before  the  perfect  beetle  is 
developed,  and  burning  them  immediately. 
If  such  fallen  branches  are  examined  in 
early  spring,  they  will  be  found  to  con- 
tain either  pupa?  or  perfect  beetles,  which 
if  not  destroyed,  would,  next  season^ 
deposit  eggs  on  the  neighboring  trees. 

APPLE  TWIG  BORER—  These  in- 
sects measure  from  .25  to  .35  of  an  inch 
in  length,  and  are  small,  dark  chesnut- 
colored  beetles,  of  a  cylindrical  form,, 
having  the  front  part  of  the  thorax 
roughened  with  elevated  points,  the  male 
having  two  little  horns,  and  the  tip  of 
the  wing  covers  above  provided  with  two 
prickle-like  points  curving  inward.  At- 
tacks apple,  pear,  hickory,  and  cherry 
trees,  and  also  grape  vines,  by  boring 
into  the  twigs  and  young  branches.     It  is. 


408 


BUGS,  INSECTS,  ETC.— REMEDIES  FO] 


in  the  perfect  beetle  state  that  the  insect 
does  the  injury  to  our  fruit  and  forest 
trees,  boring  into  the  twig  just  above  the 
bud,  working  down  sometimes  to  the 
depth  of  two  or  more  inches  through  the 
pith,  thus  finding  in  the  branch  both  food 
and  protection.  Even  in  mid- winter  both 
male  and  female  beetles  may  sometimes 
be  found  hiding  in  the  cylindrical  burrows, 
and  always  with  the  head  directed  down- 
ward. The  insects  are  plentiful  in  the 
Western  States. 

Remedy. — The  only  remedy  that  can 
be  suggested,  when  the  insects  attack 
twigs  and  branches,  is  to  cut  them  off 
some  distance  below  the  place  injured 
and  to  burn  them  immediately,  with  the 
beetles  inside,  as  it  is  not  likely  that  any 
preparation  could  be  applied  to  the  trees 
that  would  prevent  their  attacks. 

TWIG -GIRDLER.— The  beetle  that 
thus  girdles  the  twigs  is  the  perfect  insect 
of  the  so-called  "  twig-girdler,"  medium- 
sized,  long-horned  beetle,  of  a  chesnut- 
brown  color,  and  having  a  broad,  lighter 
colored  band  across  the  wing-covers. 
The  female  beetle  first  makes  a  perfora- 
tion in  a  branch,  generally  just  below  a 
bud;  she  then  deposits  an  egg  in  this  per- 
foration, in  one  case  even  making  as  many 
as  six  perforations,  in  which  eggs  were 
■  deposited  below  the  buds  in  a  single 
branch,  not  more  than  a  foot  in  length. 

After  the  insect  has  deposited  her  eggs, 
she  proceeds  to  gnaw  all  around  the 
branch,  thus  forming  a  circular  cut  or 
incision,  about  one-eighth  to  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  in  width,  below  the  place  where 
the  eggs  are  deposited,  so  that  the  exte- 
rior part  or  end  dies ;  the  larva,  when 
hatched,  feeds  on  the  dead  wood,  which 
sort  of  food  appears  to  be  essential  to  its 
growth.  The  principal  injury  is  said  to  be 
done  in  August  and  September.  They  have 
also  been  found  to  injure  walnut  and  ap- 
ple trees  as  well  as  those  above  men- 
tioned. 

Remedy. — The  best  way  to  eradicate 
this  insect  is  to  cut  off  all  such  branches 
and  twigs  as  have  the  least  appearance  of 
having  been  girdled,  and  to  gather  up  all 
fallen  branches  and  burn  them  immedi- 
ately, as  the  eggs  or  larvae  of  the  next 
year's  generation  are  contained  in  these 
twigs,  and,  if  allowed  to  remain  undis- 
turbed, would  produce  a  race  of  beetles 


next  season  which  would  girdle  all  the 
trees  in  the  neighborhood.  The  best 
time  to  prune  off  the  infested 
branches  is  after  the  leaves  have  fallen 
from  the  trees,  as  the  injury  can  be  more 
plainly  seen  than  when  the  tree  is  full  of 
leaves. 

PEACH  -  BORER,     Remedy     for.  — 

Take  a  five  pound  can  of  car- 
bolic soap,  called  "carbolic  plant- 
protector,"  (costing  two  dollars,)  dis- 
solve it  in  ten  or  twelve  gallons  of  hot 
water  by  stirring  or  letting  stand  over 
night,  then  add  twenty  gallons  of  cold 
water,  and  apply  this  liquid,  with  a  paint- 
brush, to  the  base  of  each  tree,  for  eight 
or  ten  inches  in  height  first  clearing 
away  any  weeds  or  loose  dirt  with  a  hoe, 
and  taking  pains  to  have  the  liquor  enter 
the  crevices  of  the  bark  where  the  insect 
deposits  her  eggs.  An  active  man  or  lad 
will  go  over,  in  this  way,  five  hundred 
trees  in  a  day.  If  the  orchard  is  in  clean 
condition  the  above  quantity  of  liquid 
will  serve  for  a  thousand  trees,  so  that 
the  expense  is  not  over  half  a  cent  per 
treee.  Apply  from  the  first  to  the  middle 
of  July. 

INSECT  INJURIES,  to  Fruit  Trees,  and 
their  Remedies. — Insects  rarely  attack  the 
most  healthy  and  vigorous  trees ;  hence 
the  importance  of  effort  to  keep  fruit  trees 
in  the  most  thriving  state.  The  black 
louse,  imbedded  in  the  bark,  lays  her 
eggs,  and  covers  them  till  hatched,  then 
removes  them  to  another  place  and  re- 
peats the  process.  The  grain  lice  are 
attended  by  ants  which  seem  to  milk 
them,  living  on  the  sweet  substance 
exuding  from  them.  They  are  often 
killed  by  another  insect  which  breeds 
within  them,  and  is  their  constant  enemy 
and  our  friend  and  helper. 

CURRANT  BORERS.  — To  destroy 
these  borers,  the  plants  should  be  exam- 
ined every  fall  or  during  winter,  and 
every  shoot  that  has  a  borer  in  it  will 
usually  be  of  a  brown  color,  or  slightly 
wilted ;  sometimes,  when  the  shoots  are 
very  vigorous,  no  difference  can  be  ob- 
served, but  by  close  inspection  the  small 
hole  where  the  worm  entered  can  be 
found.  All  shoots  containing  worms 
should  be  cut  out,  and  the  worm  destroy- 
ed. In  this  way  they  may  be  checked,  if 
not  entirely  eradicated. 


SBAPKBKBBY  MOTH. 


GBAPEBEBBT 
MOTH. 


CUTWOBM  MOTH. 


OBTWOBM  PUPA, 


SOOBKKKiUiY  OB  CUBBAMT  WOBM  LABTA. 


«OOBKBBBBT  OB  OUBBANT 
MOTH, 


OOTWOBH   LABVa, 


MECHANICAL. 


BLADDERS,  to  Prepare.  —  Soak  them 
for  twenty-four  hours  in  water,  to  which 
.a  little  chloride  of  lime  or  potash  has  been 
.added,  then  remove  the  extraneous  mem- 
branes, wash  them  well  in  clean  water  and 
dry  them. 

BRICK  OVENS,  How  to  Make.  — A 
brick  oven  built  in  the  old  style,  out  of 
doors,  entirely  separated  from  the  dwell- 
ing-house, is  more  desirable  and  more 
safe,  so  far  as  danger  from  fire  was  con- 
cerned, than  if  built  by  the  side  of  the 
fireplace  in  the  house.  A  good  brick 
oven  for  baking  bread,  pies  and  cakes  is 
worth  all  the  ranges  and  cook-stoves  that 
•one  could  store  in  his  kitchen.  In  such 
an  oven  everything  will  be  baked  just 
right,  above  and  below,  through  and 
through.  After  a  foundation  has  been 
prepared,  let  two  courses  of  hard  bricks 
be  laid  for  the  bottom  of  the  oven.  Then 
build  the  mouth  and  part  of  the  sides, 
until  it  is  desirable  to  begin  to  draw  the 
sides  inward,  when  sand  or  mellow  earth 
may  be  placed  on  the  foundation,  and  the 
surface  smoothed  off  and  pressed  down  to 
the  desired  form  of  the  oven.  Now  let 
the  brick  work  be  built  over  this  form  of 
sand.  Let  two  courses  of  hard  bricks  be 
laid  over  the  form  with  the  best  mortar. 
After  the  last  bricks  have  been  laid  the 
sand  may  be  removed.  The  bricks  should 
be  soaked  for  several  hours  previous  to 
being  laid,  so  that  they  will  not  absorb 
the  moisture  of  the  mortar  until  it  has  set. 
Such  an  oven  will  cost  but  a  few  dollars. 
Many  people  can  collect  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  loose  bricks  and  pieces  around 
their  dwellings  to  build  a  brick  oven.  Be- 
sides this,  any  intelligent  man,  though 
only  half  a  mechanic,  can  build  such  an 
oven  about  as  well  as  a  mason. 

CEMENT,  for  China,  Glass,  Crockery, 
Metals  and  "Wood.  —  i.  An  excellent  ce- 
ment for  mending  china  may  be  made  as 
follows :  Take  the  white  of  an  egg  and  a 
Hittle  flour,  which  make  into  a  light  paste ; 


clear  the  parts  to  be  joined  from  all  dust 
and  dirt;  spread  some  of  the  paste  on 
each  piece  and  press  them  together ;  while 
wet,  wipe  off  the  exuding  portions,  both 
inside  and  out;  then  let  it  remain  until 
quite  dry.  2.  The  following  recipe  we 
know  from  experience  to  be  a  good  one, 
and,  being  nearly  colorless,  it  possesses 
advantages  which  liquid  glue  and  other 
cements  do  not :  Dissolve  y2  an  ounce  of 
gum  acacia  in  a  wine-glass  of  boiling 
water;  add  plaster  of  Paris  sufficient  to 
form  a  thick  paste,  and  apply  it  with  a 
brush  to  the  parts  to  be  cemented  to- 
gether. For  Mending  Broken  China, 
Glass,  etc.  —  3.  Take  1  pound  white 
shellac,  pulverized;  2  oz.  clean  gum  mas- 
tic ;  put  these  into  a  bottle,  and  then  add 
half  a  pound  pure  sulphuric  ether.  Let 
it  stand  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  add 
half  a  gallon  90  per  cent,  alcohol.  Shake 
occasionally  till  it  is  dissolved.  Heat  the 
edges  of  the  article  to  be  mended,  and 
apply  the  cement  with  a  pencil  brush ; 
hold  the  article  together  until  the  cement 
cools.  This  makes  a  transparent  cement. 
4.  An  Indian  Cement  for  Glass  and 
Metals. — Dissolve  5  or  6  pieces  of  gum 
mastic,  each  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea, 
in  just  as  much  spirit  as  will  render  it 
liquid.  Soften  some  isinglass  by  steeping 
it  in  water ;  having  dried  it,  dissolve  as 
much  of  it  in  good  brandy  as  will  fill  a 
two-ounce  phial ;  add  2  small  bits  of  gum 
ammoniacum,  previously  rubbing  them 
until  they  are  dissolved.  Mix  the  two 
solutions ;  keep  in  a  close  phial,  and  when 
it  is  to  be  used  set  the  phial  in  boiling 
water.  5.  Take  a  thick  mucilage  of  gum 
arabic  and  stir  into  it  plaster  of  Paris — 
the  broken  images  are  best  —  made  very 
fine,  to  form  a  thick  paste,  and  apply  to 
the  edges  with  a  brush,  and  press  firmly 
together  and  confine  there  two  or  three 
days.  I  have  pulled  over  30  pounds  with 
a  wine-glass,  the  stem  of  which  had  been 
broken  and   mended  with    the   cement. 


(4°9) 


4io 


MECHANICAL. 


6.  Dissolve  i  ounce  common  salt  in  i 
quart  of  water;  bring  to  a  boil,  and  put 
in  i}(  pounds  gum  shellac.  When  it 
shall  be  dissolved,  pour  into  cold  water 
and  work  like  wax.  Make  into  small 
sticks.  This  will  make  crockery  as  good 
as  new.  7.  Steep  Russian  isinglass  24 
hours  in  white  brandy ;  gently  boil  and 
stir  the  mixture  until  it  is  well  compound- 
ed, and  a  drop  of  it,  cooled,  will  become 
a  very  thick  jelly;  then  strain  it  through 
a  linen  cloth,  and  cork  it  up  closely.  A 
gentle  heat  will  dissolve  it  into  a  colorless 
fluid.  Broken  dishes,  united  with  it,  will 
break  elsewhere,  rather  than  separate  in 
the  old  fracture.  To  apply  it,  rub  the 
edges,  place  them  together,  and  hold  them 
2  or  3  minutes.  8.  A  desirable  cement  is 
made  by  burning  oyster  shells,  and  pul- 
verizing the  lime  from  them  very  fine ; 
then  mixing  it  with  white  of  egg  to  a 
thick  paste,  and  applying  it  to  the  china 
or  glass,  and  securing  the  pieces  together 
until  dry.  Take  4  pounds  of  white  glue, 
i)4  pounds  of  dry  white  lead,  j4  a  pound 
of  isinglass,  1  gallon  of  soft  water,  1 
quart  of  alcohol,  and  y2  a  pint  of  white 
varnish.  Dissolve  the  glue  and  isinglass 
in  the  water  by  gentle  heat,  if  preferred ; 
stir  in  the  lead,  put  the  alcohol  in  the  var- 
nish, and  mix  the  whole  together.  10. 
A  cement  that  will  mend  marble,  china 
and  ornamental  ware  is  made  by  taking  wa- 
ter 1  gallon,  nice  glue  3  pounds,  white  lead 
4  ounces,  alcohol  1  quart.  Mix.  Direc- 
tions— If  it  is  cold  weather,  warm  the 
bottle  until  the  cement  is  dissolved ;  then 
with  the  finger  or  a  brush,  rub  it  on  the 
broken  parts  (both  edges),  put  together, 
and  retain  in  their  places  until  dry.  11. 
A  cement  withstanding  both  heat  and 
moisture  is  simply  pure  white  lead  or  zinc 
white,  ground  in  oil,  and  used  very  thick. 
It  is  excellent  for  mending  broken  crock- 
eryware,  but  it  takes  a  very  long  time  to 
harden  sufficiently.  The  best  plan  is  to 
place  the  mended  object  in  some  store- 
room, and  not  to  look  after  it  for  several 
weeks,  or  even  months.  After  that  time 
it  will  be  found  so  firmly  united  that,  if 
ever  again  broken,  it  will  not  part  on  the 
former  fracture. 

CEMENT,  Egg.— White  of  egg,  thick- 
ened with  finely-powdered  quick-lime. 
Used  to  mend  earthenware,  glass,  china, 
marble,  alabaster,  spar  ornaments,  etc.  It 
does  not  resist  moisture. 


CEMENT,  for  Leather. — To  10  parts, 
bisulphide  carbon  and  1  part  spirits  tur- 
pentine add  enough  gutta-percha  to  make 
a  tough,  thickly-flowing  liquid.  The  sur- 
faces to  be  joined  must  be  perfectly  free 
from  grease,  which  is  accomplished  by 
laying  a  cloth  upon  them  and  apply- 
ing a  hot  iron  for  a  time.  The  coat 
is  appled  to  both  surfaces,  and  pressure 
made  till  the  joints  are  dry. 

CORN  CRIBS,  Rat-Proof,  to  Make.— 
Let  the  four  corner  posts  be  eight  inches 
square,  frame  the  sills  which  support  the 
floor  of  the  corn  cribs  into  posts,  a  dis- 
tance of  two  feet  from  the  lower  end. 
Before  putting  the  frame  together,  taper 
the  lower  ends  of  the  posts  for  the  dis- 
tance of  two  feet,  so  that  at  the  very 
base  the  posts  shall  only  be  four  inches 
square.  Now,  when  the  frame  is  set  upr, 
let  the  posts  also  stand  on  tapered  rocks. 
If  the  crib  needs  more  than  these  four 
posts  to  bear  up  the  corn  that  will  be  put. 
in  it,  make  the  legs  like  the  lower  portion, 
of  these  posts,  and  set  these  legs  under 
the  sills.  Now  lay  the  joists  or  sleepers 
on  the  sills,  and  put  on  the  floor,  making 
tight,  and  about  three  feet  from  the. 
ground.  Having  the  door  made  tight,. 
keep  it  shut,  and  no  rats  will  get  into< 
your  crib. 

DEER  SKINS,  to  Dress. — Put  the  skin; 
into  the  liquid  while  warm,  viz. :  eight 
quarts  rain  water,  to  one  pint  soft  soap. 
Warm  it.  Then  punch  the  hide,  or  work 
it  with  a  soft  stick  and  let  it  lie  one  day. 
It  is  then  to  be  taken  out  and  wrung — 
rolled  between  two  logs — or  even  a  wring- 
ing machine  will  be  better.  Then  stretch 
it  until  it  is  dry,  in  the  sun  is  best,  or  by 
a  hot  fire.  Then  oil  it  thoroughly  with 
any  oil  convenient.  It  should  then  be 
treated  to  the  same  bath  of  suds  (heated 
quite  warm),  and  lie  another  day.  Then 
pull  it  out  and  dry  as  before.  Any  oil 
will  do,  but  good  fresh  butter  is  better 
than  anything  else.  When  the  skin  is 
dry  rub  it  with  ochre,  which  will  give  it  a 
splendid  yellow  color. 

FURNITURE,  Varnished.— This  may 
be  finished  so  as  to  look  equal  to  the  best 
French  polished  wood,  in  the  following 
manner:  Take  two  ounces  of  tripoli, 
powdered;  put  it  into  an  earthen  pot, 
with  just  enough  water  to  cover  it ;  then 
take  a  piece  of  white  flannel,  lay  it  over 
a  piece  of  cork  or  rubber,  and  proceed 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       41  r 


to  polish  the  varnish,  always  wetting  it 
with  the  tripoli  water.  It  will  be  known 
when  the  process  is  finished  by  wiping  a 
part  of  the  work  with  a  sponge,  and  ob- 
serving whether  there  is  a  fair,  even  gloss. 
When  this  is  the  case,  take  a  bit  of  mut- 
ton suet  and  fine  flour,  and  clean  the 
work. 

HIDES  (Green)  to  Cure.— A  great 
many  butchers  do  not  use  proper  care  in 
this  branch,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
the  hides  will  not  pass  city  inspection, 
owing  entirely  to  the  ignorance  and  care- 
lessness of  persons  preparing  them  for 
market.  The  proper  way  to  salt  hides  is 
to  lay  them  flat,  flesh  side  up,  and  form  a 
nearly  square  bed,  say  12  by  15  feet,  fold- 
ing in  the  edges  so  as  to  make  them  as 
nearly  solid  as  possible.  Split  the  ear  m  the 
cords  that  run  up  the  ear  in  each  one,  so 
as  to  make  them  lie  out  flat.  Sprinkle 
the  hide  with  two  or  three  shovelfuls  of 
coarse  salt,  as  the  size  may  require — say 
for  a  sixty  or  eighty  pound  hide,  from  ten 
to  fifteen  pounds  of  salt.  At  any  rate 
cover  the  hide  well,  as  it  need  not  be 
wasted;  then  let  them  lie  in  this  from  12 
to  20  days,  after  which  take  them  up, 
shake  the  salt  out  and  use  it  again. 

CISTERNS,  How  to  Build.— The  cis- 
tern that  is  designed  to  supply  the  family 
with  water  for  drinking  and  cooking 
should  be  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  deep  and 
eight  to  ten  feet  in  diameter.  It  should 
be  walled  up  with  brick  or  stone ;  brick  is 
the  best — takes  up  less  room  and  allows  a 
good  arch  to  be  made  at  the  top.  If  the 
earth  is  clay,  sufficiently  retentive  to  hold 
water,  the  cistern  wall  need  not  be  plas- 
tered, but  should  be  laid  up  in  cement 
mortar.  It  is  quite  common  to  wall  up 
cisterns  in  retentive  clay  without-  any 
mortar,  but  this  makes  them  liable  to  the 
same  objection  we  have  stated  against 
common  wells — they  will  drain  the  sur- 
face to  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
feet,  as  we  know  from  trial. 

The  cistern  for  family  use  should  be 
provided  with  a  filter.  This  may  be  made 
by  building  a  four-inch  brick  wall  across 
the  cistern  from  bottom  to  top,  laid  in 
cement,  curving  to  the  side  which  is  to 
receive  the  water,  and  which  should  be 
about  two-thirds  the  entire  capacity  of 
the  cistern.  The  water  will  filter  through 
the  bricks  of  the  partition,  and  may  be 
drawn  pure  from  the  small  compartment. 


Another  good  method,  and  probably  the 
best,  all  things  considered,  is  to  dig  a 
small  cistern  adjoining  the  main  one, 
about  five  feet  wide  by  six  feet  deep,  con- 
nected about  a  foot  above  the  bottom 
with  the  large  one  by  a  pipe.  Fill  this 
two-thirds  full  with  sand  and  gravel,  and 
let  the  water  from  the  roof  be  discharged 
into  it  and  filter  through  into  the  main 
cistern.  The  advantage  of  this  method 
is  that  when  the  filtering  materials  become 
old  or  too  impure,  they  may  be  taken  out 
and  renewed  without  disturbing  or  losing 
the  water  in  the  main  reservoir.  Very 
good  cisterns  of  small  capacity  are  fre- 
quently made  in  clay  soil  by  cementing 
on  the  earth.  A  large,  deep  and  sub- 
stantial cistern  with  a  good  filter,  for 
family  use,  is  invaluable  for  its  supply  of 
pure  water. 

HOUSES,  Choice  of  Color  for.— The 
choice  of  color  for  country  houses  requires 
the  exercise  of  taste,  judgment,  and  an 
eye  for  harmonious  combinations.  It  is 
laid  down  as  a  rule  by  Calvert  Vaux,  that 
every  building  requires  four  tints  to  make 
it  a  pleasant  object  in  the  way  of  color. 
"  The  main  walls,"  he  remarks,  "  should 
be  of  some  agreeable  shade  of  color,  the 
roof-trimmings,  veranMas,  and  other  wood 
work,  being  either  of  a  different  color,  or 
of  a  different  shade  of  the  same  color,  so» 
that  a  contrast,  but  not  a  sharp  one,  may 
be  established — a  third  and  fourth  color,, 
not  widely  different  from  the  other  wood 
work,  should  be  applied  to  the  windows,, 
blinds,  etc." 

The  greatest  defect  in  the  generality  of 
country  buildings  is  the  too  frequent  use 
of  white.  Another  most  decidedly  ob- 
jectionable color  is  unmodified  red,  or 
those  brown-stone  tints,  approaching  to 
chocolate  color,  which  are  so  frequently 
used  in  the  construction  of  town  dwell- 
ings. 

The  simplest  practical  rule  in  the  paint- 
ing of  houses,  is  to  choose  paint  of  some 
neutral  tint  that  is  quiet  and  satisfactory,, 
and  let  the  facings  of  the  windows,  cor-, 
nices,  etc.,  be  painted  several  shades, 
darker  of  the  same  color. 

ICE-HOUSE,  Extemporaneous. —  Ant 
ice-house  can  be  extemporized,  without, 
making  a  tenon  or  sawing  a  board.  Con-, 
struct  a  pen  near  the  pond  or  stream 
where  the  ice  is  to  be  gathered,  choosing 
if  possible,  a  gravel  bank  where  there 


■412 


MECHANICAL. 


will  be  good  drainage.  The  pen  may  be 
made  of  rails  twelve  feet  long,  or  of  any 
desired  length.  The  larger  the  pen,  the 
better  the  ice  will  keep.  Lay  up  two 
rails  upon  each  of  the  four  sides.  Make 
the  botton  level,  and  cover  it  a  foot  or 
•more  with  straw,  sea-weed,  or  any  con- 
venient refuse  vegetable  matter.  Sawdust 
is  better  than  straw,  if  it  can  be  had. 
Spent  tan-bark  is  a  good  material  for  this 
foundation.  Cut  the  cakes  of  ice  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  pack  them  closely, 
filling  the  interstices  with  pounded  ice, 
and  if  the  weather  is  freezing  pour  on  a 
little  water  to  make  it  solid.  Pack  the 
outside  with  a  foot  of  straw,  sawdust,  or 
other  material,  and  put  up  the  fence  as 
the  pile  of  ice  rises.  The  pile  can  be 
-conveniently  made  about  eight  feet  high. 
Cover  the  top  with  at  least  eighteen 
inches  of  sawdust,  or  two  feet  of  straw 
trodden  down  closely.  Make  a  roof  of 
boards  or  slabs  slanting  to  the  north, 
sufficiently  steep  to  shed  water,  and  fasten 
with  a  few  nails.  Such  a  pile  of  ice  as 
this  can  be  secured  by  a  couple  of  men 
and  a  team  in  a  day.  A  cheap  ice-box 
made  with  double  sides  and  packed  with 
sawdust  will  be  wanted.  The  inner 
chamber  should  be  about  two  feet  long, 
two  feet  deep,  and  eighteen  inches  wide. 
This  will  hold  a  single  cake  of  ice  weigh- 
ing a  hundred  pounds  or  more,  and  leave 
room  on  top  to  keep  milk,  fresh  meats, 
fruit,  and  other  matters.  It  will  last  from 
four  days  to  a  week,  according  to  the 
quantity  that  is  used  in  the  drinking- 
water.  If  the  extemporaneous  ice-house 
is  not  disturbed  more  than  once  a  week, 
it  will  probably  supply  the  family  through 
the  summer  with  abundance  of  ice. 

LIGHTNING  BODS,  How  to  Erect.— 
i.  The  rod  should  consist  of  round  iron 
of  about  one  inch  in  diameter ;  its  parts, 
throughout  its  whole  length,  should  be  in 
perfect  metallic  continuity,  by  being  se- 
cured together  by  coupling  ferrules.  2. 
To  secure  it  from  rust  the  rod  should  be 
•coated  with  black  paint,  itself  a  good 
conductor.  3.  It  should  terminate  in  a 
single  platinum  point.  4.  The  shorter 
and  more  direct  the  course  of  the  rod  to 
the  earth  the  better ;  bcndings  should  be 
rounded,  and  not  formed  in  acute  angles. 
3.  It  should  be  fastened  to  the  building 
by  iron  eyes,  and  may  be  insulated  from 
those  by  cylinders  of  glass  (We  do  not, 


however,  consider  the  latter  of  much  im- 
portance.) 6.  The  rod  should  be  con- 
nected with  the  earth  in  the  most  perfect 
manner  possible,  and  nothing  is  better 
for  this  purpose  than  to  place  it  in  metal- 
lic contact  with  the  gas-pipes,  or,  better, 
the  water-pipes  of  the  city.  This  con- 
nection may  be  made  by  a  ribbon  of 
copper  or  iron  soldered  to  the  end  of  the 
rod  at  one  of  its  extremities,  and  wrapped 
around  the  pipe  at  the  other.  If  a  con- 
nection of  this  kind  is  impracticable,  the 
rod  should  be  continued  horizontally  to 
the  nearest  well,  and  then  turned  verti- 
cally downward  until  the  end  enters  the 
water  as  deep  as  its  lowest  level.  The 
horizontal  part  of  the  rod  may  be  buried 
in  a  stratum  of  powdered  charcoal  and 
ashes.  The  rod  should  be  placed,  in 
preference,  on  the  west  side  of  the  build- 
ing. A  rod  of  this  kind  may  be  put  up 
by  an  ordinary  blacksmith.  The  rod  in 
question  is  in  accordance  with  our  latest 
knowledge  of  all  the  facts  of  electricity. 
Attempted  improvements  on  it  are  worth- 
less, and,  as  a  general  thing,  are  proposed 
by  those  who  are  but  slightly  acquainted 
with  the  subject. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  SLATERS'  AND 
TILERS'  WORK.— In  these  articles,  the 
contents  of  a  roof  are  found  by  multiply- 
ing the  length  of  the  ridge  by  the  girts 
over  from  eaves  to  eaves;  making 
allowance  in  this  girt  for  the  double 
row  of  slates  at  the  bottom,  or,  for  how 
much  one  row  of  slates  or  tiles  is  laid 
over  one  another.  When  the  roof  is  of 
a  true  pitch — that  is,  forming  a  right  an- 
gle at  the  top,  then  the  breadth  of  the 
building,  with  its  half  added,  is  the  girt 
over  both  sides,  nearly.  In  angles  formed 
in  a  roof,  running  from  the  edge  to  the 
eaves,  when  the  angle  bends  inward,  it  is 
called  a  valley ;  but  when  outward,  it  is 
called  a  hip.  Deductions  are  made  for 
chimney  shafts  or  window  holes. 

MEASUREMENT,  GLAZIERS' WORK 
— Glaziers  take  their  dimensions  either  in 
feet,  inches  and  parts,  or  feet,  tenths  and 
hundredth,  and  they  complete  their  work 
in  square  feet.  In  taking  the  length  and 
breadth  of  a  window,  the  cross  bars 
between  the  squares  are  included.  Also 
windows  of  round  or  oval  forms  "^e 
measured  as  squares ;  measuring  them  v 
their  greatest  length  and  breadth,  on  ac- 
count of  the  waste  in  cutting  the  glass. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       413: 


MEASURE,  Board.— The  unit  of  Board 
Measure  is  a  square  foot  one  inch  thick. 
Hence,  to  measure  boards,  if  one  inch 
thick,  multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the 
breadth  in  inches,  and  divide  by  12.  If 
the  board  taper,  multiply  by  half  the  width 
of  both  ends  added.  Sawed  lumber,  like 
foists,  plank  and  scantling,  are  now  bought 
and  sold  by  board  measure.  Hence,  to 
measure  them,  multiply  the  width  in  inch- 
es by  the  thickness  in  inches ;  multiply 
the  product  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  di- 
vide by  12.  The  number  of  feet,  board 
measure,  which  can  be  sawn  from  a  given 
log,  can  only  be  approximately  determin- 
ed from  general  tables.  The  following 
table  is  the  standard  commonly  adopted 
for  logs  10  feet  in  length,  and  of  diame- 
ters indicated,  measured  under  the  bark  at 
the  smaller  end. 


Ft.  Diam.  Ft. 

225  36  640 

250  37  681 

375  38  723 

302  39  765 

330  40  810 

360  41  850 

391  42  903 

422  43  952 

456  44  1000 

490  45  1051 

526  46  1 103 

562  47  1 1 56 

601  48  1210 


Diam.  Ft.  Diam, 

10  23     23 

11  31     24 

12  40     25 

13  50     26 

14  62     27 

15  75    28 

16  90    29 

17  105  30 

18  122  31 

19  140  32 

20  160  33 

21  180  34 

22  202  35 

To  find  the  contents  in  board  measure 
of  a  log  of  any  length,  look  for  its  diam- 
eter in  the  table,  take  the  corresponding 
number  of  feet,  point  of  one  place,  and 
multiply  by  the  length  of  the  log. 

MEASURING,  the  Height  of  Trees.— 
It  is  often  desirable  to  determine  the 
height  of  a  tree,  if  not  with  mathematical 
correctness,  with  something  approaching 
to  accuracy.  There  are  instruments  made 
for  the  purpose  of  measuring  with  great 
precision,  but  there  are  several  methods 
by  which  the  height  can  be  ascertained 
without  expensive  appliances.  By  meas- 
uring the  shadow  of  a  rod  or  other  ob- 
ject ot  a  known  length  and  the  shadow 
of  the  tree,  a  simple  sum  will  give  the 
height.  Suppose  that  we  measure  the 
shadow  of  aperpendicular  rod  six  feet  long, 
or  that  of  a  man  of  the  same  height,  and 
find  it  to  measure  eight  feet,  and  then 
measure  the  shadow  of  the  tree  and  find 
it  to  be  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  feet; 
then 

as  S  ft.  :  6  feet.  :  133  feet.  :  99  ft. 


The  Gardeners'  Chronicle  figures  a  sim- 
ple quadrant  for  tree-measuring,  which 
we  here  explain.  A  quarter  of  a  circle  is. 
made  of  some  light  wood,  and  a  small 
plumb-bob  is  suspended  from  what  would 
be  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  a  mark 
made  just  half  way  of  the  curved  side  of" 
the  quadrant.  Two  small  eyes  for  sights 
attached  to  one  of  the  straight  edges 
makes  the  implement  complete.  The 
quadrant  is  held  by  the  operator,  moving 
backward  or  forward  until  he  can  see  the 
top  of  the  tree  through  both  sights,  the 
plumb-line  at  the  same  time  hanging  over 
the  mark.  The  distance  of  the  observer 
from  the  tree,  when  he  can  see  the  top  of 
it  in  this  manner  will  be  the  height  of  the 
tree.  Allowance  must  be  made  for  the- 
height  of  the  eye  from  the  ground,  and 
for  any  difference  in  the  lever  of  the- 
ground  between  the  tree  and  the  ob- 
server. 

Another  Mode. — In  his  tale  of  Mon- 
sieur Violet,  Captain  Marryat  tells  us,  as 
an  instance  of  the  great  aptitude  for  ap- 
plying simple  rules  possessed  by  the  Shos- 
nonee  Indians,  that  when  they  desired  to 
measure  the  height  of  a  tree  at  any  time- 
when  its  shadow  is  cast  on  the  ground, 
they  used  to  place  a  stick  at  a  given 
length  into  the  ground,  and  then,  calcu- 
lating the  difference  between  the  length 
of  its  shadow  and  its  actual  height,  and 
applying  the  same  to  the  shadow  of  the- 
tree,  they  ascertained  its  correct  height,, 
thus  unknowingly  working  out  a  sum  in 
the  rule  of  three.  Any  person,  however- 
ill-informed,  might  easily  get  at  the  exact 
height  of  a  tree  when  the  sun  shines,  or 
during  bright  moonlight,  by  marking  two 
lines  on  the  ground  three  feet  apart,  and 
then  placing  in  the  ground  on  the  line 
nearest  to  the  sun  a  stick  that  shall  stand 
exactly  three  feet  out  of  the  soil.  When 
the  end  of  the  shadow  of  the  stick  exact- 
ly touches  the  farther  line,  then  also  the 
shadow  of  the  tree  will  be  exactly  in 
length  the  same  measurement  as  its- 
height.  Of  course  in  such  a  case  the  sun 
will  be  at  an  exact  angle  of  45  °  .  Meas- 
urements of  this  character  could  be  best 
effected  in  the  summer  when  the  sun  is, 
powerful,  has  reached  to  a  good  height  in 
the  heavens,  and  when '  the  trees  are- 
clothed  with  living  green,  so  as  to  cast 
a  dense  shadow.  To  many  to  whom  this 
idea  might  not  have  occurred  it  might  be. 


4U 


MECHANICAL. 


mr.de  annually  a  matter  of  interest  thus 
on  warm  summer  days  to  take  the  height 
of  prominent  trees,  and  so  to  compare 
notes  of  growth  from  year  to  year. 

MEASURING  TIMBER  IN  THE 
TREE. — A  simple  method,  and  one  that 
can  be  put  in  practice  at  any  time  and 
place,  when  one  has  only  a  measuring 
rod,  and  has  the  experience  of  the  writer, 
'as  follows :  A  stick  of  timber  is  desired, 
gay  fifty  feet  long.  Select  your  tree, 
measure  fifty  feet  in  a  direct  line  from  the 
foot  of  the  tree  on  as  near  level  ground  as 
possible;  now  cut  a  stick  the  exact 
heighth  of  the  observer,  and  stick  it  in 
the  ground  exactly  perpendicular;  now 
let  the  observer  lie  flat  on  his  back,  his 
feet  against  the  stick  and  head  in  line  of 
tree  and  stick,  and  look  directly  over  the 
top  of  the  stick,  and  where  the  line  of 
vision  strikes  the  tree  will  be  the  length 
of  stick  (fifty  feet)  desired.  If  the 
ground  is  not  level  the  measure  will  not 
be  exact,  but  allowance  must  be  made. 

MEASURING,  OR  GAUGING.— Gaug- 
ing is  measuring  the  capacity  of  casks 
and  other  round  vessels.  When  a  round 
vessel  has  the  same  diameter  throughout, 
it  is  said  to  be  cylindrical,  or  like  a  cylin- 
der. The  area  of  a  cylinder  is  equal  the 
square  of  the  diameter  X.7854X  heighth. 
Hence,  if  we  take  the  dimensions  of  di- 
ameter and  heighth  in  inches,  to  find  the 
number  of  gallons,  we  must  divide  the 
product  by  231,  the  number  of  inches  in 
a  gallon.  But  '%&£  =  .0034.  Hence, 
to  find  how  many  gallons  a  cylindrical 
vessel  will  contain,  multiply  by  .0034  the 
product  of  the  square  of  the  diameter  in 
inches  by  the  heighth  in  inches.  To  find 
how  many  gallons  a  cask  will  contain, 
multiply  by  .0034  the  product  of  the 
square  of  half  the  sum  of  the  diameter, 
at  head  and  bung,  by  the  length.  To 
find  the  capacity  of  a  box  or  bin  in  bush- 
els, multiply  together  the  length,  breadth 
and  heighth  in  feet,  and  the  product  by 
I  or  .8.  To  find  the  size  of  a  bin  neces- 
sary to  hold  a  given  number  of  bushels, 
increase  the  number  of  bushels  by  one- 
fourth,  and  resolve  into  three  factors. 
These  will  be  the  length,  breadth  and 
heighth  required. 

MEASURE,  Heaped,  to  Estimate.— 
Corn  on  the  cob,  apples,  potatoes, 
etc.,  are  sold  by  heaped  measure.  A 
heaped  bushel    contains    2509    inches; 


hence  a  cubic  foot  is  ±l~ §  or  about  .63  of 
a  heaped  bushel.  To  estimate  the  num- 
ber of  bushels  of  corn,  potatoes,  apples, 
etc.,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  find 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  and  multiply  by 
.63.  Some  convenient  rules  for  ascer- 
taining cubical  contents  are  here  given. 
Boxes,  or  Rectangular  Bins,  etc.,  multiply 
together  the  length,  the  breadth  and  the 
heighth.  Cribs,  flared — that  is,  smaller 
at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top — add  to- 
gether the  widths  of  the  upper  level  of 
the  corn,  and  at  the  bottom,  and  divide 
by  two.  Then  multiply  the  quotient  by 
the  length  of  the  crib,  and  the  product 
by  the  depth  of  the  corn.  Heaps — If  the 
bottom  of  the  heap  be  square  or  rectan- 
gular, multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth, 
and  the  product  by  one-third  the  heighth. 
If  the  bottom  be  circular,  multiply  the 
square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and  the 
product  by  one-third  the  heighth.  For 
ordinary  purposes  .7854  may  be  consid- 
ered y^.  Hence,  to  estimate  the  heaped 
bushels  in  a  round  heap,  square  the  di- 
ameter, divide  by  6  and  multiply  by  the 
heighth.  Thus,  a  heap  of  apples  2  feet 
in  heighth  and  6  feet  in  diameter  would 
contain  3g6  x  4  =  24  bushels. 

MEASURING  GRINDSTONES— Which 

are  sold  by  the  stone,  a  cylinder,  24  inch- 
es in  diameter  and  4  inches  thick,  multi- 
ply together,  in  inches,  half  the  diam- 
eter, once  and  a  half  the  diameter,  and 
the  thickness.     Then  divide  by  1728. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  PLUMBERS' 
WORK. — Plumbers'  work  is  rated  at  so 
much  per  pound.  Sheet  lead,  used  in 
roofing,  guttering,  etc.,  is  from  6  to  10 
pounds  to  the  square  foot,  and  a  pipe  of 
an  inch  bore  is  usually  12  to  13  to  the 
yard  in  length,  as  seen  below : 

Thickness      Pounds  to  a  Bore  of  Pounds 

of  Lead.        Square  Ft.       Leaden  Pipe.    Per  Yard. 


1 

5-899 

>A 

IO 

\ 

6-545 

1 

12 

1 

5 

7-373 

*U 

16 

1 

2 

8.427 

iH 

18 

I 

9.831 

*u 

21 

1 

11.797 

2 

24 

STOVES,  To  Mend  Cracks  in.— Take 
equal  parts  of  wood  ashes  and  common 
salt,  and  mix  them  to  a  proper  con- 
sistence with  water;  with  this  fill  the 
cracks. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      415 


MEASURE,  HAY,  Weight  to  be  Esti- 
mated. —  Hay  is  sold  by  the  ton,  but  on 
account  of  ifs  bulk  it  is  often  inconveni- 
ent to  weigh  it.  As  general  estimates, 
these  relations  of  weight  to  bulk  are  reli- 
able. 

Cubic  Yds.  to  the  ton. 

New  moan  hay •••25 

Loaded  and  stored  hay. 20 

Well  settled  hay 15 

Baled  hay 10 

It  remains  to  estimate  the  number  of 
cubic  yards.  If  the  stack  or  mow  be 
square  or  rectangular,  multiply  together 
the  length,  breadth,  and  half  the  height 
in  yards.  If  the  stack  be  long  and  tri- 
angular, multiply  together  the  length  and 
half  the  height  in  yards.  If  the  stack  be 
circular,  multiply  together  the  square  of 
the  circumference  by  .04  of  the  height  in 
yards.  To  calculate  the  price  of  a  given 
number  of  pounds  of  hay,  multiply  the 
number  of  pounds  by  one-half  the  number 
dollars  per  ton,  and  point  off  three  places. 
Thus  at  $30  per  ton,  400  pounds  are  worth, 
480X15=7-20.  To  estimate  the  num- 
ber of  acres  in  a  certain  field,  remember 
that  an  acre  equals  160  rods,  or  4,840 
yards,  or  43,560  feet.  Hence  measure 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  field  in  rods, 
divide  by  16,  and  point  off  one  place;  or 
measure  it  in  yards  or  paces,  multiply 
length  by  breadth,  and  divide  success- 
ively by  11,  11  and  4. 

MEASURE,  LIVE  CATTLE,  to  Estimate 
Weight — The  superficial  feet  of  animals 
are  estimated  by  multiplying  the  feet  of 
girth  just  behind  the  shoulder-blade  by 
the  feet  of  length  of  back  from  tail  to  fore 
part  of  the  shoulder-blade.  Thus  an  ox, 
whose  girth  is  8  feet  6  inches,  and  length 
6  feet,  would  measure  8^X6=56  super- 
ficial feet.  This  assumes  the  shape  of  the 
body  to  be  cylindrical,  and  is,  of"  course, 
only  an  approximation.  For  ordinary 
estimates,  the  following  may  be  regarded 
as  the  weight  per  superficial  foot : 

Pounds. 

Girth  less  than  3  feet 11 

M    from  3  to  5  feet. -.-- 16 

"    from  5  to  7  feet 23 

"    from  7  to  9  feet 31 

Thus,  an  ox  alluded  to  would  weigh 
about,  51X31=1,581  pounds. 

MEASURING  EXCAVATIONS.— This 

branch  of  work  is  measured  by  the  cubic 
yard  or  27  cubic  feet. 

If  the  ground  is  irregular,  two,  three  or 


more  dimensions  are  to  be  taken  to  ob- 
tain the  mean  or  average  depth  of  dig- 
ging, this  multiplied  by  the  length  or 
breadth  of  the  superfices  will  be  the  cubic 
contents  in  feet,  the  result  divided  by  27 
will  give  the  number  of  cubic  yards. 

In  loose,  loamy  or  sandy  soil,  where 
digging  with  the  spade  only  is  necessary, 
a  man  may  throw  up  a  cubic  yard  in  an 
hour ;  but  in  clay  or  gravel,  where  pick- 
ing is  necessary,  it  will  require  two  men ; 
and  in  very  strong  gravel  three  men  will 
be  required  to  throw  up  the  same  quantity. 

Where  wheeling  oft  on  barrows  is  nec- 
essary, three  men  will  remove  30  cubic 
yards  in  a  day  to  the  distance  of  20 
yards — that  is,  two  filling  and  one  wheel- 
ing. 

When  the  stuff  is  to  be  carted  away,  a 
man  with  a  horse  and  cart  can,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  man  to  fill,  remove  12 
loads  per  day  to  the  distance  of  a  mile. 

When  earth  is  left  to  protect  an  adjoin- 
ing wall,  the  same  is  to  be  charged  extra 
per  cubic  foot  when  required  to  be  re- 
moved. 

Note.  —  24  cubic  feet  of  sand,  or  18 
cubic  feet  of  earth,  or  17  cubic  feet  of 
clay,  make  a  ton. 

Digging  wells  and  cisterns  is  valued  at 
so  much  per  foot  in  depth. 

MEASURING  MASON'S  WORK  — In 
preparing  the  foundation  for  any  building, 
there  are  two  sources  of  failure  which 
must  be  carefully  guarded  against — viz., 
inequality  of  settlement,  and  lateral  escape 
of  the  supporting  material ;  and  if  these 
radical  defects  can  be  guarded  against, 
there  is  scarcely  any  situation  in  which  a 
good  foundation  may  not  be  obtained. 

The  best  foundations  are  rock,  gravel 
and  very  stiff,  dry  clay.  Where  the 
ground  in  its  natural  state  is  too  soft  to 
bear  the  weight  of  the  proposed  structure, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  artificial  means 
of  support ;  this  is  best  obtained  by  a 
thick  layer  of  concrete,  which  is  composed 
of  fresh  burnt  lime,  brought  directly  from 
the  kiln,  slaked  with  all  possible  speed 
and  immediately  mixed  up  with  clean, 
coarse  gravel,  or  broken  rock,  and  let  fall 
into  the  bottom  of  the  trenches  to  such 
depth  as  may  be  deemed  necessary.  This 
must  be  allowed  to  set  (which  may  re- 
quire two  or  three  days)  before  the  rub- 
ble masonry  is  commenced  thereon.  As 
this  composition  sets  quickly,  and,  like 


416 


MECHANICAL. 


plaster  of  Paris,  possesses  the  property  of 
swelling  as  it  sets,  it  acts  with  considera- 
ble force  against  the  sides  of  the  trenches 
— forming  a  solid,  compact  mass  as  hard 
as  stone,  and  more  firmly  fixed  in  the 
trench  than  the  foundation  could  be  if 
built  with  any  other  material. 

In  the  lower  course  of  footings  to  walls, 
it  is  advantageous  to  have  a  great  portion 
of  the  stones — all,  indeed,  if  the  stone 
will  allow  of  it — running  right  through 
the  thickness  of  the  wall ;  at  all  events, 
if  these  cannot  be  procured,  it  will  be 
proper  to  alternate  the  headers  and 
stretches,  on  both  faces  of  the  wall,  so 
that  it  may  be  well  united  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  thickness. 

Joints  down  the  centre  of  a  wall  should, 
as  much  as  possible,  be  avoided. 

Rubble  masonry  is  measured  accord- 
ing to  custom,  by  the  perch  of  22  cubic 
feet. 

Projections  from  the  face  of  a  wall  of 
12  inches,  and  under,  are  measured  by 
taking  the  face,  and  one  return,  for  the 
length.  This  multiplied  by  the  height, 
and  this  last  quotient  multiplied  by  the 
thickness  or  projection  will  give  the  con- 
tents in  cubic  feet,  which,  divided  by  22, 
will  be  the  number  of  perches. 

Projections  exceeding  12  inches  meas- 
ure as  follows :  Take  the  solid  contents 
of  the  blank  space,  and  add  the  face,  and 
the  return,  or  one  foot,  and  proceed  as 
above  to  find  the  number  of  perches. 

This  measurement  is  given  for  the 
trouble  of  squaring  and  plumbing  the 
angles. 

Square  isolated  piers,  3  feet  6  inches  by 
3  feet  6  inches,  and  under,  double  meas- 
urement. 

From  3  feet  6  inches  up  to  5  feet,  one 
and  a  half. 

From  5  feet  up  to  7  feet,  one  and  one- 
fourth. 

Over  7  feet,  single  or  actual  contents. 

No  deductions  are  made  for  openings  ; 
but,  if  such  openings  exceed  6  feet  in 
width,  the  same  to  be  deducted  and  the 
jambs  measured. 

For  area  steps,  enclosed  by  walls,  the 
steps  built  in  and  set  by  the  stone-mason, 
measure  the  enclosing  walls  as  walls,  and 
girt  the  steps  and  risers  for  the  length  of 
sloping  back,  multiplied  by  the  length  of 
the  steps  in  the  clear,  and  by  one  foot  6 
inches  for  the  thickness,  will  be  the  con- 


tents in  cubic  feet,  and  divide  by  22  for 
the  number  of  perches. 

Circular  work,  double  measurement. 

Range  work  is  measured  by  the  fool 
superficial,  and  all  openings  deducted. 

Arches  are  charged  at  so  much  each. 

Note. — A  perch  of  stone  or  masonry 
is  16^  feet  long,  1^  feet  wide,  and  1 
foot  high,  or  24^  cubic  feet. 

MEASTJEING  BRICK.— Brick  may  be 
used  for  nearly  all  the  purposes  to  which 
stone  is  applicable — for  when  carefullj 
made,  its  strength,  hardness  and  durabili- 
ty are  but  little  inferior  to  the  more  ordi- 
nary kinds  of  building  stone.  It  remains 
unchanged  under  the  extremes  of  tem- 
perature ;  resists  the  action  of  water ;  set: 
firmly  and  promptly  with  mortar;  anc 
being  both  cheaper  and  lighter  thar 
stone,  is  preferable  to  it  for  many  kind: 
of  structures — as  arches,  the  walls  o 
houses,  etc. 

Brick  of  good  quality  exhibits  a  fine 
compact,  uniform  texture  when  broker 
across,  gives  a  clear  ringing  sound  wher 
struck,  and  is  of  a  cherry  red  or  brownisr 
color.  Three  varieties  are  found  in  the 
kiln :  Those  which  form  the  arches,  call 
ed  arch  brick,  are  always  vitrified  in  part 
and  present  a  grayish,  glassy  appearance 
at  one  end;  they  are  very  hard,  but  brit 
tie,  and  of  inferior  strength,  and  set  badl] 
with  mortar.  Those  from  the  interior  o 
the  kiln,  usually  called  red  and  hare 
brick,  are  of  the  best  quality.  Those 
from  near  the  top  and  sides  are  gener 
ally  under  burnt,  and  are  called  salmor 
brick;  they  have  neither  sufficien 
strenght  nor  durability  for  heavy  work 
nor  the  outside  courses  of  walls  whicl 
are  exposed  to  the  weather. 

The  bricks  in  general  use  are  Stock 
Red  and  Hard,  and  Merchantable  bricl 
— this  latter  being  part  salmon  and  par 
red  brick. 

Brick  presents  great  diversity  in  it: 
strength,  arising  principally  from  its  great 
er  or  less  density;  the  densest  made  o 
the  same  earth  being  uniformly  the 
strongest. 

It  was  found  on  experiment  that  gooc 
brick,  having  the  specific  gravity  of  2,168 
required  1,200  pounds  on  a  square  incl 
to  crush  it. 

Machinery  is  now  coming  into  use 
in  this  country  for  moulding  brick 
it  is  superior  to  manual  labor,  not  onl] 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      417 


from  the  labor  saved,  but  from  its  yielding 
a  better  quality  of  brick,  by  giving  it 
greater  density,  which  adds  to  its  strength. 

Fire  brick  is  used  for  the  facing  of 
ovens,  furnaces,  fire-places,  etc.,  where  a 
very  high  degree  of  temperature  is  to  be 
sustained.  It  is  composed  of  a  very  re- 
fractory species  of  clay,  that  will  remain 
unimpaired  by  a  degree  of  heat  which 
would  vitrify  and  completely  destroy  or- 
dinary brick. 

Bond,  as  it  is  technically  called  in  brick 
walling,  is  the  form  of  connection  of  the 
bricks  with  each  other.  There  are  two 
modes  employed. 

English  bond,  is  that  disposition  of 
bricks  in  a  wall  in  which  (except  at  the 
quoins)  the  courses  are  alternately  com- 
posed of  headers  and  stretchers.  This 
method  gives  the  greatest  strength  that 
can  be  obtained  with  rectangular  bricks. 

Flemish  bond,  is  that  wherein  the  same 
course  consists  alternately  of  headers  and 
stretchers,  which,  in  appearance,  is  supe- 
rior to  English  bond.  It  is  defective, 
however,  in  strength,  particularly  at  the 
angles;  hence,  good  mortar  is  essential 
where  this  kind  of  bond  is  used. 

If  the  surface  of  a  brick  be  coated  with 
loose  sand  or  dust  when  it  is  laid,  the 
mortar  will  not  adhere  to  it ;  hence,  all 
such  dust  or  sand  should  be  removed  by 
washing  j  and  it  is  further  desirable  to 
have  the  bricks  well  wetted  before  laying 
them  in  dry  weather. 

Measuring  and  estimating  the  value  of 
brick  work  is  generally  done  at  per  thou- 
sand of  bricks  laid,  including  labor,  mor- 
tar and  scaffolding. 

In  measuring  walls  faced  with  stock  or 
pressed  bricks,  take  the  area  of  such 
facing  as  for  common  work,  and  add  8 
inches  in  breadth  and  4  inches  in  height 
on  each  opening,  and  4  inches  at  each 
quoin,  for  the  workmanship  only,  and 
deduct  the  openings.  When  the  open- 
ings are  without  frames,  and  have  the 
jambs  faced  through  the  full  thickness  of 
the  wall,  both  jambs  to  be  measured  and 
4  inches  on  each  return  on  the  inside  to 
be  allowed. 

A  superficial  foot  of  facing  to  fronts  will 
take  7  bricks. 

In  walls,  take  the  whole  length  by  the 
height  and  thickness  and  deduct  the 
openings. 

In  measuring  for  the  length  of  party 
27 


walls,  take  the  dimensions  clear  of  the 
front  and  rear  walls. 

No  deductions  to  be  made  for  plates, 
bond  timbers,  sills,  lintels,  etc.;  but  2 
inches  in  height  to  be  allowed  for  bed- 
ding plates  where  no  brick  work  is  over 
them. 

Chimneys  are  measured  solid  to  allow 
for  the  trouble  of  forming  and  pargetting 
the  flues. 

In  chimney  breasts,  take  the  width  ot 
the  face  on  each  floor,  and  multiply  by 
the  height  and  by  the  thickness  project- 
ing into  the  room.  The  fire-places  not 
deducted. 

In  chimney  tops,  take  the  width  and 
multiply  by  the  height  above  the  roof, 
and  by  the  thickness  or  number  of  bricks 
thick ;  when  projections  on  the  top  exceed 
two  courses  of  brick,  two  courses  to  be 
added  to  the  height. 

All  chimney  stacks,  whether  with  square, 
circular  or  octagon  shafts,  to  measure 
solid. 

In  measuring  isolated  piers,  take  the 
face  and  one  return  for  the  width,  and 
multiply  by  the  height  and  thickness  or 
number  of  bricks  thick. 

To  measure  brick  cornices,  take  the 
height  and  length,  and  that  portion  which 
does  not  exceed  4^  inches  projection 
from  face  of  wall,  allow  half  brick  thick; 
over  4^  inches  projection,  and  not  ex- 
ceeding 9  inches,  allow  one  brick  thick. 

Fire-walls,  when  carried  up  lor  metallic 
or  composition  roofing  of  the  usual  flat 
pitch,  add  two  courses  of  brick  in  height 
for  cutting  the  brick  and  waste  thereon. 

Recesses  in  outside  walls  measured  the 
same  as  other  openings;  but  the  jambs  to 
be  deducted  from  the  opening. 

Recesses  in  inside  walls  of  3  feet  and 
over,  to  be  deducted  in  toto. 

Recesses  at  window  backs  not  de- 
ducted. 

Gauged  arches  are  sometimes  deducted 
and  charged  separately — sometimes  not; 
but  whether  deducted  or  not  does  not 
signify,  as  the  extra  price  must  be  allowed  I 
in  the  latter  case,  and  the  whole  price  in 
the  former. 

Rubbed  and  gauged  arches,  of  what- 
ever form,  should  be  measured  and 
charged  by  the  superficial  foot. 

Semi-circular  openings,  when  under  6 
feet  diameter,   to  measure  solid;  when. 


4U 


MECHANICAL. 


over  6  feet  diameter,  one-half  the  open- 
ing to  be  deducted. 

For  openings  without  frames,  measure 
to  the  springing  for  the  height  by  the 
width,  deducting  one  jamb. 

For  arches  of  vaults,  sewers,  etc.,  take 
the  outside  circumference  by  the  length 
and  thickness. 

Ovens,  coppers,  boilers,  etc.,  are  meas- 
^ured  as  solid  work,  deducting  only  the 
ash-holes;  but  all  the  fire-brick,  tiles,  etc., 
although  measured  alone,  are  not  deduct- 
ed out  of  the  brick- work. 

Paving  is  measured  by  the  superficial 
yard,  or  9  square  feet,  which  will  require 
41  bricks  when  laid  flat,  and  about  twice 
that  amount  when  laid  on  edge. 

A  9  inch  wall  will  require  14  bricks. 

A  13  inch  wall  will  require  21  bricks. 

A  cubic  foot  of  brick-work  weighs  from 
120  to  125  pounds,  avoirdupois. 

One  bushel  hydraulic  cement  will, 
where  mixed  with  two  bushels  sharp 
.sand,  serve  to  lay  150  bricks. 

Mortar  when  made  up  should  not  be 
•disturbed  for  several  days,  and  during 
the  period  of  its  consumption  should  be 
broken  down  and  "tempered"  in  no 
larger  quantities  than  may  be  required  for 
use  from  day  to  day. 

Pointing  to  fronts  is  measured  by  the 
foot  superficial. 

Stone  sewer-pipes  are  measured  and 
valued  by  the  foot  run,  according  to  size 
of  bore,  from  3  to  18  inches  diameter, 
.and  are  made  in  2  feet  lengths. 

Note. — All  openings  and  irregulars, 
add  50  per  cent,  apiece  more. 

MEASURING  TIMBER.— All  rectan- 
gular and  square  lumber  and  timber,  as 
plank,  joists,  beams,  etc,  are  measured  by 
what  is  called  board  measure.  The 
board  being  considered  1  inch  thick,  and 
estimated  by  the  square  or  superficial  foot 
of  144  inches,  or  the  cubic  foot  of  1728. 
The  calculations  are  performed  by  duo- 
decimals— that  is,  the  foot  or  inch,  etc., 
divided  into  12  parts,  thus: 

12  fourths  make 1  third. 

12  thirds  make......  ......  1  second. 

12  seconds  make..... 1  inch. 

12  inches  make 1  foot. 

And  the  several  values  arising  are : 
Feet  multiplied  by  feet  give  feet. 
Feet  multiplied  by  inches  give  inches. 
Feet  multiplied  by  seconds  give  seconds. 
Inches  multiplied  by  inches  give  seconds. 
Inches  multiplied  by  seconds  give  thirds,  etc. 


This  rule  is  commonly  called  cross  mul- 
tiplication,  on   account  of  commencing 
with  the  left  hand  figure  of  the  multiplier. 
Example  i. — Required  the  superficial 
contents  of  a  board  of  12  feet  6  inches 
long  and  1  foot  3^  inches  broad. 
f.  1. 
12.6 
Multipled  by  1.3.6 


12.6 

6-3 

Feet,  1 6. 1.9 

When  the  two  ends  of  a  board  are  of 
different  breadths,  add  the  two  breadths 
together,  and  multiply  the  length  by  half 
the  same. 

Example  2. — A  board  that  is  1  foot  3 
inches  broad   at   one  end,   n^   inches 
broad  at  the  other,  and  18  feet  9  inches 
long,  what  is  the  superficial  contents  ? 
15  X  11^  =  26^  =13^  inches. 

2. 

F.    I. 

Then  18.9 
Multipled  by  13^  =  1.1.3 

18.9 
1.6.9 

4.8.3 

Feet,  20.8.5.3 

To  find  the  contents  01  joists,  beams, 
etc. : 

Rule. — Multiply  the  depth,  taken  in 
inches,  by  the  thickness,  and  this  product 
by  the  length  in  feet,  and  the  quotient  is 
the  contents  in  feet. 

Example. — Required  the  cubic  con- 
tents of  a  joist  10  inches  wide  and  12 
feet  6  inches  long  ? 

F.    I. 
12.6 

Multiplied  by    1.8 

12.6 

8.4.0 


Feet,  20.10.0 
To  find  the  contents  ot  solid  timber : 
The  solid  contents  of  timber  (accord 
ing  to  custom)  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  length  by  the  square  of  the  }(  girth. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       419 


Example. — Required  the  contents  of  a 
round  stick  of  timber  in  cubic  feet  whose 
girth  in  the  middle  is  84  inches  and  length 
25  feet  6  inches: 

84-^-4  =  21  inches  }£  girth. 
f.  1. 
And  21  inches  =  1.9 
Multiplied  by  1.9 

1.9 
'♦3-9 

=  3.0.9 

F.    I. 

Then  25.6 
Multiplied  by  3.0.9 


Feet,  78. 1. 1.6 
But  a  more  expeditious  method  is  ob- 
tained by  means  of  the  following  table : 


tea 

a 

< 

a  0 

< 

5  . 

si 

J*"" 

J* 

•*  . 

6 

.250 

12* 

1.042 

x9  . 

2.506 

6% 

.272 

12^ 

1.085 

*9X 

2.640 

6* 

.294 

I2# 

1. 129 

20 

2.777 

6% 

•317 

'3    , 

1. 1 74 

20^ 

2.917 

7 

.340 

»3* 

1. 219 

21 

3.062 

rx 

.364       • 

13S 

1.265 

21^ 

3.209 

VA 

•390 

'3^ 

1-313 

22 

3.362 

1% 

.417 

"4 

1.361 

22^ 

3-516 

s 

•444 

'4* 

1.410 

23 

3-673 

iK 

.472 

'4# 

1.460 

23K 

3835 

*% 

.501 

'4# 

1.511 

24 

4.000 

&X 

•531 

15  : 

1.562 

24X 

4.168 

9  f 

.562 

i$}C 

1.615 

25 

4-340 

9% 

•594 

iS'A 

1.668 

25^ 

4516 

9% 

.626 

iSX 

1.722 

26 

4.694 

9U 

.659 

[6 

1.777 

26^ 

4.876 

10 

.694 

16% 

1.833 

27 

5.062 

v>% 

•73° 

m 

1.890 

3* 

5.252 

*°lA 

.766 

16% 

1.948 

5-444 

™K 

.803 

'7 

2.006 

28^ 

5.640 

11 

.840 

<7# 

2.066 

29 

5.840 

»tf 

.878 

ivA 

2.128 

29lA 

6.044 

uA 

.918 

17X 

2.187 

30 

6.250 

i\% 

•959 

[8 

2.250 

12 

1000 

18K 

2.376 

Rule. — Multiply  the  area  correspond- 
ing to  the  ^  girth  in  inches  by  the  length 
of  the  timber  in  feet,  and  the  product  is 
the  solid  contents  in  feet  and  decimal 
parts. 

Example. — A  piece  of  timber  18  feet 
long  and  14  inches  square,  what  are  the 
cubic  contents  in  feet  ? 

1. 36 1  X  18  =  24.498  cubic  feet. 


PLASTEEEES'   WORK,    MEASURING. 

— Plain  plastering  is  measured  by  the 
superficial  yard — that  is,  3  feet  multiplied 
by  3  feet=  9  feet. 

^  In  measuring  ceilings,  take  the  dimen- 
sions from  wall  to  wall. 

In  measuring  walls  and  partitions,  take 
the  girt  around  the  room  for  a  length, 
and  from  floor  to  ceiling  for  the  height, 
deducting  one  half  of  the  openings,  such 
as  doors,  windows,  &c. 

All  cornices  and  mouldings,  and  all 
work  where  the  running  mould  is  used, 
are  measured  from  the  nose  of  the  mould- 
ing to  the  wall;  and  we  speak  of  a 
moulding  as  being  so  many  inches  ac- 
cording to  girt ;  the  length  is  taken 
on  the  wall  line,  and  one  foot  lineal  is 
allowed  to  each  metre.  Take  all  plain  or 
moulded  cornices  under  12  inches  girt  by 
the  running  foot,  and  all  above  that  girt 
by  the  superficial  foot.  The  plain  parts 
of  ornamental  cornices  should  first  be 
taken  as  plain,  and  the  several  enrich- 
ments therein  taken  per  foot  run,  at  their 
separate  values,,  which  added  to  the  price 
of  the  plain  moulding,  will  give  the  cor- 
rect value  per  foot  run  of  the  whole 
cornice  complete. 

Mouldings  encircling  centres,  to  be 
measured  as  mouldings. 

All  circular  work,  double  measurement. 

All  inclined  or  raking  ceilings  under  an 
angle  of  22  degrees  with  the  horizon,  to 
be  measured  as  level;  over  22  degrees, 
one  and  a  half  measurement. 

Closets  and  presses  under  4  feet  by  8 
feet,  double  measurement. 

Privies,  double  measurement. 

Furring,  regulating  or  striping  on  all 
lath  work  at  per  square. 

Whitening  and  coloring  are  measured 
in  the  same  manner  as  plastering. 

Niches  and  arches  are  valued  at  so 
much  each. 

Cast  and  enriched  centres  to  ceilings 
fixed,  &c,  complete,  so  much  each, 
according  to  diameter. 

All  circular  enrichments  to  be  twice 
the  price  of  straight  of  the  same 
description. 

When  enrichments  are  modeled  from 
original  designs,  the  expense  of  modeling 
to  be  paid  for  extra. 

Outside  work  done  with  cement  or 
mastic,  measured  same  as  plastering ;  but 
no  openings  deducted. 


420 


MECHANICAL. 


CARPENTER'S  WORK  AND  MEASU- 
RING.—What  is  called  Naked  Flooring 
in  carpentry  are  the  joists  which  support 
the  flooring  boards  and  ceiling  of  a  room. 
There  are  different  kinds,  but  they  may 
all  be  comprised  in  the  three  following — 
viz. :  Single  joisted  floors,  double  floors, 
and  framed  floors. 

A  single  joisted  floor  consists  of  only 
one  series  of"  joists,  sometimes  every  third 
or  fourth  joist  is  made  deeper,  with  ceil- 
ing joists  nailed  across  at  right  angles. 
This  is  a  good  method,  as  the  ceilings 
stand  much  better  than  when  the  laths 
are  nailed  to  the  joists  alone. 

A  double  floor  consists  of  binding, 
bridging  and  ceiling  joists;  the  binding 
joists  are  the  chief  support  of  the  floor, 
and  the  bridging  joists  are  nailed  upon 
the  upper  side  of  them;  the  ceiling  joists 
are  either  notched  to  the  under  side  or 
framed  between. with  chased  mortices. 
The  best  method  is  to  notch  them. 

Framed  floors  differ  from  double  floors 
only  in  having  the  binding  joists  framed 
into  large  pieces  of  timber,  called  girders. 

Single  joisted  floors,  when  the  bearing 
exceeds  10  feet,  should  be  cross-bridged 
between  the  joists,  to  prevent  them  from 
turning  or  twisting  side  ways,  and  also  to 
stiffen  the  floor ;  when  the  bearing  exceeds 
15  feet,  two  rows  will  be  necessary,  and 
so  on,  adding  another  row  for  each  in- 
crease of  5  feet  bearing. 

Single  joisting  may  be  used  to  any  ex- 
tent for  which  timber  can  be  got  deep 
enough ;  but  where  it  is  desirable  to  have 
a  perfect  ceiling,  the  bearing  should  not 
exceed  18  feet,  nor  the  distance  from  cen- 
tre to  centre  be  more  than  16  inches; 
otherwise  the  bearing  for  the  laths  be- 
come too  long  to  produce  good  work. 

To  find  the  depth  of  a  joist,  the  length 
of  bearing  and  thickness  being  given — 

Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length 
in  feet  by  the  thickness  in  inches,  and  the 
cube  root  of  the  quotient  multiplied  by 
2.2  for  pine,  or  2.3  for  oak,  will  be  the 
depth  in  inches. 

Example. — Suppose  a  joist  whose  bear- 
ing is  10  feet,  and  the  thickness  2  inches, 
what  will  be  the  depth  ? 

Here  10X10=100,  divided  by  2,  the 
thickness,  =50,  the  cube  root  of  which  is 
3,684X2.2=8.1048=8  inches,  the  depth. 

To  find  the  scantlings  of  joists  for  dif- 
ferent bearings  from  5  to  20  feet,  at  sev- 


eral thicknesses,  refer  to  the  following 
table : 

V<    fl  CO         •  00         *  CD  03*  CD 

0**"*  ■*•'•*.••  •'to  *vrfl  **» 

iffl         S 


■5  -S 
•2  S 

F  * 

co 


h  * 


11 


3 1 

o    a 


5  ] 

Si    o 

£    a 


■o         a  o 

a  -a 


5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 

!2 

17 
18 

19 

20 


6% 

V 


4% 

&A 
&A 
VA 


S 

AA 
4# 

4 

4lA 

1* 

$% 

5 

b% 

5A 

s¥ 

b% 

6 

m 

7 

b% 

*>% 

r/z 

7 

tu 

8 

7% 

7% 

8ji 

8 

7% 

9 

8% 

8 

9% 

8* 

8% 

9% 

9M 

w 

™% 

9% 

9% 

10% 

10 

9Vx 

Mji 

io# 

10 

"X 

«>* 

10X 

9H  ^lA 

9%  9 

10  9% 
io'A  9% 

11  ioiA 

12  uk 

12^  "# 

13  12 

Girders  are  the  chief  support  of  a 
framed  floor,  and  their  depth  is  often  lim- 
ited by  the  size  of  the  timber;  therefore,, 
the  method  of  finding  the  scantling  may 
be  divided  in  two  cases — 

Case  i. — To  find  the  depth  of  a  girder 
when  the  length  of  bearing  and  thickness 
of  the  girder  are  given. 

Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length 
in  feet  by  the  thickness  in  inches,  and  the 
cube  root  of  the  quotient  multiplied  by 
4.2  for  pine,  or  by  4.34  for  oak,  will  give 
the  depth  required  in  inches. 

Case  2.  —  To  find  the  thickness  when 
the  length  of  bearing  and  depth  are  given. 

Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length 
in  feet  by  the  cube  of  the  depth  in  inches, 
and  the  quotient  multiplied  by  74  for  pine, 
or  by  82  for  oak,  will  give  the  thickness 
in  inches. 

In  these  rules  the  girders  are  supposed 
to  be  10  feet  apart,  and  this  distance 
should  never  be  exceeded;  but  should 
the  distance  apart  be  more  or  less  than  10 
feet,  the  thickness  should  be  made  pro- 
portionate thereto. 

When  the  breadth  of  girders  is  consid- 
erable, it  is  an  excellent  method  to  saw 
them  down  the  middle  and  bolt  them  to- 
gether, with  the  sawn  sides  outward.  This 
not  only  gives  an  opportunity  of  examin- 
ing the  centre  of  the  log,  but  also  re- 
duces the  timber  to  a  smaller  scantling 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      421 


by  which  means  it  dries  sooner  and  is  less 
liable  to  rot.  The  slips  put  between  the 
halves  or  flitches  should  be  thick  enough 
to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  freely  between 
them. 

Ceiling  Joists. — If  2  inches  be  fixed 
upon  for  the  thickness  of  ceiling  joists, 
the  rule  for  finding  the  depth  becomes 
very  easy;  for  half  the  length  in  ieet 
gives  the  depth  in  inches — that  is,  if  the 
length  be  10  feet,  the  depth  should  be  5 
inches;  if  12  feet,  the  depth  will  be  6 
inches,  and  so  on  for  any  other  length. 

Wall  plates  should  be  made  stronger 
as  the  span  becomes  longer. 

The  following  proportions  may  serve 
for  general  purposes : 
For  a  20  feet  bearing      4^  by  3  inches. 

*     30         "  6      by  4     " 

"    40        "  7Kb7  5     " 

Construction  of  Roofs. — The  height  of 
roofs  is  seldom  above  one-third  of  the 
span,  and  should  never  be  less  than  one- 
sixth,  except  for  metal  or  composition. 

The  usual  pitch  is  that  when  the  height 
is  one-fourth  of  the  span,  or  at  an  angle 
of  26^  degrees  with  the  horizon,  this 
inclination  is  adapted  to  the  covering 
with  slates  or  shingles. 

For  roofs  whose  spans  are  between  20 
and  50  feet,  no  more  than  a  truss  with  a 
king-post  and  struts  will  be  necessary,  in 
which  case  the  scantlings  here-under 
given  will  be  sufficient,  viz. : 

In.  In. 
For  a  span  of  20  feet,  the  beams 

to  be  -  -  -  -  9  by  4 
The  king-posts,  -  -  r  4  by  4 
Principal  rafters,         -        -        -    4  by  4 

Struts, 4  by  3 

For  a  span  of  25  feet,  the  tie 

beams,  -  -  -  -  10  by  5 
The  king-posts,  -        -        -     5  by  5 

Principal  rafters,  -  -  -  5  by  4 
Struts,  -  -  -  -  "5  by  3 
For  a  span  of  30  feet,  the  tie 

beams,  -  -  -  -n  by  6 
The  king-posts,  -  -  -  6  by  6 
Principal  rafters,  -  -  -  6  by  4 
Struts,  -        -        -        -        -        6  by  3 

For  roofs  whose  spans  are  between  30 
and  33  feet,  a  truss  with  two  queen-posts 
and  struts  will  be  required,  and  a  straining 
piece  between  the  queen-posts.    Thus  : 

For  a  span  of  35  feet,  the  tie  beams  to 
be  1 1  inches  by  5  inches ;  queen-posts,  4 
inches  by  4  inches;  principals,  5  inches 


by  4  inches ;  straining  piece,  7  inches  by 

4  inches;  struts,  4  inches  by  2  inches. 
For  a  span  of  40  feet,  the  tie  beams  to 

be  12  inches  by  5  inches;  queen-posts,  5 
inches  by  5  inches;  principals,  5  inches 
by  5  inches ;  straining  piece,  7  inches  by 

5  inches;  struts,  5  inches  by  2)4  inches. 
For  a  span  of  45  feet,  the  tie  beams  to 

be  13  inches  by  6  inches;  queen-posts,  6 
inches  by  6  inches;  principals,  6  inches 
by  5  inches ;  straining  piece,  7  inches  by 

6  inches ;  struts,  5  inches  by  3  inches. 
For  roofs  whose  spans  are  between  45 

and  60  feet,  two  sets  of  queen-posts  are 
required,  and  a  straining  piece  between 
them;  struts  from  the  larger  to  the  smaller 
queen-posts,  and  struts  again  from  the 
latter. 

For  a  span  of  50  feet,  tie  beams,  13 
inches  by  8  inches ;  queen-posts,  8  inches 
by  8  inches  ;  small  queens,  8  inches  by  4 
inches ;  principals,  8  inches  by  6  inches ; 
straining  piece,  9  inches  by  6  inches; 
struts,  5  inches  by  3  inches. 

For  a  span  of  55  feet,  tie  beams,  14 
inches  by  9  inches ;  queen-posts,  9  inches 
by  8  inches ;  small  queens,  9  inches  by  4 
inches ;  principals,  8  inches  by  7  inches ; 
straining  piece,  10  inches  by  6  inches ; 
struts,  $)4  inches  by  3  inches. 

For  a  span  of  60  feet,  tie  beams,  15 
inches  by  10  inches;  queen-posts,  10 
inches  by  8  inches;  small  queens,  10 
inches  by  4  inches;  principals,  8  inches 
by  8  inches;  straining  piece,  n  inches 
by  6  inches;  struts,  6  inches  by  3  inches. 

The  scantlings  of  purlins  are  regulated 
principally  by  their  bearing,  which  ought 
not  to  exceed  10  feet. 
For  a  bearing  of  6  ft.,  the  scant- 
ling should  be      -        -        -  6  by  4 
For  a  bearing  of  8  ft.,  the  scant- 
ling should  be  -        -  7  by  5 
For  a  bearing  of  10  ft,  the  scant- 
ling should  be     -        -        -  8  by  6 

For  common  rafters  the  scantlings  are 
as  follows : 

12  feet  should  be  the  maximum  ot 
bearing. 

For  a  bearing  of  8  ft.,  the  scant- 
ling should  be  -        -  4  by  2 
For  a  bearing  of  10  ft.,  the  scant- 
ling should  be      -         -        -  5  by  2 
For  a  bearing  of  12  ft.,  the  scant- 
ling should  be  -        -  6  by  2 

In  measuring  carpenters'  work  it  would 
be  impossible  to  specify  all  the  methods 


4^2 


MECHANICAL 


required  to  ascertain  the  value  of  each 
kind  of  work,  within  the  limits  of  this 
volume.  They  must  be  learned  by  ob- 
servation and  experience.  All  that  we 
have  to  do  is  with  the  principles  on 
which  measuring  and  estimating  is  con- 
ducted. 

Before  laying  the  floors,  or  lathing  the 
work  to  receive  the  plastering,  the  timbers 
should  be  measured,  so  that  the  scantlings 
may  be  examined  and  proved  correct 
according  to  the  specification;  and  in 
this,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  all  pieces  having  tenons  are 
measured  to  their  extremities,  and  that 
the  ends  of  joists,  girders,  etc.,  lie  in  the 
walls  at  least  yi  of  the  wall's  thickness. 
In  large  measures,  where  the  quantity  of 
materials  and  workmanship  is  uniform, 
the  articles  are  usually  measured  by  the 
square — that  is,  10  feet  by  10  feet  =  ioo 
feet. 

Partitions  are  measured,  if  uniform  in 
materials,  etc.,  by  the  square;  but  if 
trussed,  add  a  larger  price  than  for  the 
common  studs,  on  account  of  the  trouble 
of  fitting  the  ends  of  the  uprights  to  the 
bracings  and  forming  the  abutments. 

Furring  of  walls,  measured  by  the 
square. 

In  measuring  bond  timber  and  wall 
plates,  the  laps  must  be  added  to  the  net 
lengths. 

All  the  timbers  in  the  principals  of  a 
trussed  roof  to  be  reduced  to  board 
measure,  and  classed  according  to  the 
difficulty  of  execution,  or  the  waste  that 
occurs  in  performing  the  work. 

Common  rafters,  as  respects  labor,  are 
rated  much  the  same  as  joists  or  stud- 
ding. 

Purlins,  which  require  trouble  in  fitting, 
are  worth  more,  because  on  them  are 
notched  down  the  common  rafters,  the 
joggles,  including  the  tenons  at  the  ends 
oi  struts ;  morticing  tie  beams  and  prin- 
cipal rafters,  preparing  king  and  queen- 
posts,  and  the  strapping  and  bolting  are 
all  to  be  separately  considered  to  arrive 
accurately  at  the  true  value. 

Ribbed  ceilings  are  taken  by  the 
quantity  of  timber  they  contain,  making 
due  allowance  for  the  waste  of  stuff,  which 
is  often  considerable. 

Plain  centering  is  measured  by  the 
square;  but  the  ribs  and  boarding,  being 
different  qualities  of  work,  should    be 


taken  separately.  The  dimensions  are 
obtained  by  girting  round  the  arch  and 
multiplying  by  the  length.  Where  groins. 
occur,  besides  the  measurement  as  above, 
the  angles  must  be  measured  by  the  foot 
run — that  is,  the  ribs  and  boards  are 
measured  separately,  according  to  the 
exact  superficial  contents  of  each,  and 
the  angles  by  the  lineal  foot  for  the  labor 
in  fitting  the  ribs  and  boards,  and  waste 
of  wood. 

All  circular  timbers,  of  flat  sweep,  one 
and  a  half  times;  quick  sweep,  twice; 
elliptical,  twice  and  a  half;  and  circular, 
four  times  the  price  of  straight  of  the 
same  denomination. 

Bracketing,  including  plugging,  meas- 
ured by  the  foot  superficial. 

For  every  angle  bracket,  add  one  foot 
of  the  cornice.  If  circular  on  plan,  one 
and  a  half  times  the  price  of  straight. 

MEASURING  JOINERS'  WORK.— 
This  branch  of  work  is  measured  and 
estimated  by  the  foot  superficial. 

Floors  are  measured  by  the  square  of 
ioo  feet. 

Boarders  to  hearths,  mitred,  at  per  foot 
lineal. 

The  value  of  every  kind  of  framing 
must  depend  on  the  thickness  of  the  stuff,, 
whether  it  is  plain  or  molded,  and  upon 
the  number  of  panels  in  a  given  height 
and  breadth,  and  also  on  the  form  of  the 
plan. 

Wainscotting,  window  linings,  as  backs 
and  elbows;  door  linings,  such  as  jambs 
and  soffits ;  back  linings,  partitions,  doors,, 
shutters,  and  the  like,  are  all  measured 
and  valued  by  the  foot  superficial. 

Sashes,  frames,  blinds,  doors,  etc.,  are 
made  at  the  several  planing  mills,  and 
may  be  obtained  of  any  size. 

Sashes,  by  the  pair,  according  to  thick- 
ness and  size  of  glass. 

Frames,  whether  solid  or  box  frames,, 
each.  If  with  segment  or  circular  heads, 
so  much  additional. 

Blinds,  with  stationary  slats,  or  rolling, 
according  to  thickness,  at  per  pair. 

Skylights,  the  prices  whereof  depend 
on  their  plans  and  elevations,  are  meas- 
ured by  the  foot  superficial. 

Framed  grounds,  by  the  foot  run. 

In  the  measurement  of  stair-cases,  the 
risers,  treads,  carriages,  etc.,  are,  after 
being  classed  together,  measured  by  the 
foot  superficial,  and  the  string  board  is 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       42J 


sometimes  included.  The  value  varies, 
as  the  steps  may  be  straight,  or  winders, 
or  circular. 

Stairs  circular  on  the  plan,  measure 
double;  stairs  oval,  and  for  the  quick 
part,  three  times.  Some  kind  of  elliptical 
work  should  be  valued  at  six  times ;  and 
dome  or  globe  work  at  nine  times  that 
of  the  straight. 

The  balusters,  housings  to  steps  and 
risers,  common  cut  brackets,  square  and 
circular  on  the  plan,  together  with  the 
preparing  and  fixing,  are  all  valued  by 
the  piece;  returned  nosings  are  some- 
times valued  by  the  pieee,  and  if  circular 
on  the  plan,  double  the  price  of  the 
straight  ones. 

Handrails,  by  the  foot  run,  measured  in 
the  centre  on  the  top,  and  three  inches 
beyond  the  springing  of  the  sweep. 

Mouldings  are  measured  by  the  foot 
run,  their  value  depending  on  the  number 
of  quirks. 

All  horizontal  moldings  on  a  circular 
plan  are  three  or  four  times  the  value  of 
those  on  a  straight  plan,  the  trouble 
being  increased  as  the  radius  of  the  circle 
upon  which  they  are  formed  diminishes. 

Circular  heads  of  shutters  to  store 
fronts,  to  be  measured  square  from  the 
springing  three  times  that  of  the  straight. 
Among  the  articles  which  are  to  be 
measured  by  the  lineal  foot,  are  beads, 
fillets,  bead  or  O.  G.  capping,  astragals, 
reeds,  etc. 

Rule  joints,  cantilevers,  trusses,  and 
cut  brackets  for  shelves,  are  charged  by 
the  piece. 

Shingles. — White  pine  sawed,  shaved 
and  star  shingles,  average  16  inches  long 
and  4  inches  wide.  A  square  will  require 
1000  laid  4^  inches  to  the  weather, 
allowing  for  waste. 

Cedar  shingles  average  30  inches  long 
by  7  inches  wide. 

A  square  will  require  248  laid  8  in.  to 
the  weather. 

A  square  will  require  220  laid  9  in.  to 
the  weather. 

Hardware,  such  as  nails,  screws,  sash 
pulleys,  bolts,  hinges,  locks,  etc.,  are 
charged  for  with  the  work  to  which  they 
are  attached,  the  joiner  being  allowed  a 
percentage  on  the  prime  cost. 

MEASURING  COMPOSITION  ROOF- 
ING— Is  measured  by  the  square  of  100 


feet— that  is,  10  feet  multiplied  by  10- 
feet. 

It  is  denominated  2  ply,  3  ply  or  4  ply. 

The  paper  is  generally  26  inches  wide. 
With  a  two  inch  lap  and  2  ply,  n  inches 
will  be  exposed  to  the  weather ;  for  3  ply 
and  2  inch  lap,  8  inches  will  be  exposed ; 
and  for  4  ply,  also  2  inch  lap,  6  inches 
will  be  exposed  to  the  weather. 

The  price,  of  course,  regulated  accord- 
ingly. 

Plastic  slate  roofing  is  measured  the 
same  way,  and  deductions  made  in  either 
case    when    the    openings    exceed  one 


square. 

PAINTERS'  WORK,  Measur- 
ing of,  and  Hints  on. — There  is  no  de- 
partment in  the  art  of  building  on 
which  greater  attention  ought  to 
be  bestowed  than  house  painting; 
not  only  for  the  protection  it  gives 
the  material  to  which  it  is  applied,, 
but  the  superior  elegance  of  which  the 
plainest  finished  house  may  be  made  sus- 
ceptible by  its  judicious  and  tasteful 
application. 

In  painting  new  work,  the  knots  must,, 
first,  be  properly  killed,  as  the  painters- 
term  it.  The  best  way  of  effecting  this  is- 
by  laying  upon  those  knots  which  retain 
any  turpentine  a  considerable  substance- 
of  lime  immediately  after  it  is  slacked,. 
This  process  dries  and  burns  out  the 
turpentine  which  the  knots  contain ;  or, 
by  coating  them  over  with  size  composed 
of  pure  shellac  and  alcohol.  If  any 
doubts  exist  of  their  still  remaining  un- 
killed  and  should  appear  after  priming, 
they  should  be  covered  with  silver  or  gold 
leaf. 

When  the  knotting  is  completed  the 
priming  color  is  laid  on.  The  priming 
color  is  composed  of  white  and  a  little 
red  lead,  mixed  thin  with  linseed  oil. 
One  pound  of  it  will  cover  from  18  to  20 
yards. 

The  second  coat,  if  intended  for  white 
finish,  half  oil  and  half  turpentine;  if 
four  coat  work,  the  third  coat  should  be 
about  Yi  oil  and  ft  turpentine;  fourth 
coat,  all  turpentine. 

Where  the  work  is  to  be  grained,  the 
coats,  after  priming,  should  be  composed 
of  about  half  and  half.  Before  laying  on 
the  third  coat  the  work  should  be  rubbed 
down  with  fine  sand  paper,  and  stopped 
with  oil  putty  where  necessary. 


424 


MECHANICAL. 


In  respect  to  outside  work,  the  use  of 
turpentine  is  to  be  avoided,  for  turpen- 
tine is  more  susceptible  to  water  than  oil, 
and,  hence,  not  so  well  calculated  to 
preserve  work  exposed  to  the  weather. 

The  process  of  sanding  is  frequently 
adopted  for  outside  work.  It  is  per- 
formed with  fine  sand  thrown  on  the  last 
coat  of  paint  while  wet. 

The  method  of  gilding  is  either  through 
a  medium  of  oil  or  water,  the  former 
being  that  most  used  in  gilding  the 
decorations  of  houses. 

The  gold  of  various  thicknesses  is 
furnished  by  the  gold-beater  in  books  of 
26  leaves;  each  leaf  being  3^6  x  3  inches 
or,  in  the  book,  1  foot  6  inches  and  6-8th 
of  an  inch  superficial. 

The  art  of  imitating  the  grain  of  the 
more  expensive  woods  is  now  brought  to 
so  great  a  degree  of  perfection  that  it  is 
often  almost  impossible  to  determine, 
without  feeling  the  surface,  whether  we 
are  looking  upon  the  wood  or  an 
imitation  of  it.  Mahogany,  satin 
wood,  rosewood,  maple  and  some  others, 
are  frequently  imitated;  and  it  is  but 
seldom  that  a  good  house  is  finished 
without  the  introduction  of  some  grain- 
ing. Delicate  parti-colors  are  often  pre- 
ferred for  parlors  and  other  apartments. 

Painting  is  measured  wherever  the 
brush  goes;  and  all  wainscotting,  walls, 
doors,  shutters,  jamb-linings,  architraves 
and  all  other  places  over  9  inches  girth, 
is  taken  at  per  yard  superficial.  On  all 
articles  under  9  inches  girth,  at  per  foot 
run.  On  all  frame  work  the  net  length  is 
taken  one  way  and  the  dimensions  girted 
over  the  mouldings,  panels,  &c,  the  other 
way. 

The  following  rules  for  measuring 
painters'  work  can  be  relied  on : 

Mouldings,  one  inch  is  to  be  allowed. 

Beads,  ^  inch  is  to  be  allowed. 

Cutting  edges,  1  inch  is  to  be  allowed. 

Brick  work,  measured  solid  and  y$  of 
openings  deducted. 

Frame  houses,  same  as  brick.  Blinds, 
one  and  a  half  measurement.  Lattice 
work,  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  times. 

Old  painted  work,  outside  or  inside,  if 
1  foot  or  under  to  girth;  1  foot,  if  over 
1  foot  to  girth,  according  to  measure- 
ment. 

Plain  cornices,  to  measure  1^;  but  if 


block    and  dentil,    or     otherwise   orna- 
mented, from  i}i  to  5  measurement. 

Sashes  to  measure  solid  if  of  1  color; 
but  if  2  colors,  \]/2  up  to  glass  24  inches 
by  30  inches,  and  all  above.  Muntins  to 
be  measured  and  1  inch  allowed  for  cut- 
ting edges. 

Edges  to  shelves,  three  times. 

Base,  if  of  1  color  and  under  1  foot  to 
girth,  1  foot;  if  2  colors  girth,  1  foot  six 
inches ;  if  over  1  foot,  6  inches ;  if  over 
1  foot  and  one  color  to  girth,  1  foot 
6  inches;  but  if  2  colors  to  girth,  2  feet; 
if  higher,  to  measure  according  to 
measurement. 

Down  spouts  to  girth,  from  1  to  3 
feet. 

Balusters,  ij£  to  3  measurements. 

Iron  railing  for  porches,  fences  and 
verandahs,  to  measure  from  1^  to  4 
measurements. 

Door  and  window  caps,  if  of  1  color 
to  girth,  from  1  to  3  feet ;  but  if  2  colors, 
double  measurement. 

Fluted  columns,  1%  times  the  flutes 
to  be  measured. 

Caps  and  bases  to  columns,  from  2  to 
5  measurements. 

Quoins  and  corner  stones,  1^  to  2 
measurements. 

Paling  fences,  1^  to  3  measurements. 

Mantles,  measured  solid,  from  2  to  3 
measurements. 

Stair  strings,  2  measurements  when 
plain;  but  if  bracketed  or  otherwise 
ornamented,  3  measurements. 

For  cleaning  off  new  work,  add  3  per 
cent,  to  whole  bill. 

A  liberal  deduction  to  be  made  on  all 
work  that  is  not  done  in  a  good  and 
workman-like  manner,  to  be  assessed  by 
arbitrators  appointed  by  the  parties  or 
by  the  measurer. 

PAIirr,  (Cheap),  for  Fences,  etc.— 1. 
Take  a  bushel  of  well  burnt  lime,  white 
and  unslacked;  20  pounds  of  Spanish 
whiting,  17  pounds  of  rock  salt,  and  12 
pounds  of  brown  sugar.  Slake  the  lime 
and  sift  out  any  coarse  lumps  and  mix  it 
into  a  good  whitewash  with  about  40 
gallons  of  water,  and  then  add  the  other 
ingredients,  and  stir  the  whole  together 
thoroughly,  and  put  on  two  or  three  coats 
with  a  common  brush.  This  is  a  cheap 
paint.  Five  dollars'  worth  ought  to  make 
the  building  look  a  hundred  dollars' 
worth  better.     This  makes   a  coat  that 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       425 


•does  not  wash  off,  or  easily  rub  off,  and  it 
looks  well,  while  it  will  go  far  to  preserve 
the  wood.  It  is,  therefore,  especially 
adapted  to  the  outside  of  buildings  that 
are  exposed  to  the  weather.  Three  coats 
are  needed  on  brick  and  two  on  wood. 
If  you  want  to  get  a  fine  cream  color, 
.add  three  pounds  of  yellow  ochre  to  the 
above.  If  you  prefer  a  brown  color,  add 
four  pounds  of  umber,  one  pound  of  In- 
dian red,  and  one  pound  of  lampblack. 
If  you  want  a  gray  or  stone  color,  add 
four  pounds  of  raw  umber  and  two 
pounds  of  lampblack.  This  will  be  more 
durable  than  common  whitewash. 

PAINTING.— The  value  of  paints  pre- 
pared from  oxides  of  iron  is  very  generally 
overlooked  by  architects.  These  paints 
:some  men  of  experience  pronounce  to  be 
superior  to  those  prepared  from  the 
oxides  of  lead;  at  any  rate,  they  answer 
equally  well,  and  the  cost  is  considerably 
less.  But  we  propose  to  allude  to  the 
value  of  these  paints,  especially  for  use 
upon  iron.  It  has  been  acknowledged  for 
years  that  the  oxides  of  lead,  or  copper, 
if  put  upon  iron,  will  eat  into  it,  and  pro- 
mote corrosion,  and  yet  how  frequently 
do  we  meet  with  the  requirement  that 
iron  work  shall  have  a  coat  of  red-lead 
before  leaving  the  foundry:  a  worse  pro- 
vision could  hardly  be  made,  unless  it  be 
to  specify  verdigris,  a  preparation  from 
•copper;  this  also  is  sometimes  used, 
though  it  eats  holes  into  the  iron  in  a 
very  short  time.  Very  shortly  after  iron- 
work is  painted,  the  iron  will  be  observed 
corroded,  and  the  remark  be  upon  every 
body's  tongue,  "This  ought  not  to  be 
going  so  soon;  ought  not  to  want  painting 
so  soon,"  The  fact  is,  lead  has  been  put 
upon  it,  and  nothing  else  could  be  ex- 
pected. The  reason  red  or  white  lead 
causes  metal  to  corrode  so  quickly  is  ex- 
plained thus:  directly  the  air  gets  to  the 
metal,  not  only  does  natural  corrosion 
take  place,  but  a  chemical  action  sets  in 
between  the  lead  and  the  iron,  and  in- 
creases the  corrosion.  No  harm  can  re- 
sult from  painting  iron  with  red  or  white 
lead,  so  long  as  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  or 
water,  does  not  get  to  the  metal;  but  as 
it  is  almost  sure  to  do  so,  it  is  best  not  to 
run  the  risk.  The  same  quantity  of  paint, 
made  from  the  oxide  of  iron,  will  cover  a 
surface  of  twice  the  area  as  that  of  paint 
prepared  from  lead,  though  the  price  is 


much  less.  Aqua  fortis,  one  of  the 
strongest  acids,  if  poured  upon  red  or 
white  lead,  will  fuse  it  instantly,  but  has 
no  effect  upon  paint  prepared  from  the 
oxide  of  iron.  With  regard  to  the  numer- 
ous anti-corrosive  paints  in  existence,  we 
may  say,  in  one  word,  it  is  of  no  use  try- 
ing to  cheat  nature;  anti-corrosive  paints 
will  not  answer  the  purpose  their  names 
imply:  all  paints  must  yield  eventually  to 
the  action  of  the  oxygen,  and  the  work  be 
repainted,  and  for  many  reasons  it  is  well 
that  all  work  should  be  repainted  at 
proper  intervals.  All  that  can  be  done 
to  attain  the  objects  of  such  paints  is  to 
to  pick  and  form  the  stuff  as  to  reduce 
the  power  of  the  elements  to  affect  it  to  a 
minimum.  This  is  found  best  secured 
when  the  composition  forming  the  paint 
is  granular,  not  so  finely  powdered  as 
ordinarily.  The  finer  the  powder  of  the 
mixture,  the  greater  the  tendency  for  air- 
holes to  form,  as  the  paint  is  being  laid 
on;  paint  that  is  more  gritty,  or  granular, 
affords  a  better  opportunity  for  the  air  to 
escape,  and  therefore  reduces  the  liabili- 
ty of  corrosion  to  the  utmost  limit.  The 
coating  of  oil  is  the  best  preservative, 
and  not  the  paint  mixtures;  and  there- 
fore those  mixtures  which,  like  lamp-black, 
go  a  long  way  in  mixing  with  oil,  answer 
better  than  those  that  require  more  of  the 
mixture  to  form  the  paint.  For  covering 
urinals  or  other  work  exposed  to  the  in- 
fluence of  strong  acid,  black  varnish  is 
the  best  article  to  use;  it  should  be  fre- 
quently applied,  and  is  inexpensive. 
Woodwork  before  painting  ought  to  be 
well  soaked  with  good  priming,  principal- 
ly turpentine;  this  keeps  damp  out  of  the 
wood;  a  coat  of  paint  has  not  the  same 
power,  as  it  forms  a  skin  on  the  wood, 
instead  of  soaking  into  it.  The  priming 
should  pass  over  all  the  woodwork,  where 
exposed;  otherwise  damp  may  come  into 
contact  with  the  portion  not  primed,  and 
it  will  find  its  way  down  the  wood,  and 
cause  blisters  in  the  paint,  where  we  have 
thought  them  unlikely ;  blistering  is  often 
a  result  of  insufficient  priming.  Painters, 
as  a  rule,  neglect  to  prime  the  tops  of  out- 
side doors;  damp  gets  down  the  wood, 
and  blistering  results.  Knots  will  some- 
times show  through  paint-work,  and  lead 
to  the  inference  that  no  knotting  has 
been  used,  whereas  the  effect  may  be 
merely  the  result  of  using  inferior  stuff. 


4.26 


MECHANICAL. 


It  is  of  great  importance  that  knotting  of 
good  quality  be  used;  it  may  be  pur- 
chased at  half  the  cost  of  the  well  known 
patent  knotting,  but  will  answer  no  pur- 
pose. The  best  driers  are  prepared  from 
sugar  of  lead;  the  lighter  the  driers  the 
better  their  quality.  The  quantity  of 
.  driers  required  depends  upon  the  time  ot 
the  year  the  paint  is  used,  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  oil.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
bad  oil  in  use  now,  distilled,  or  by  other 
means  prepared  from  resin ;  this  will  not 
dry  properly,  do  what  you  will  with  it, 
and  it  should  be  condemned  for  paint- 
work at  once.  It  does  not  cost  half  so 
much  as  linseed  oil,  and  there  is,  there- 
fore, at  all  times  danger  of  it  getting  into 
our  work.  When  fresh,  and  sometimes 
when  of  long  standing,  it  may  be  killed 
by  an  application  of  petroleum  spirit,  or 
potash;  but  generally,  when  this  oil 
proves  to  be  in  the  paint,  the  best  course 
is  to  scrape  the  whole  off  with  salaman- 
cas,  or  hot  irons,  in  the  usual  way.  No 
oil  will  answer  so  well  as  linseed  oil,  well 
boiled  or  raw,  when  there  is  not  the 
necessity  for  so  much  driers;  raw  oil  may 
be  used  in  summer  weather,  and  should 
always  be  used  for  white  paints,  as  the 
boiled  oil  discolors  them;  driers  in  this 
latter  case  must  be  added.  Often  when 
we  specify  the  best  copal  varnish,  we  get 
nothing  but  common  oak,  though  the 
difference  in  cost  may  be  from  seven 
shillings  to  twenty-one  per  gallon.  The 
best  proceeding  for  the  architect  is  to 
price  the  varnish,  and  take  special  means 
for  obtaining  it.  For  ordinary  purposes, 
where  we  usually  specify  common  oak  var- 
nish, copal  varnish  diluted  with  oil  answers 
better,  and  in  practice  is  often  adopted. 

PAINT,  Mixing  Oil  Colors. — In  mixing 
different  colored  paints  to  produce  any 
desired  tint,  it  is  best  to  have  the  princi- 
pal ingredient  thick,  and  add  to  it  the 
other  paints  thinner.  In  the  following 
list  of  the  combinations  of  colors  required 
to  produce  a  required  tint,  the  first  named 
color  is  the  principal  ingredient,  and  the 
others  follow  in  the  order  of  their  im- 
portance. Thus,  in  mixing  a  limestone 
tint,  white  is  the  principal  ingredient,  and 
red  the  color  of  which  least  is  needed, 
etc.  The  exact  proportions  of  each  de- 
pending on  the  shade  of  color  required. 

List  of  compound  colors,  showing  the 
simple  colors  which  produce  them. 


Buff,  white,  yellow  ochre,  red. 

Chestnut,  red,  black,  yellow. 

Chocolate,  raw  umber,  red,  black. 

Claret,  red,  umber,  black. 

Copper,  red,  yellow,  black. 

Dove,  white,  vermillion,  blue,  yellow. 

Drab,  white,  yellow  ochre,  red,  black. 

Fawn,  white,  yellow,  red. 

Flesh,  white,  yellow  ochre,  vermillion. 

Freestone,  red,  black,  yellow  ochre, 
white. 

French  Gray,  white,  Prussian  blue,  lake. 

Gray,  white  lead,  black. 

Gold,  white,  stone  ochre,  red. 

Green  Bronze,  chrome,  green,  black, 
yellow. 

Green  Pea,  white,  chrome  green. 

Lemon,  white,  chrome  yellow. 

Limestone,  white,  yellow  ochre,  black, 
red. 

Olive,  yellow,  blue,  black,  white. 

Orange,  yellow,  red. 

Peach,  white,  vermillion. 

Pearl,  white,  black,  blue. 

Pink,  white,  vermillion,  lake. 

Purple,  violet,  with  more  red  and  white. 

Rose,  white,  madder  lake. 

Sandstone,  white,  yellow  ochre,  black, 
red. 

Snuff,  yellow,  Vandyke  brown. 

Violet,  red,  blue,  white. 

LAND,  Measuring. —  Land  measuring 
is  the  art  by  which  we  ascertain  the  su- 
perficial contents  of  any  tract  of  ground. 

There  are  various  methods  of  obtain- 
ing the  measurement — some  of  them  re- 
quiring familiar  acquaintance  with  mathe- 
matical treatises  more  intricate  and  com- 
prehensive than  the  present  work ;  whilst 
others  need  nothing  beyond  a  knowledge 
of  the  simplest  principles  of  mensuration. 

As  the  present  work  addresses  itself 
entirely  to  practical  men,  we  shall  confine 
our  remarks  to  the  popular  method  ordi- 
narily employed. 

Land  is  commonly  measured  with 
what  is  called  Gunter's  chain.  This  chain 
is  divided  into  ioo  links,  having  at  the 
end  of  every  ten  links  a  piece  of  brass 
fixed  with  notches  denoting  the  number 
of  tens,  so  that  the  number  of  links  may 
be  readily  ascertained.  The  English 
chain  is  22  yards  or  66  feet  in  length,  and 
each  link  6.92  inches, 

In  taking  measurements  in  the  field,, 
the  various   distances   are  set  down  in 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       427 


links,  which  are  afterward  reduced  to 
acres,  roods,  poles,  etc. 

The  field  requisites  for  a  land-measurer 
are  the  chain  just  mentioned,  a  bundle  of 
arrows,  a  cross-staff  and  a  number  of  sig- 
nals. The  arrows  are  usually  ten  in 
number  and  two  feet  in  length,  each  has 
a  piece  of  red  cloth  affixed  to  the  head, 
by  which  it  is  easily  distinguishable  at  a 
considerable  distance  when  stuck  in  the 
ground.  The  use  of  the  [arrows  is  to  in- 
dicate the  number  of  chains  in  any  line 
of  the  survey.  The  cross-staff  is  a  pole 
10  links  long,  shod  at  one  end  with  iron 
and  pointed,  that  it  may  be  thrust  into 
the  earth  as  occasion  requires.  A  small 
block  of  wood,  about  6  inches  square, 
having  grooves  cut  round  its  margin  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  is  fitted  on  the 
pole,  and  slides  up  and  down,  according 
to  the  height  of  the  eye ;  its  use  is  for  ob- 
taining a  perpendicular  from  the  base 
line  of  any  triangle  to  the  angular  point. 
The  signals  are  more  or  less  numerous, 
according  to  the  extent  of  the  field  or 
tract  to  be  surveyed ;  their  use  is  to  mark 
definitely  the  various  points  and  bearings ; 
they  are  usually  slight  poles,  from  six  to 
eight  feet  in  length,  with  a  small,  red 
flag  attached  to  each. 

Land  measuring  is  divided  into  three 
distinct  operations — first,  the  actual  meas- 
urements in  the  field ;  second,  the  plot- 
ting or  laying  down  on  paper  all  the  lines 
and  angles  of  the  field,  according  to  a 
scale  fixed  on ;  third,  the  reducing  the 
measurements  of  the  various  triangles, 
and  thence  obtaining  the  total  .superficial 
contents  ofthe  whole  survey. 

We  shall  take  each  division  in  order — 

1.  The  land-measurer  requires  an  as- 
sistant in  the  field,  who  is  called  the 
leader,  as  it  is  his  business  to  lead  or 
carry  out  the  chain  under  the  direction 
of  the  surveyor,  who,  for  the  sake  of  dis- 
tinction, is  named  the  follower.  The 
leader  is  first  directed  to  fix  the  signals  at 
the  angular  points  of  the  field;  he  then 
takes  the  end  of  the  chain  in  one  hand, 
and  the  ring  of  arrows  and  the  cross-staff 
in  the  other,  and  proceeds  in  the  meas- 
urement of  the  longest  or  base  line,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  follower,  who  holds 
the  other  end  of  the  chain,  and  has  his 
field-book  ready  to  note  down  the  various 
measurements  taken.  The  leader  fixes 
an  arrow  when  he  has  extended  the  chain 


to  its  full  length,  and  proceeds  onward 
till  the  follower  reaches  this  arrow,  when 
the  chain  is  again  drawn  tight,  the  leader 
leaving  another  arrow,  and  the  follower 
taking  up  the  one  first  left.  The  entire 
line  is  thus  passed  over,  the  leader  leav- 
ing his  arrows  as  the  chain  runs  out,  and 
the  follower  gathering  them  up  as  the 
data  of  the  measurement.  The  follower 
must  be  careful  to  observe  that  the  leader 
keeps  in  the  line  between  him  and  the 
signal  toward  which  they  are  measuring; 
and  he  must  also  direct  him  to  give  in- 
formation when  he  arrives  at  any  point 
on  the  line  whence  a  perpendicular  may 
be  raised  to  the  angles  on  either  side. 
When  the  leader  intimates  his  arrival  at 
any  such  point,  both  he  and  the  follower 
stop,  draw  the  chain  tight  and  leave  it 
extended  on  the  ground.  The  follower 
does  not  remove  the  last  arrow  for  the 
present,  but  leaves  it  standing  and  lays 
those  he  has  gathered  up  beside  it ;  he 
then  proceeds  to  the  place  where  the 
leader  has  stopped,  and,  taking  the  cross- 
staff,  ascertains  the  precise  point  whence  the 
perpendicular  can  be  raised  to  the  angle. 
This  is  done  in  a  very  simple  manner — 
the  cross-staff  is  planted  close  to  the 
chain,  and  one  of  the  grooves  made  to 
coincide  with  it;  or,  in  other  words,  on 
looking  through  the  groove  in  opposite 
directions,  the  measurer  must  see  the 
point  whence  he  set  out,  and  the  point 
to  which  he  is  tending;  then  looking 
along  one  of  the  grooves  at  right  angles 
(without  disturbing  the  position  of  the 
cross-staft),  he  must  see  whether  it  bears 
directly  on  the  angular  point;  if  it  do 
not,  the  cross-staff  must  be  moved  back- 
ward or  forward  along  the  chain  till  the 
precise  point  is  determined ;  its  position 
on  the  line  of  measurement  is  then  noted 
on  the  field-book,  an  arrow  is  planted  at 
the  spot,  and  the  leader  and  follower, 
taking  their  respective  places,  proceed 
with  the  measurement  of  the  remainder 
of  the  line;  which  having  completed,  the 
various  perpendiculars  are  measured  from 
the  points  indicated  by  the  arrows. 

If  the  subject  of  the  survey  be  a  tri- 
angular or  quadrilateral  field,  with  straight 
sides,  the  field  work  is  completed  when 
the  longest  line  (that  is,  the  base  in  the 
triangle  and  the  diagonal  in  the  quadri- 
lateral) and  the  perpendiculars  are  meas- 
ured.    If  the  field  is  contained  under  a 


.428 


MECHANICAL. 


greater  number  of  sides  than  four,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  intersect  it  with  two  or 
more  lines,  from  each  of  which  perpen- 
diculars must  be  erected  to  the  angular 
points  along  the  boundary.  Very  fre- 
quently, also,  there  will  be  what  is  termed 
offsets,  or  the  irregularities  of  a  crooked 
boundary.  In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to 
take  a  straight  line  between  two  angles  of 
the  field  where  these  occur  and  measure 
offsets  or  perpendiculars  from  that  line 
toward  every  bend  or  angle  in  the  boun- 
dary, by  which  means  a  number  of  small 
triangles  or  trapezoids  are  obtained,  to  be 
included  in  or  deducted  from  the  total 
area,  according  as  they  are  within  or 
without  the  boundary  line. 

By  the  aid  of  a  single  diagram  we 
shall  endeavor  to  give  a  few  illustrative 
examples  of  field  work,  which  will  remove 
•all  misapprehension  and  difficulty. 

Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  contents 
of  the  triangular  field  ABC.  The  field 
measurements  will  be  the  line  A  B  =  900 
links,  or,  rather,  A  F  =  300  and  F  B  = 


=600,  and  the  perpendicular  F  C  =  480 ; 
from  these  the  subsequent  operations  of 
plotting  and  estimating  the  contents  can 
readily  be  performed,  as  will  presently  be 
shown. 

We  may  here  remark  that  the  plan 
observed  in  keeping  the  field-book  is  by 
no  means  uniform,  nearly  every  surveyor 
having  his  own  peculiar  method ;  and  so 
long  as  there  is  method,  and  the  memo- 
randa be  arranged  in  a  way  that  the 
measurer  can  himself  fully  comprehend 
them  when  he  leaves  the  field,  it  is  of 
small  consequence  what  plan  may  be 
adopted.  Usually,  however,  the  page  of 
the    field-book    is    divided    into    three 


columns ;  the  centre  one  is  occupied  by 
the  measurements  of  the  principal  lines, 
and  in  the  right  and  left  hand  columns 
are  entered  the  perpendiculars  and  offsets 
from  those  lines. 

Let  us  suppose  that  it  is  required  to 
find  the  measurement  of  a  quadrilateral 
field  A  B  C  D.  The  data  to  be  obtained 
in  the  field  are  these — the  diagonal  A  B, 
900  links,  and  the  perpendicular  F  C, 
480,  as  formerly,  A  E,  300  links,  and  the 
perpendicular,  D  E,  510.  Again,  we  will 
suppose  one  side  of  the  field  has  the 
crooked  and  irregular  boundary,  D  d  e  f 
B;  in  this  case,  in  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned,  the  field  measure- 
ments will  be  the  line,  D  B,  750  links, 
distinguished  into  D  a,  150,  a  b,  270,  b  c, 
150,  and  e  B,  180,  and  the  perpendicular 
offsets,  a  d,  150,  b  e,  90,  and  cf,  180. 

Offsets  are  usually  measured,  unless 
they  be  of  great  length,  with  the  cross- 
staff,  which  is  made  10  links  long  for  this 
purpose.  If,  however,  these  perpendicu- 
lars exceed  two  or  three  lengths  of  the 
staff,  it  is  better  to  use  the  chain.  These 
offsets,  it  is  also  to  be  noticed,  are  to  be 
measured  in  the  course  of  ascertaining 
the  line,  D  B. 

In  simple  surveys,  such  as  the  pre- 
ceding examples  refer  to,  it  is  usual  to 
sketch  the  form  of  the  field  on  a  page  of 
the  book,  and  enter  all  the  measurements 
and  remarks  on  the  corresponding  parts 
of  the  sketch.  This  is  an  excellent  plan, 
and  should  always  be  adopted  where  the 
case  will  admit  of  it. 

2.  We  come  now  to  the  plotting,  or 
laying  down  the  true  figure  of  the  field 
on  paper,  according  to  some  determinate 
scale ;  and  this  operation  is  no  less  simple 
than  that  of  taking  the  field  measure- 
ments. The  surveyor  requires  to  be  pro- 
vided with  a  case  of  drawing  instruments, 
containing  compasses,  steel  pen,  parallel 
ruler,  etc.;  and,  also,  a  plotting  scale, 
graduated  into  chains  and  parts  of  a 
chain.  The  paper  on  which  the  plotting 
is  to  be  made  should  be  dampened  on 
the  back  and  fastened  down  by  pasting 
the  edges  on  a  drawing-board  of  suitable 
dimensions.  When  dry,  the  paper  thus 
prepared  presents  a  smooth  and  uniform 
surface;  whilst  the  board  on  which  it  is 
laid  prevents  the  points  of  the  compasses 
from  piercing  deeply  into  it  and  making 
unsighdy  holes. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       429: 


We  will  begin  by  plotting  the  field,  A 
B  C,  the  measurement  of  which  forms  the 
first  example  in  the  preceding  section. 

Draw  an  indefinite  line  and  set  off 
from  the  plotting  scale  the  base  A  B,  = 
900  links,  marking  with  the  point  of  a 
pencil  the  termination,  A  and  B;  set  off 
on  A  B  the  distance,  A  F,  =  300  links, 
from  the  point  F  raise  an  indefinite  per- 
pendicular and  set  off  on  it  F  C,  =  480 
links ;  draw  lines  connecting  the  points, 
A  B,  B  C,  A  C,  and  the  field  is  correctly 
plotted.  The  field,  A  B  C  D,  it  will  be 
obvious,  merely  requires  the  erection  of 
the  perpendicular,  D  E,  =  510  links, 
and  drawing  lines  connecting  the  points, 
A  D,  D  B,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing 
operation. 

In  the  third  example,  where  the  boun- 
dary, D  d  e  f  B,  is  irregular,  on  the  line 
D  B  set  off  a,  =  150  links,  a  b  =  270 
links,  be  —  150  links  and  c  B  =  180 
links,  and  from  the  points,  a  b  c,  raise  the 
perpendiculars,  a  d,  =  150  links,  b  e  = 
90  links,  and  c  /=  180  links,  draw  lines 
connecting  the  points,  D  d,  d  e,  e  f,  f  B, 
which  finishes  the  plotting  of  the  whole 
field,  ACB/^D. 

It  is  usual  to  place  the  north  side  of 
the  plan  uppermost  with  a  flower-de-luce 
to  indicate  the  north  point,  and  in  a 
vacant  place  to  insert  a  scale  of  equal 
parts  or  chains  and  the  title  of  the  plan. 

3.  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  the 
computing  the  contents  of  the  various 
triangles  and  trapezoids,  and  bringing 
out  the  total  area  of  the  whole  survey, 
which  is  equally  simple  with  the  preced- 
ing operations. 

We  cannot  be  expected  in  the  limits  of 
this  work  to  give  a  comprehensive  treatise 
on  Mensuration  and  Superficies ;  we  shall, 
therefore,  confine  ourselves  to  mentioning 
two  or  three  things,  a  knowledge  of 
which  is  indispensably  necessary  in  the 
calculation  of  almost  every  survey : 

1.  The  base  and  perpendicular  of  any 
triangle  multiplied  into  each  other  gives 
twice  the  area  of  such  triangle;  or  the 
base  multiplied  by  half  the  perpendicular 
is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  triangle. 

2.  The  sum  of  the  parallel  sides  of  any 
trapezoid  (that  is,  a  four-sided  figure 
having  two  of  its  sides  parallel)  multiplied 
by  the   perpendicular  distance  between 


them,  gives  twice  the  area  of  such  trapez- 
oid ;  or,  half  the  sum  of  the  parallel  sides; 
multiplied  by  the  perpendicular  is  equal 
to  the  trapezoid. 

3.  The  number  of  square  links  in  an? 
acre,  100,000.  Hence  this  rule — square- 
links  are  reduced  to  acres  by  cutting  off 
five  figures  to  the  right,  as  a  remainder, 
which  is  to  be  multiplied  successively  by 
4  for  roods,  40  for  poles,  30^  for  yards,, 
and  9  for  feet,  at  each  multiplication^ 
cutting  off  5  figures  to  the  right;  the 
numbers  on  the  left  of  the  point  being, 
acres,  roods,  poles,  yards  and  feet. 

The  following  calculation  will  suffi- 
ciently illustrate  the  computing  of  sur- 
veys. 

Required  the  area  of  the  field,  A  C  R 
f  e  d  D— 

LINKS. 

Triangle,  A  B  C,  =  A  B,  900, 

X  C  E,  480,  =  432000 

Triangle,  A  B  D,  =  A  B,  900, 

X  D  E,  510,=  --.  459000- 

OFFSETS. 

Triangle,  D  a  d,=  D  a,  150,  X 

a  dy  150  =  -  -  -  -  22500. 
Trapezoid,  a  d e  b,-=.  ad,  150  + 

b  e,  90,  X  a  b,  270,=  -  64800 
Trapezoid,  b  e  J  c,  =  b  e,  90,  -f- 

c  f,  180,  X  be,  150,=  -  40500. 
Triangle,  c  fB,=c  /,  180,  X  c 

B,  180,  =-        ...    32400 

According  to  Rule,  divide  by  2)1051200 

Square  links,  -  5.25600 

4 


1.02400 
40 


.9608 


28.80000 
24000 

29.04000 
9 


.36000 
*  Contents  of  the  field,  5  acres,  1  rood, 
29  yards  and  about  j4  of  a  foot. 


43° 


MECHANICAL. 


BRICK-MAKING,  Hints  on.— The  art 
of  brick-making  is  a  distinct  branch  of 
the  useful  arts,  and  does  not  properly 
belong  to  that  of  the  builder;  but  as  he  is 
frequently  obliged  to  prepare  this 
material,  the  following  outline  of  the 
process  may  prove  of  service. 

The  best  brick-earth  is  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  pure  clay  and  sand,  deprived 
of  pebbles  of  every  kind,  but  particu- 
larly of  those  that  contain  lime  and 
pyritous,  or  other  metallic  substances ;  as 
these,  when  in  large  quantities,  and  in 
the  form  of  pebbles,  act  as  fluxes,  destroy 
the  shape  of  the  brick,  and  weaken  it,  by 
causing  cavities  and  cracks;  but  when 
present  in  small  quantities  and  equally 
diffused  throughout  the  earth,  they  assist 
the  vitrification  and  give  it  a  more  uni- 
form character. 

Good  brick-earth  is  frequently  found  in 
a  natural  state,  and  requires  no  other 
preparation  for  the  purpose  of  the  brick- 
maker. 

When  he  is  obliged  to  prepare  the 
earth  by  mixing  the  pure  clay  and  sand, 
direct  experiments  should  be  made  in  all 
cases  to  ascertain  the  proper  proportions 
of  the  two.  If  the  clay  is  in  excess,  the 
temperature  required  to  semi-vitrify  it 
will  cause  it  to  warp,  shrink  and  crack ; 
and  if  there  is  an  excess  of  sand,  com- 
plete vitrification  will  ensue  under  similar 
circumstances. 

The  quality  of  the  brick  depends  as 
much  on  the  care  bestowed  on  its  manu- 
facture as  on   the  quality   of  the  earth. 

The  first  stage  of  the  process  is  to  free 
the  earth  from  pebbles,  which  is  most 
effectually  done  by  digging  it  out  early 
in  the  fall,  and  exposing  it  in  small  heaps 
to  the  weather  during  the  winter.  In  the 
spring  the  heaps  are  carefully  riddled  if 
necessary,  and  the  earth  is  then  in  a 
proper  state  to  be  kneaded  or  tempered. 

The  quantity  of  water  required  in 
tempering  will  depend  on  the  quality  of 
the  earth ;  no  more  should  be  used  than 
will  be  sufficient  to  make  the  earth  so 
plastic  as  to  admit  of  its  being  easily 
moulded  by  the  moulder. 

About  half  a  cubic  foot  of  water  to  one 
of  the  earth  is,  in  most  cases,  a  good  pro- 


portion. If  too  much  water  be  used, 
the  brick  will  not  only  be  very  slow  in 
drying,  but  it  will,  in  most  cases,  crack, 
owing  to  the  surface  becoming  complete- 
ly dry  before  the  moisture  of  the  interior 
has  had  time  to  escape ;  the  consequence 
of  which  will  be  that  the  brick  when 
burnt  will  be  entirely  unfit  for  use,  or  very 
weak. 

Great  attention  is  requisite  in  drying 
the  brick  before  it  is  burned.  It  should 
be  placed  for  this  purpose  in  a  dry  ex- 
posure, and  be  sheltered  from  the  direct 
action  of  the  wind  and  sun,  in  order  that 
the  moisture  may  be  carried  off  slowly 
and  uniformly  from  the  entire  surface. 
When  this  precaution  is  not  taken,  the 
brick  will  generally  crack  from  the  un- 
equal shrinking,  arising  from  one  part 
drying  more  rapidly  than  the  rest. 

Too  large  a  proportion  of  sand  will 
render  the  brick  brittle  under  this  process; 
while  too  large  a  proportion  of  clayey 
matter  will  be  indicated  by  the  brick 
shrinking  and  cracking. 

The  burning  and  cooling  should  be 
done  with  equal  care.  A  very  moderate 
fire  should  be  applied  under  the  arches  of 
the  kiln  for  about  24  hours,  to  expel  any 
remaining  moisture  from  the  raw  brick. 
This  is  known  to  be  completely  effected 
when  the  smoke  from  the  kiln  is  no  longer 
white.  The  fire  is  then  increased  until 
the  bricks  of  the  arches  attain  a  white 
heat ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  abate  in  some 
degree,  in  order  to  prevent  complete 
vitrification ;  and  is  alternately  raised  and 
lowered  in  this  way  until  the  burning  is 
complete,  which  may  be  ascertained  by 
examining  the  bricks  at  the  top  of  the 
kiln. 

The  cooling  should  be  slowly  effected ; 
otherwise  the  bricks  will  not  withstand 
the  effects  of  the  weather.  This  is  done 
by  closing  the  mouths  of  the  arches  and 
the  tops  and  sides  of  the  kiln,  in  the  most 
effectual  manner  with  moist  clay  and 
burnt  brick,  and  allowing  the  kiln  to 
remain  in  this  state  until  the  warmth  is 
perfectly  subsided. 

A  kiln  13  feet  long,  10  feet  6  inches 
wide  and  12  feet  high,  the  walls  being 
perpendicular  on  the  inside,  and  piled 
full,  deducting  the  arch  openings,  will  con- 
tain about  25,000  bricks. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      431 


WEIGHTS  AND  LINE  Required   for 
Common  Sized  Windows. 

EACH  WEIGHT. 


8  X  IO 
8  X  12 
X 

X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 


9 
9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

10 
10 
10 
10  x 
10  X 
10 
10 
II 
II 
II 
II 

12 
12 
12 
12 
12 


II 
12 
13 
14 

15 
16 

12 

13 
14 

15 
16 

17 

18 

iS 

16 

17 
18 

14 

15 
16 

18 

20 


1%  inch. 

4  lbs. 

4^  " 
4^  " 

5  ," 

5^  " 

6  " 
6   " 


l}4  inch. 

s    lbs 

5 

« 

5H 

SV2 

« 

\% 

«< 

6 

« 

6* 

« 

ey2 

M 

6 

M 

6^ 

«« 

6^ 

<« 

7 

K 

7# 

(« 

7^ 

« 

8 

« 

7^ 

« 

VA 

M 

8 

«« 

8^ 

«« 

7^ 

« 

8 

M 

■■2 


Line  for  each 
weight. 

a#  ft. 

2%  - 

3  M 

3j<  " 

3^  " 

3#  " 

4  ■ 

3 ,  : 

3*  " 

38  - 

2^  " 

4  " 

4^  " 

4^  " 

3^  " 

4  " 

*X  " 

4JA  " 

3lA  " 

3K  " 

4  " 

4^  " 
5 


Each  Hank  contains  75  feet  of  Line. 
NAILS,  Size  of. — The  following  table 
will  show  at  a  glance  the  length  of  the 
various  sizes  and  the  number  of  nails  in 
a  pound.  They  are  rated  "3-penny"  up 
to  "  20-penny."  The  first  column  gives 
the  number,  the  second  the  length  in 
inches,  and  the  third  the  number  per 
pound — that  is : 
2 -penny     1       inch, 


4-     " 

XH 

5-     " 

*H 

6-     " 

2 

7-     " 

*X 

8-     " 

zy* 

10-     " 

2% 

12-     " 

3 

20-     " 

z% 

Spikes 

4 

4^ 

s 

6 

557 

nails 

per  lb. 

353 

« 

232 

a 

167 

«« 

141 

« 

101 

.( 

68 

M 

54 

M 

34 

.1 

15 

m 

12 

a 

10 

M 

7 

(« 

5 

«« 

.7        " 

From  this  table  an  estimate  of  quantity 

and  suitable  sizes  for  any  job  of  work  can 
be  made. 
MEASURING,  Paper-Hanging. —The 

various  sorts  of  paper  used  for  lining  walls 
it  would  be  useless  to  describe. 


We  have  only  to  mention  that  English 
papers  are  printed  in  pieces  of  12  yards 
in  length,  and  1  foot  8  inches  wide; 
hence,  1  yard  in  length  contains  5  feet 
superficial ;  therefore,  any  number  of  su- 
perficial feet  divided  by  60  (the  length 
36  feet  X  1  foot  8  inches)  will  give  the 
number  of  pieces  wanted  for  the  work. 

American  papers  are  8  yards  long,  and 
1  foot  6  inches  wide;  therefore,  if  the 
number  of  feet  contained  in  a  room  be 
divided  by  4.6,  it  will  show  the  number 
of  yards,  or,  by  36,  it  will  show  the 
number  of  pieces  of  paper  required. 

French  papers  are  1  foot  6  inches 
wide,  and  contain  9  yards;  therefore,  if 
the  number  of  feet  requred  to  be  covered 
be  known,  divide  by  4.6  for  the  number 
of  yards,  and  by  41.6  for  the  number  of 
pieces. 

ROOFING,  A  Cheap.— First  cover  the 
roof  with  ordinary  tongued  and  grooved 
floor-boards,  the  same  as  you  would  lay 
a  floor;  then  take  roofing-paper,  to  be 
obtained  in  any  large  town  or  city,  and 
cover  the  boards  with  that,  to  be  laid  on 
as  shingles  are  laid,  to  lap  over  each 
sheet  about  an  inch,  and  fastened  down 
with  large  tacks.  Over  the  paper  spread 
raw  tar.  Raw  tar  is  that  which  is  not 
heated  to  render  it  thicker.  It  can  be 
spread  with  a  trowel  made  of  a  shingle, 
about  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  deep.  Next 
take  a  sieve,  fill  it  with  sand,  and 
sprinkle  as  much  over  the  tar  as  it  will 
absorb,  sifting  on  the  sand  as  each  course 
of  tar  is  laid  on,  beginning  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  roof,  about  half  an  inch 
thick. 

Such  a  roof  should  have  a  slight 
descent — say  1  foot  in  twelve,  more  or 
less;  and  the  tar  should  be  laid  on  when 
the  heat  of  the  sun  will  not  cause  it  to 
run  out  of  its  place  before  the  sand  is 
put  on  it 

A  mortar  made  of  tar  and  sand,  like  a 
thick  paste,  will  stop  any  leaks  in  roofs, 
especially  around  chimneys,  that  can  be 
covered  by  it. 

SAW,  To  Put  in  Order. — First,  the  saw 
should  be  set;  this  may  be  done  by  laying 
the  blade  flat  upon  a  piece  of  heavy 
plank  or  scantling,  and  bending  the  teeth 
with  a  hammer  and  punch.  The  set,  or 
punch,  can  be  made  of  a  three-cornered 
saw  file,  broken  of  at  each  end,  and  the 
smallest     end    ground  square.     Set    the 


432 


MECHANICAL. 


punch  square  upon  the  tooth,  but  inclined 
from  you,  so  that  it  rests  mainly  upon 
the  point  of  the  tooth,  and  hit  it  a  light 
blow  with  the  hammer.  Every  tooth 
should  be  bent  in  this  manner,  then  the 
saw  turned  over,  and  the  operation 
repeated.  The  set  already  in  the  saw  will 
be  the  guide  as  to  the  direction  the  tooth 
is  to  be  bent,  if  the  saw,  previous  to 
setting,  is  inclined  to  catch  and  jump,  one 
of  three  things  is  the  matter :  the  set  is 
uneven ;  a  few  teeth  are  longer  than  the 
rest,  or  the  teeth  have  been  filed  hooking. 
Either  of  these  troubles  can  be  easily  de- 
tected and  remedied.  If  by  looking 
along  the  teeth  from  end  to  end,  an  un- 
evenness  is  seen,  lay  the  blade  upon  the 
head  of  an  axe,  or  something  of  that 
kind,  and  strike  gently  upon  the  sides  of 
the  teeth  with  a  hammer  until  all  of  the 
set  is  removed;  then  set  the  saw  as 
above  directed.  If  after  the  saw  is 
properly  set,  some  of  the  teeth  should  be 
longer  than  others,  put  the  blade  be- 
tween two  thin  boards,  three  or  four 
inches  wide,  and  as  long  as  the  saw, 
screw  them  firmly  in  a  vise,  the  same  as 
for  filing,  and  run  a  flat  saw-mill  file 
lengthwise  along  the  teeth  until  they  are 
brought  level.  The  saw  is  now  ready  for 
filing.  The  file  should  be  placed  between 
the  teeth  in  a  diagonal  direction,  but  held 
level.  Every  other  space  should  be  filed 
from  the  small  end  to  the  handle ;  then 
the  remaining  spaces  filed  by  holding  the 
file  at  an  opposite  angle.  After  this 
operation  is  completed,  then  look  across 
the  teeth  again,  and  if  the  channel  be- 
tween the  rows  of  teeth  terminates  in  the 
centre,  the  filing  is  good ;  if  it  terminates 
at  one  side  of  the  center,  the  full  side 
needs  more  filing.  If  the  saw  catches 
and  jumps  after  jointing  up,  it  will  be 
owing  to  the  teeth  having  been  filed  too 
hooking,  or,  in  other  words,  the  points  in- 
clined too  much  toward  'the  narrow  end  of 
the  saw.  This  can  be  remedied  by  refiling 
and  taking  off  from  the  lower  side  of  the 
teeth  enough  to  make  them  stand  upright 
on  the  blade.  Always  file  where  there  is 
sufficient  light  to  enable  you  to  see  points 
distinctly.  Be  exceedingly  careful  to 
stop  filing  as  soon  as  the  tooth 
is  filed  to  a  perfect  point.  One 
thrust  with  a  file  after  a  tooth 
has  been  brought  to  a  complete 
edge,  will  shorten  it,  and  put  the  saw  out 


of  order  just  in  proportion  as  the  point  is 
filed  off.  Let  the  points  be  set  uniformly,, 
and  only  a  little.  Go  over  the  teeth  with 
an  old  file,  and  give  them  a  more  per- 
fect cutting-edge.  Then  lay  the  blade 
flatly  on  a  smooth  board,  and  pass  a  fine- 
gritted  whetstone  along  the  sides  of  the 
points,  to  remove  the  wiry  edge,  and  to 
give  the  teeth  as  fine  a  cutting-edge  as 
practicable. 

SHEEP-SKINS,  To  prepare  for  Mats. 
— Make  a  strong  lather  with  hot  water, 
and  let  it  stand  till  cold ;  wash  the  fresh 
skin  in  it,  carefully  squeezing  out  all  the 
dirt  from  the  wool ;  wash  it  in  cold  water 
till  all  the  soap  is  taken  out.  Dissolve  a 
pound  each  of  salt  and  alum  in  two 
gallons  of  hot  water,  and  put  the  skin 
into  a  tub  sufficient  to  cover  it;  let  it  soak 
for  twelve  hours,  and  hang  it  over  a  pole 
to  drain.  When  well  drained,  stretch  it. 
carefully  on  a  board  to  dry,  and  stretch 
several  times  while  drying.  Before  it  is 
quite  dry,  sprinkle  on  the  flesh  side  one 
ounce  each  of  fine  pulverized  alum  and 
saltpetre,  rubbing  it  in  well  Try  if  the 
wool  be  firm  on  the  skin;  if  not,  let  it 
remain  a  day  or  two,  then  rub  again  with 
alum;  fold  the  flesh  sides  together  and 
hang  in  the  shade  for  two  or  three  days,, 
turning  them  over  each  day  till  quite 
dry.  Scrape  the  flesh  side  with  a  blunt 
knife,  and  rub  it  with  pumice  or  rotten 
stone, 

SKINS  (Small),  Stretching  and  Curing. 
— The  market  value  of  a  skin  is  greatly 
affected  by  the  care  taken  in  removing  it 
from  the  animal,  and  in  drying  it.  The 
common  way  is  to  tack  the  skin  to  the 
barn  door  and  let  it  remain  stretched 
until  quite  dry.  The  trapper  in  the 
woods,  having  no  such  convenience  as 
the  barn-door  at  hand,  is  obliged  to 
resort  to  other  methods.  One  plan  is  to 
dry  the  skin  on  a  hoop.  A  skin  to  be 
dried  in  this  manner  must  not  be  ripped 
down  the  belly,  but  it  is  cut  from  the 
lower  jaw  of  the  animal  to  just  below  its 
forelegs;  the  lips,  eyes,  and  ears  being  cut 
around,  the  skin  is  stripped  off,  leaving 
the  fur  side  inward.  The  hoop  consists  of 
a  branch  of  hickory  or  other  elastic  wood, 
an  inch  through  at  the  butt.  This  is 
bent  and  pushed  into  the  skin,  which  is 
drawn  tight,  and  fastened  in  place  by 
notches  in  the  bow,  drawing  the  skin  of 
the    lip,   into  these    notches.     A  much 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       433 


neater  way,  and  one  generally  preferred, 
is  to  use  stretchers  of  thin  wood.  As 
these  have  to  be  carried  by  the  trapper, 
they  are  made  of  light  wood  and  very 
thin.  They  are  three-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  thick,  20  inches  long,  6  inches  wide 
at  the  larger  end,  and  slightly  tapering. 
They  are  rounded  to  a  blunt  point  at  the 
lower  end,  and  the  edges  chamfered. 
The  skin  is  drawn  over  the  board,  and 
secured  with  tacks.  Skins  stretched  by 
these  methods  should  not  be  dried  in  the 
sun  nor  by  a  fire,  but  in  a  cool  place 
where  they  will  be  sheltered  from  the 
rain.  No  salt  or  other  preservative  is 
used  upon  skins  intended  for  the  market. 

OX- YOKE,  How  to  Make.— To  make 
this  yoke  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  stick 
of  light  and  strong  timber,  such  as  but- 
ternut, walnut,  sycamore,  basswood,  soft 
maple,  or  wild  cherry,  each  of  which  is 
excellent  material.  The  size  of  the  stick 
necessary  is  ten  by  sixteen  inches,  and 
five  feet  long.  This  should  be  sawed 
in  two,  cutting  out  two  inches  of  the 
heart,  making  two  pieces  ten  by  seven. 
One  side  and  edge  of  the  piece  should 
be  dressed  square ;  the  center  found,  the 
first  bow-hole  is  then  bored  twelve  inches 
from  this  center;  the  second  bow- 
hole  twelve  inches  from  the  first.  To 
make  the  holes  accurate,  they  should 
be  marked,  and  bored  from  each  side, 
meeting  in  the  center.  The  auger 
should  be  two  inches  diameter.  Af- 
ter the  holes  are  bored,  they  should 
be  burned  with  a  hot  iron  and  made 
smooth.  The  yoke  is  then  laid  out  three 
and  a  half  inches  thick  in  the  center  be- 
tween the  bow-holes,  and  six  and  a  half 
inches  thick  in  the  center  between  the 
two  bows,  where  the  ring  is  placed ;  the 
ends  are  beveled  off,  and  lines  of  proper 
curvature  laid  out  between  the  points 
marked.  The  yoke  may  be  fashioned 
either  with  a  jig  or  band  saw  or  foot  adz, 
and  should  then  be  finished  up  square 
and  true  from  the  face-side  with  a  draw- 
ing-knife. It  should  then  be  laid  upon 
its  back  and  four  and  one-half  inches 
marked  off  at  the  center  for  the  width, 
cutting  off  about  one  and  one-fourth  inch 
on  each  side.  The  ends  are  then  tapered 
off,  and  where  previously  beveled,  are  now 
rounded. 

The  bottom  or  inside  of  the  yoke  is 
now  to  be  rounded,  by  first  taking  off  a 

28 


broad  chamfer,  and  then  rounding  up 
smooth,  the  top  to  be  left  flat  and  square, 
except  a  broad  chamfer  around  the  edge 
of  the  yoke.  The  bows  are  twenty-eight 
to  thirty  inches  in  length  and  two  inches 
in  diameter.  No  staple  is  to  be  used, 
but  a  board  strap,  which  goes  round  the 
yoke,  having  screws  cut  on  the  end,  and 
a  plate  held  down  by  nuts  screwed  over 
it,  to  clasp  the  yoke  and  strengthen  it. 
In  the  bottom  of  the  strap  is  placed  two 
pieces  of  cast-iron,  which  have  a  flange 
upon  the  edge  and  four  slight  projections 
upon  the  top,  for  which  small  holes  are- 
bored  in  the  yoke.  The  two  pieces  are 
so  formed  that  when  they  are  placed  to- 
gether they  have  a  hole  in  the  middle - 
in  which  the  ring  is  inserted ;  the  strap  is 
placed  around  them  and  put  upon  the 
yoke,  and  the  nuts  upon  the  top  screwed 
tight.  Such  a  yoke  is  much  stronger  and 
better  than  when  a  staple  passes  through 
it.  

BTJCKSKTffS,  To  Tan.— Take  a  skinr 
either  green  or  well  soaked,  and  flesh  it 
with  a  dull  knife;  spread  the  skin  on  a 
smooth  log  and  grain  it  by  scraping  with 
a  sharp  instrument ;  rub  nearly  dry  over 
the  oval  end  of  a  board  held  upright. 
Take  the  brains  of  a  deer  or  a  calf,  dry 
by  the  fire  gently,  put  them  into  a  cloth 
and  boil  until  soft,  cool  off  the  liquid 
until  blood-warm,  with  water  sufficient  to 
soak  the  skin  in,  and  soak  until  quite  soft 
and  pliable,  and  then  wring  out  as  dry  as 
possible;  wash  in  strong  soap-suds  and 
rub  dry,  and  smoke  well  with  wood' 
smoke.  Instead  of  brains,  oil  or  lard 
may  be  used,  and  the  skin  soaked  therein, 
six  hours.     This  is  called  Indian  tad. 

FXJE  SKEINS,  Any  Kind,  to  Tan. — 
After  you  have  cut  off  the  useless  parts,, 
and  softened  the  skins  by  soaking  in 
warm  water,  take  away  the  fatty  part 
from  the  inside,  after  which,  soak  the- 
skins  in  tepid  water  for  two  hours.  Next,, 
mix  equal  parts  of  borax,  saltpetre,  and 
glauber  salts  (sulphate  of  soda),  in  the 
proportion  of  about  one-third  ounce  of 
each  for  each  skin,  with  sufficient  water , 
to  make  a  thin  paste ;  spread  this  with  a 
brush  over  the  inside  of  the  skin,  applying 
more  on  the  thicker  parts  than  the  thin- 
ner; double  the  skin  together,  flesh  side 
inwards,  and  place  it  in  a  cool  place. 
After  standing  twenty-four  hours,  wash 
the  skin  clean,  and  apply  in  the  same. 


434 


MECHANICAL. 


manner  as  before,  a  mixture  of  one  ounce 
sal  soda,  one-third  ounce  borax,  and  two 
ounces  hard  white  soap,  melted  slowly- 
together  without  being  allowed  to  boil; 
fold  together  again  and  put  away  in  a 
warm  place  for  twenty-four  hours.  After 
this,  dissolve  three  ounces  alum,  seven 
ounces  salt,  and  one  and  one-half  ounces 
saleratus,  in  sufficient  hot  rain-water  to 
saturate  the  skin ;  when  cool  enough  not 
to  scald  the  hands,  soak  the  skin  in  it  for 
twelve  hours ;  then  wring  out  and  hang  it 
up  to  dry.  When  dry  repeat  this  soaking 
and  drying  two  or  three  times,  till  the 
skin  is  sufficiently  softly.  Lastly,  smooth 
the  inside  with  fine  sandpaper  and  pumice- 
stone. 

LEATHER,  Tanning.— It  is  often  a 
matter  of  both  convenience  and  economy 
in  the  household  or  on  the  farm  to  be 
able  to  do  a  little  tanning;  so  we  give 
here  an  approved  recipe  which  may  prove 
useful:  Soak  the  skin  or  hide  eight  or 
nine  days  in  water,  then  put  it  in  lime; 
lake  it  out,  and  remove  the  hair  by  rub- 
bing it,  and  soak  it  in  clear  water  until  the 
lime  is  entirely  out.  Put  one  pound  of 
alum  to  three  of  salt;  dissolve  in  a  vessel 
.sufficiently  large  to  hold  the  hide ;  soak 
the  hide  in  it  three  or  four  days,  then 
take  it  out,  let  it  get  half  dry,  and  then 
beat  or  rub  it  until  it  becomes  pliable. 
Leather  prepared  by  this  process  will  not 
do  well  for  shoes,  but  answers  for  ham- 
strings, backhands,  and  various  other 
purposes  on  the  farm. 

MUSKRAT  SKINS,  Tanning  with  the 
Fur  on. — To  do  this  successfully,  first 
give  the  skins  a  good  wash  in  warm 
water,  after  which  remove  all  fatty  and 
fleshy  matter.  Then  place  the  skins  in  a 
liquor  to  soak,  prepared  as  follows: 

To  five  gallons  of  cold  soft  water  add 
four  quarts  of  wheat  bran,  one-fourth 
pint  old  soap,  one-half  ounce  borax;  by 
.adding  one  ounce  sulphuric  acid  the 
soaking  may  be-done  in  one-half  the 
time.  If  the  hides  have  not  been  salted, 
add  one-half  pint  salt.  Green  hides 
should  not  be  soaked  more  than  eight  or 
ten  hours.  Dry  ones  should  soak  till 
very  soft.  For  tan  liquor,  to  five  gallons 
warm  soft  water,  add  one-fourth  bushel 
ibran ;  stir  well  and  let  stand  in  a  warm 
room  till  it  ferments.  Then  add  slowly 
.one  pound  sulphuric  acid;  stir  all  the 
while.     Muskrat  hides  should  remain  in 


about  four  hours ;  then  take  out  and  rub 
with  a  fleshing  knife — (an  old  chopping 
knife  with  the  edge  taken  off  will  do). 
Then  work  it  over  a  beam  until  entirely 
dry. 

RABBIT  SKINS,  To  Cure.— First  lay 
the  skin  on  a  smooth  board,  placing  the 
iur  side  under,  and  fasten  the  skin  to  the 
board  with  tinned  tacks.  Wash  it  over 
with  a  solution  of  salt ;  then  dissolve  one 
and  one-fourth  ounces  alum  in  one-half 
pint  of  warm  water,  and  with  a  sponge 
dipped  in  this  solution,  moisten  the  sur- 
face all  over;  repeat  this  every  now  and 
then  for  three  days;  when  the  skin  is 
quite  dry,  take  out  the  tacks,  and  rolling 
it  loosely  the  wrong  way,  the  hair  inside, 
draw  it  quickly  backwards  and  forwards 
through  a  large  smooth  ring,  until  it  is 
quite  soft,  then  roll  it  in  the  contrary  way 
of  the  skin,  and  repeat  the  operation. 
Skins  prepared  thus  are  useful  for  many 
domestic  purposes. 

SHEEP-SKINS,  To  Cure  with  the 
Wool  on. — Take  a  spoonful  of  alum  and 
two  of  saltpetre ;  pulverize  and  mix  well 
together,  then  sprinkle  the  powder  on  the 
flesh  side  of  the  skin,  and  lay  the  two 
flesh  sides  together,  leaving  the  wool 
outside.  Then  fold  up  the  skin  as  tight 
as  you  can,  and  hang  it  in  a  dry  place. 
In  two  or  three  days,  or  as  soon  as  it  is 
dry,  take  it  down  and  scrape  it  with  a 
blunt  knife,  till  clean  and  supple.  This 
completes  the  process,  and  makes  you  a 
most  excellent  saddle  cover.  If,  when 
you  kill  your  mutton,  you  treat  the  skins 
this  way,  you  can  get  more  for  them  from 
the  saddler  than  you  can  get  for  the 
wool  and  skin  separately  disposed  other- 
wise. 

Other  skins  which  you  desire  to  cure 
with  the  fur  or  hair  on,  may  be  treated  in 
the  same  way. 

SMALL  SKINS,  To  Tan.— When  taken 
from  the  animal,  let  the  skins  be  nailed 
in  the  shape  of  an  oblong  square  on  a 
board  to  dry,  fur  side  down.  Before 
taking  them  from  the  board,  clean  off  all 
the  fat  or  oily  matter  with  a  dull  knife. 
Be  careful  not  to  cut  the  skins.  When 
you  wish  to  tan  them,  soak  thoroughly  in 
cold  water  until  soft;  then  squeeze  out 
the  water,  and  take  of  soft  water  three 
quarts,  salt  half  a  pint,  and  best  oil  of 
vitrol,  one  ounce.  Stir  well  with  a  stick, 
and  put  in  the  skins  quickly,  and  leave 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      435 


thwrti  in  thirty  minutes.  Then  take  them 
in  your  hand  and  squeeze  (not  wring) 
them  out,  and  hang  in  the  shade,  fur  side 
down,  to  dry.  If  you  get  the  quantity 
of  liquor  proportioned  to  the  skin,  they 
will  need  no  rubbing  to  make  them  soft ; 
and,  tanned  in  this  way,  the  moths  will 
never  disturb  them. 

SKINS,  To  Tan  with  the  Hair  on.— 
Stretch  the  skin  tightly  and  smoothly 
upon  a  board,  hair  side  down,  and  tack 
it  by  the  edges  to  its  place.  Scrape  off 
the  loose  flesh  and  fat  with  a  blunt  knife, 
and  work  in  chalk  freely,  with  plenty  of 
hard  rubbing.  When  the  chalk  begins  to 
powder  and  fall  off,  remove  the  skin  from 
the  board,  rub  in  plenty  of  powdered 
alum,  wrap  up  closely,  and  keep  it  in  a 
dry  place  for  a  few  days.  By  this  means 
it  will  be  made  pliable,  and  will  retain 
the  hair. 

Another. — Take  of  soft  water,  ten  gal- 
lons ;  wheat  bran,  one-half  bushel ;  salt, 
seven  pounds;  sulphuric  acid,  two  and 
one-half  pounds.  Dissolve  altogether  and 
place  the  skins  in  the  solution,  and  allow 
them  to  remain  twelve  hours ;  then  re- 
move and  clean  them  well,  and  again 
immerse  twelve  hours,  or  longer  if  neces- 
sary. The  skins  may  then  be  taken  out, 
well  washed,  and  dried.  They  can  be 
beaten  soft  if  desired. 

Another. — Saltpetre,  two  parts ;  alum, 
one  part.  Mix.  Sprinkle  uniformly  on 
the  flesh  side,  roll  up  and  lay  in  a  cool 
place.  Spread  it  out  to  dry.  Scrape  off 
the  fat  and  rub  till  pliable. 

VARNISH  BRUSHES,  Care  of.— Brush- 
es used  for  applying  finishing  varnishes 
should  be  cared  for  with  the  utmost  pains, 
as  good  work  depends  much  upon  the 
good  condition  of  the  brushes.  A  good 
way  to  keep  them  is  to  suspend  them  by 
the  handles  in  a  covered  can,  keeping 
the  points  at  least  half  an  inch  from  the 
bottom,  and  apart  from  each  other.  The 
can  should  be  filled  with  slow-drying  var- 
nish up  to  a  line  about  a  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  above  the  bristles  or  hair.  The  can 
should  then  be  kept  in  a  close  cupboard, 
or  in  a  box  fitted  for  the  purpose.  As 
wiping  a  brush  on  a  sharp  edge  of  tin  will 
gradually  split  the  bristles,  cause  them  to 
turn  backward,  and  eventually  ruin  the 
brush,  the  top  of  the  can  should  have  a 
wire  soldered  along  the  edge  of  the  tin 
turned  over,  in  order  to  prevent  injury. 


Finishing  brushes  should  not  be  cleansed 
in  turpentine,  except  in  extreme  cases. 
When  taken  from  the  can,  prepare  them 
for  use  by  working  them  out  in  varnish, 
and  before  replacing  them  cleanse  the 
handles  and  binding  with  turpentine. 

VARNISHES,  Cautions  Respecting  the 
Making  of. — As  heat  in  many  cases  is 
necessary  to  dissolve  the  gums  used  in 
making  varnish,  the  best  way,  when  prac- 
ticable, is  to  use  what  the  chemists  call  a 
sand  bath,  which  is  simply  placing  the 
vessel  in  which  the  varnish  is  in  another 
filled  with  sand  and  placed  on  the  fire. 
This  will  generally  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  spirits  catching  fire;  but  to  avoid 
such  an  accident  (which  not  unfrequently 
happens),  it  will  be  best  to  take  a  vessel 
sufficiently  large  that  there  shall  be  little 
danger  of  spilling  its  contents ;  indeed, 
the  vessel  should  never  be  more  than  two- 
thirds  filled.  However,  a  piece  of  board 
sufficiently  large  to  cover  the  top  of 
the  vessel  should  always  be  at  hand 
in  case  the  spirits  should  take  fire;  as 
also  a  wet  wrapper,  in  case  it  should 
be  spilt,  as  water  icself  thrown  on  would 
only  increase  the  mischief.  The  person 
who  attends  the  varnish-pot  should  have 
his  hands  covered  with  gloves,  and,  if 
they  are  made  of  leather  and  rather 
damp,  it  will  eventually  prevent  injury. 
These  cautionc  should  be  well  observed, 
or  shocking  personal  injury  may  result 
from  their  neglect. 

VARNISH,  Amber. — a.  Amber,  one 
pound ;  pale  boiled  oil,  ten  ounces ;  tur- 
pentine, one  pint.  Render  the  amber, 
placed  in  an  iron  pot,  semi-liquid  by 
heat;  then  add  the  oil,  mix,  remove  it 
from  the  fire,  and  when  cooled  a  little 
stir  in  the  turpentine,  b.  To  the  amber, 
melted  as  above,  add  two  ounces  of 
shellac,  and  proceed  as  before. 

This  varnish  is  rather  dark,  but  re- 
markably tough.  The  first  form  is  the 
best.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purposes 
as  copal  varnish,  and  forms  an  excellent 
article  for  covering  wood,  or  any  other 
substance  not  of  a  white  or  pale  color. 
It  dries  well,  and  is  very  hard  and  dur- 
able. 

VARNISH,  Amber  Black.— Amber,  one 
pound;  boiled  oil,  one-half  pint;  pow- 
dered asphaltum,  six  ounces ;  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, one  pint.  Melt  the  amber,  as 
before  described,   then  add  the  asphal- 


43* 


MECHANICAL. 


turn,  previously  mixed  with  the  cold  oil, 
and  afterwards  heated  very  hot;  mix  well, 
remove  the  vessel  from  the  fire,  and  when 
cooled  a  little  add  the  turpentine,  also 
made  warm. 

Each  of  the  above  varnishes  should  be 
reduced  to  a  proper  consistence  with 
more  turpentine  if  required.  The  last 
form  produces  the  beautiful  black  varnish 
used  by  the  coach-makers.  Some  man- 
ufacturers omit  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
asphaltum,  and  use  the  same  quantity 
of  clear  black  resin  instead,  in  which 
case  the  color  is  brought  up  by  lampblack 
reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  or  pre- 
viously ground  very  fine  with  a  little 
boiled  oil.  The  varnish  made  in  this 
way,  lacks,  however,  that  richness,  bril- 
liancy, and  depth  of  blackness  imparted 
by  asphaltum. 

VARNISH,  Amber,  Pale.— a.  Amber 
pale  and  transparent,  six  pounds;  fuse, 
add  hot  clarified  linseed  oil,  two  gallons ; 
boil  till  it  strings  strongly,  cool  a  little, 
and  add  oil  of  turpentine  four  gallons. 
Pale  as  copal  varnish;  soon  becomes 
very  hard,  and  is  the  most  durable  of 
oil  varnishes;  but  requires  time  before 
it  is  fit  for  polishing.  When  wanted  to 
dry  and  harden  quickly,  drying  oil  may 
be  substituted  for  linseed,  or  "driers" 
may  be  added  during  the  boiling. 

b.  Amber,  one  pound ;  melt,  add  Scio 
turpentine,  one-half  pound;  transparent 
white  resin,  two  ounces ;  hot  linseed  oil, 
one  pint,  and  afterwards  oil  of  turpen- 
tine as  much  as  sufficient,  as  above.  Very 
tough. 

c.  Hard — Melted  amber,  four  ounces; 
hot  boiled  oil,  one  quart,  as  before. 

d.  Fale — Very  pale  and  transparent 
amber,  four  ounces ;  clarified  linseed  oil 
and  oil  of  turpentine,  of  each  one  pint,  as 
before. 

Amber  varnish  is  suited  for  all  pur- 
poses, where  a  very  hard  and  durable 
oil  varnish  is  required.  The  paler  kind 
is  superior  to  copal  varnish,  and  is  often 
mixed  with  the  latter  to  increase  its  hard- 
ness and  durability. 

VARNISH,  Black,  for  Iron-Work.— 
Asphaltum,  forty-eight  pounds ;  fuse,  add 
boiled  oil,  ten  gallons ;  red  lead  and  li- 
tharge, of  each  seven  pounds ;  dried  and 
powdered  white  copperas,  three  pounds; 
boil  for  two  hours,  then  add  dark-gum 
amber  (fused),  eight  pounds ;  hot  linseed 


oil,  two  gallons ;  boil  for  two  hours  lon- 
ger, or  till  a  little  of  the  mass,  when  cool- 
ed, may  be  rolled  into  pills,  then  with- 
draw the  heat,  and  afterwards  thin  down 
with  oil  of  turpentine,  thirty  gallons. 
Used  for  the  iron  work  of  carriages,  and 
other  nice  purposes. 

VARNISH,  Black.— Heat  to  boiling 
linseed  oil  varnish,  ten  parts,  with  burnt 
umber,  two  parts,  and  powdered  asphal- 
tum, one  part,  and  when  cool  dilute  with 
spirits  of  turpentine  to  the  required  con- 
sistence. 

VARNISH,  Black,  for  Wood.— There 
are  two  kinds  of  black  varnish : 

a.  The  ordinary  black  varnish  foi  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  wood. 

b.  The  black  ebony  varnish  for  certain 
woods  which  approach  nearest  to  ebony 
in  hardness  and  weight. 

The  ordinary  black  wood  varnish  is  ob- 
tained by  boiling  together  blue  Brazil 
wood,  powdered  gall  apples  and  alum,  in 
rain  or  river  water,  until  it  becomes 
black.  This  liquid  is  then  filtered  through 
a  fine  organzine,  and  the  objects  painted 
with  a  new  brush  before  the  decoction 
has  cooled,  and  this  is  repeated  until  the 
wood  appears  of  a  fine  black  color.  It  is 
then  coated  with  the  following  varnish  : 
a  mixture  of  iron  filings,  vitriol  and  vine- 
gar is  heated  (without  boiling),  and  left  a 
few  days  to  settle.  If  the  wood  is  black 
enough,  yet  for  the  sake  of  durability,  it 
must  be  coated  with  a  solution  of  alum 
and  nitric  acid,  mixed  with  a  little  verdi- 
gris ;  then  a  decoction  of  gall  apples  and 
logwood  dyes  is  used  to  give  it  a  deep 
black.  A  decoction  may  be  made  of 
brown  Brazil  wood  with  alum  in  rain  wa- 
ter, without  gall  apples ;  the  wood  is  left 
standing  in  it  for  some  days  in  a  moder- 
ately warm  place,  and  to  it  merely  iron 
filings  in  strong  vinegar  are  added,  and 
both  are  boiled  with  the  wood  over  a 
gentle  fire.  For  this  purpose  soft  pear 
wood  is  chosen,  which  is  preferable  to  alL 
others  for  black  varnishing. 

For  the  fine  black  ebony  varnish,  ap- 
ple, pear,  and  hazlewood  are  recommend- 
ed in  preference  for  this;  especially 
when  these  kinds  of  wood  have  no 
projecting  veins,  they  may  be  success- 
fully coated  with  black  varnish,  and 
are  then  most  complete  imitation  of 
the  natural  ebony.  For  this  varnish : 
fourteen  ounces  of  gall  apples,  three  and 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      437 


a  half  ounces  of  rasped  logwood,  one  and 
three-fourths  ounces  of  vitriol,  and  one 
and  three-fourths  ounces  of  distilled  ver- 
digris are  boiled  together  with  water  in  a 
well-glazed  pot,  the  de6oction  filtered 
while  it  is  warm,  and  the  wood  coated 
with  repeated  hot  layers  of  it. 

For  a  second  coating  a  mixture  of 
three  and  a  half  ounces  of  pure  iron 
filings,  dissolved  in  three-fourths  ot  liter 
of  strong  wine  vinegar,  is  warmed,  and 
when  cool  the  wood  already  blackened  is 
coated  two  or  three  times  with  it,  allow- 
ing each  coat  to  dry  between. 

For  articles  which  are  to  be  thoroughly 
saturated,  a  mixture  of  three-fourths  ounce 
of  sal  ammoniac,  with  a  sufficient  quanti- 
ty of  steel-filings,  is  to  be  placed  in  a  suit- 
able vessel,  strong  vinegar  poured  upon 
it,  and  left  for  fourteen  days  in  a  gently 
heated  oven.  A  strong  lye  is  now  put 
into  a  good  pot,  to  which  is  added  coarse- 
ly bruised  gall  apples  and  blue  Brazil 
shavings,  and  exposed  for  the  same  time 
as  the  iormer,  to  a  gentle  heat  of  an  oven, 
which  will  then  yield  a  good  varnish. 
The  pear  wood  articles  are  now  laid  in 
the  first-named  varnish,  boiled  for  a  few 
hours,  and  left  in  for  three  days  longer; 
they  are  then  placed  in  the  second  var- 
nish and  treated  as  in  the  first.  If  the 
articles  are  not  then  thoroughly  saturated 
they  may  be  once  more  placed  in  the 
first  bath  and  then  in  the  second. 

VARNISH,  For  Basket  Ware.— The 
following  varnish  for  basket  work  is  said 
to  dry  rapidly,  to  possess  sufficient  elas- 
ticity, and  to  be  applicable  with  or  with- 
out admixture  of  color:  Heat  375  grains 
of  good  linseed  oil  on  a  sand-bath  until  it 
becomes  stringy,  and  a  drop  placed  upon 
a  cold,  inclined  surface  does  not  run; 
then  add  gradually  7,500  grains  of  copal 
oil  varnish,  or  any  other  oil  varnish.  As 
considerable  effervescence  takes  place,  a 
large  vessel  is  necessary.  The  desired 
consistency  is  given  to  it,  when  cold,  by 
addition  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

VARNISH,  Coachmakers'.— The  fine 
black  varnish  of  the  coachmakers  is  said 
to  be  prepared  by  melting  sixteen  ounces 
of  amber  in  an  iron  pot,  adding  to  it 
half  a  pint  of  drying  linseed  oil,  boiling 
hot,  of  powdered  resin  and  asphaltum, 
three  ounces  each.  When  the  materials 
are  well  united,  by  stirring  over  the  fire, 
they  are  to  be  removed,  and  after  cooling 


for  some  time,  a  pint  of  warm  oil  of  tur- 
pentine is  to  be  introduced. 

VARNISH,  Colorless.— Dissolve  two 
ounces  and  a  half  of  shellac  in  a  pint  of 
rectified  spirits  of  wine ;  boil  for  a  fevr 
minutes  with  five  ounces  of  well-burned 
and  recently-heated  animal  charcoal.  A 
small  portion  of  the  solution  should  then 
be  filtered,  and  if  not  colorless,  more 
charcoal  must  be  added.  When  all  color 
is  removed,  press  the  liquor  through  a 
piece  of  silk,  and  afterward  filter  through 
fine  blotting  paper.  This  kind  of  varnish 
should  be  used  in  a  room  of  at  least  sixty 
degrees  Fahr.,  perfectly  free  from  dust. 
It  dries  in  a  few  minutes,  and  is  not  liable 
afterward  to  chill  or  bloom.  It  is  partic- 
ularly applicable  to  drawings  and  prints 
that  have  been  sized,  and  may  be  used 
for  gilding. 

VARNISH,  Copal  Blue.— Indigo,  Prus- 
sian blue,  blue  verditer,  or  ultra-marine. 
All  these  substances  must  be  powdered 
fine. 

VARNISH,  ForjCardwork,— Before  var- 
nishing cardwork  it  must  receive  two  or 
three  coats  of  size  to  prevent  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  varnish  and  any  injury  to  the 
design.  Size  may  be  made  by  dissolving 
a  little  isinglass  in  hot  water,  or  by  boil- 
ing some  parchment  cuttings  until  dis- 
solved. In  either  case  the  solution  must 
be  strained  through  a  piece  of  thin  mus- 
lin, and  for  very  nice  purposes  should  be 
clarified  with  a  little  white  of  egg.  A 
small  clean  brush,  called  by  painters  a 
sash  tool,  is  the  best  for  applying  the 
size  as  well  as  the  varnish.  Touch  light- 
ly, especially  for  first  coat,  lest  the  ink  or 
colors  be  started  or  smothered. 

VARNISH,  Chinese.  —  Mastic,  two 
ounces ;  sandarach,  two  ounces ;  rectified 
spirit,  a  pint.  Close  the  matrass  with 
bladder,  with  a  pin-hole  for  the  escape  of 
vapor ;  heat  to  boiling  in  a  sand  or  water 
bath,  and  when  dissolved  strain  through 
linen. 

VARNISH,  Pale  Carriage.— Take  co- 
pal, thirty-two  parts;  pale  oil,  eighty 
parts;  fuse  and  boil  until  stringy,  then 
add  dried  white  copperas,  one  part ;  li- 
tharge, one  part.  Boil  again,  then  cool  a 
little,  and  mix  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  parts.     Strain. 

While  making  the  above — Take  gum 
anime,  thirty-two  parts ;  pale  oil,  eighty 
parts ;  dried  sugar  of  lead,  one  part ;  li- 


43« 


MECHANICAL. 


tharge,  one  part ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  one 
hundred  and  seventy  parts.  Pursue  the 
same  treatment  as  before,  and  mix  the 
two  varnishes  while  hot. 

VARNISH,  Crystal — Picked  mastic, 
four  ounces ;  rectified  spirit,  a  pint ;  ani- 
mal charcoal,  one  ounce.  Digest  and 
filter. 

VARNISH  FOR  CHROMOS. —The 
best  varnish  tor  chromos  is  made  of  gum 
mastic  dissolved  in  spirits  of  turpentine. 
It  should  be  of  such  thickness  as  to 
spread  easily  and  evenly  with  a  common 
varnishing  brush.  If  a  chromo  is  not 
oil-colors,  two  coats  of  size  (isinglass 
dissolved  in  water)  should  be  first  given 
to  it.  When  the  size  is  dry  the  varnish 
may  be  laid  on.  Two  or  three  coats  may 
be  needed  to  get  a  good  surface,  which 
should  be  perfectly  free  from  cracks. 
This  varnish  may  be  cleaned  with  a  soft 
sponge  and  soap  and  water.  It  is  equally 
serviceable  for  maps  and  drawings  as  for 
chromos  or  paintings. 

VARNISH,  Copal,  to  dissolve  in  Alco- 
hol.— Copal,  which  is  called  gum  copal, 
but  which  is  not  strictly  either  a  gum  or 
a  resin,  is  the  hardest  and  least  change- 
able of  all  substances  adapted  to  form  var- 
nishes, by  their  dissolution  in  spirit,  or 
essentials,  or  fat  oils.  It  therefore  forms  the 
most  valuable  varnishes;  though  we  shall 
give  several  receipts  where  it  is  not 
employed,  which  form  cheaper  varnishes, 
sufficiently  good  for  many  purposes, 
adding  only  the  general  rule,  that  no 
varnish  must  be  expected  to  be 
harder  than  the  substance  from  which  it 
is  made. 

To  dissolve  copal  in  alcohol,  dissolve 
half  an  ounce  of  camphor  in  a  pint  of 
alcohol;  put  it  into  a  circulating  glass,  and 
add  four  ounces  of  copal  in  small  pieces ; 
set  it  in  a  sand-heat,  so  regulated  that 
the  bubbles  may  be  counted  as  they 
rise  from  the  bottom,  and  continue  the 
same  heat  till  the  solution  is  completed. 

The  process  above  mentioned  will  dis- 
solve more  copal  than  the  menstruum 
will  retain  when  cold.  The  most  economi- 
cal method  will  therefore  be  to  set  the 
vessel  which  contains  the  solution  by  for 
a  few  days,  and  when  it  is  perfectly  set- 
tied,  pour  off  the  clear  varnish  and  leave 
the  residue  for  future  operation. 

The  solution  of  copal  thus  obtained  is 
very  bright.     It   is   an  excellent  varnish 


for  pictures,  and  would  doubtless  be  an 
improvement  in  japanning,  where  the 
stoves  used  for  drying  the  varnished 
articles  would  drive  off  the  camphor  and 
leave  the  copal  clear  and  colorless  in  the 
work. 

VARNISH,  Copal,  to  Dissolve  in 
Spirits  of  Turpentine.  —  Reduce  two 
dunces  of  copal  to  small  pieces  and  put 
them  into  a  proper  vessel.  Mix  a  pint  of 
the  best  spirits  of  turpentine  with  one- 
eighth  of  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac;  shake 
them  well  together,  put  them  to  the 
copal,  cork  the  glass  and  tie  it  over  with 
a  string  of  wire,  making  a  small  hole 
through  the  cork.  Set  the  glass  in  a 
sand-heat  so  regulated  as  to  make  the 
contents  boil  as  quickly  as  possible,  but 
so  gently  that  the  bubbles  may  be  counted 
as  they  rise  from  the  bottom.  The  same 
heat  must  be  kept  up  exactly  till  the  solu- 
tion is  complete. 

It  requires  the  most  accurate  attention 
to  succeed  in  this  operation.  After  the 
spirits  are  mixed  they  should  be  put  to 
the  copal  and  the  necessary  degree  of 
heat  be  given  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
maintained  with  the  utmost  regularity. 
If  the  heat  abates  or  the  spirits  boil 
quicker  than  is  directed,  the  solution 
will  immediately  stop,  and  it  will  after- 
ward be  in  vain  to  proceed  with  the  same 
materials;  but  if  properly  managed,  the 
spirit  of  sal  ammoniac  will  be  seen  grad- 
ually to  descend  from  the  mixture  and 
attack  the  copal,  which  swells  and  dis- 
solves, excepting  a  very  small  quantity 
which  remains  undissolved. 

It  is  of  much  consequence  that  the 
vessel  should  not  be  opened  till  some  time 
after  it  has  been  perfectly  cold,  for  if  it 
contain  the  least  warmth  when  opened 
the  whole  contents  will  be  blown  out  of 
the  vessel. 

Whatever  quantity  is  to  be  dissolved 
should  be  put  into  a  glass  vessel]  capable 
at  least  of  containing  four  times  as  much, 
and  it  should  be  high  in  proportion  to  its 
width. 

This  varnish  is  of  a  deep  rich  color 
when  viewed  in  the  bottle,  but  seems  to 
give  no  color  to  the  pictures  upon  which 
it  is  laid.  If  it  be  left  in  the  damp  it 
remains  racky,  as  it  is  called,  a  long  time; 
but  if  kept  in  a  warm  room  or  placed  in 
the  sun  it  dries  as  well  as  and  other  tur- 
pentine varnish,  and  when  dried,  appears 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

. * 


439* 


to  be  as  durable  as  any  other  solution  of 
copal. 

Copal  may  also  be  dissolved  in  spirits 
of  turpentine  by  the  assistance  of 
camphor. 

Turpentine  varnishes  dry  more  slowly 
than  those  made  with  alcohol,  and  are 
less  hard ;  but  they  are  not  so  liable  to 
crack. 

VARNISH,  Copal.— a.  Oil  of  turpen- 
tine one  pint,  set  the  bottle  in  a  water 
bath  and  add  in  small  portions  at  a  time 
three  ounces  of  powdered  copal  that  has 
been  previously  melted  by  a  gentle  heat 
and  dropped  into  water;  in  a  few  days 
decant  the  clear.  Dries  slowly,  but  is 
very  pale  and  durable.  Used  for  pic- 
tures, etc . 

b.  Pale  hard  copal  two  pounds;  fuse, 
add  hot  drying  oil  one  pint,  boil  as  be- 
fore directed,  and  thin  with  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, three  pints,  or  as  much  as  sufficient. 
Very  pale.  Dries  hard  in  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours. 

c.  Clearest  and  palest  African  copal 
eight  pounds;  fuse,  add  hot  and  pale  dry- 
ing oil  two  gallons,  boil  till  it  strings 
strongly,  cool  a  little,  and  thin  with  hot 
rectified  oil  of  turpentine,  three  gallons, 
and  immediately  strain  into  the  store  can. 
Very  fine.  Both  the  above  are  used  for 
pictures. 

d.  Coarsely  powdered  copal  and  glass, 
of  each  four  ounces;  alcohol  of  ninety 
per  cent.,  one  pint;  camphor,  one-half 
ounce;  heat  it  in  a  water  bath  so  that  the 
bubbles  may  be  counted  as  they  rise,  ob- 
serving frequently  to  stir  the  mixture; 
when  cold,  decant  the  clear.  Used  for 
pictures. 

e.  Copal  melted  and  dropped  into 
water,  three  ounces;  gum  sandarach,  six 
ounces;  mastic  and  Chio  turpentine,  of 
each  two  and  one-half  ounces ;  powdered 
glass,  four  ounces;  alcohol  of  eighty-five 
per  cent,  one  quart ;  dissolve  by  a  gentle 
heat.     Used  for  metal,  chairs,  etc. 

All  copal  varnishes  are  hard  and  durable, 
though  less  so  than  those  made  of  amber, 
but  they  have  the  advantage  over  the 
latter  of  being  paler.  They  are  applied 
on  coaches,  pictures,  polished  metal, 
wood,  and  other  objects  requiring  good 
durable  varnish. 

/  Hard  copal,  three  hundred  parts; 
drying  linseed  or  nut  oil,  from  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  to    two   hundred 


and   fifty  parts;    oil   of  turpentine,  five 
hundred  parts;  these  three  substances  are 
to  be  put  in  three  separate   vessels;  the 
copal  is  to  be  fused  by  a  somewhat  sud- 
den application  of  heat;  the  drying  oil  is- 
to  be  heated  to  a  temperature  a  little  un- 
der ebullition  and  is  to  be  added  by  small 
portions  at  a  time  to  the  melted  copal. 
When  the  combination  is  made  and  the 
heat  a  little  abated,   the  essence  of  tur- 
pentine, likewise  previously  heated,  is  to 
be  intioduced  by  degrees;  some   of  the 
volatile  oil  will  be  dissipated  at  first,  but 
more  being  added,  the  union   will  take- 
place.     Great  care  must  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent the  turpentine  vapor  from  catching 
fire,   which  might  occasion  serious  acci- 
dent to  the  operator.     When  the  varnish 
is  made  and  cooled  down  to  about  130^ 
of  Fahrenheit,  it  may  be  strained  through 
a  filter,  to  separate  the  impurities  and  un- 
dissolved    copal.     Almost     all     varnish 
makers  think  it  indispensable  to  combine 
the    drying    oil   with    the  copal  before 
adding  the  oil  of  turpentine,  but  in  this 
they  are  mistaken.     Boiling  oil  of  turpen- 
tine  combines    very  readily   with  fused 
copal;   and,  in  some  cases,  it  will  prob- 
able   be    preferable    to    commence   the 
operation  with  it,  adding  it  in  successive 
small    quantities.     Indeed,    the    whitest, 
copal  varnish  can  be  made  only  in  this- 
way;  for  if  the    drying    oil    has    been? 
heated  to  nearly  its  boiling  point  it  be- 
comes colored  and  darkens  the  varnish,, 

This  varnish  improves  in  clearness  by 
keeping.  Its  consistence  may  be  varied 
by  varying  the  proportion  of  the  in- 
gredients within  moderate  limits.  Good 
varnish,  applied  in  summer,  should  be- 
come so  dry  in  twenty-four  hours  that 
the  dust  would  not  stick  to  it  or  re- 
ceive an  impression  from  the  fingers.  To- 
render  it  sufficiently  dry  and  hard  for 
polishing,  it  must  be  subjected  for  several 
days  to  the  heat  of  a  stove. 

g.  Melt  in  an  iron  pan  at  a  slow  heat 
copal  gum  powdered,  eight  parts,  and  add 
balsam  copavia,  previously  warmed,  two* 
parts.  Then  remove  from  the  fire  and 
add  spirits  of  turpentine,  also  warmed  be- 
forehand, ten  parts,  to  give  the  necessary 
consistence. 

h.  Prepared  gum  copal,  ten  parts; 
gum  mastic  two  parts,  finely  powdered, 
are  mixed  with  white  turpentine  and 
boiled  linseed  oil,  of  each  one  part,  at  a. 


44° 


MECHANICAL. 


slow  heat,  and  with  spirits  of  turpentine, 
twenty  parts. 

i.  Prepared  gum  copal,  ten  parts; 
white  turpentine,  two  parts;  dissolve  in 
spirits  of  turpentine. 

Gum  copal  is  prepared  and  made  more 
soluble  in  spirits  of  turpentine  by  melting 
the  powdered  crude  gum,  afterwards 
again  powdering  and  allowing  to  stand 
for  some  time  loosely  covered. 

VARNISH,  Dammar. — Gum  dammar, 
ten  parts;  gum  sandarach,  five  parts; 
gum  mastic,  one  part;  digest  at  a  low 
heat,  occasionally  shaking,  with  spirits  of 
turpentine,  twenty  parts.  Finally  add 
more  spirits  of  turpentine,  to  give  the 
consistency  of  syrup. 

VARNISH,  for  Engravings,  Maps,  etc. 
— Digest  gum  sandarach,  twenty  parts; 
gum  mastic,  eight  parts;  camphor,  one 
part,  with  alcohol  forty  eight  parts.  The 
map  or  engraving  must  previously  re- 
ceive one  or  two  coats  of  gelatine. 

VARNISH,  Engraver's  Stopping-out. — 
"Take  lampblack  and  turpentine  to  make 
a  paste. 

VARNISH,  for  Engraving  on  Glass.— 
a.  Wax,  one  ounce;  mastic  one-half 
ounce;  asphaltum,  one-fourth  ounce; 
turpentine,  one-half  drachm. 

b.  Mastic,  fifteen  parts;  turpentine, 
•seven  parts;  oil  of  spike,  four  parts. 

VARNISH,  Etching.— a.  White  wax, 
two  ounces ;  black  and  Burgundy  pitch, 
of  each,  one  half  ounce;  melt  together, 
add  by  degrees  powdered  asphaltum  two 
•ounces,  and  boil  till  a  drop  taken  out 
on  a  plate  will  break  when  cold  by  being 
cent  double  two  or  three  times  between 
the  fingers ;  it  must  then  be  poured  into 
warm  water  and  made  into  small  balls  for 
use. 

b.  Hard  Varnish — Linseed  oil  and 
mastic,  of  each  four  ounces;  melt 
together. 

c.  Soft  Varnish — Soft  linseed  oil,  four 
ounces;  gun  benzoin  and  white  wax,  of 
each  one  half  ounce;  boil  to  two-thirds. 

VARNISH,  Furniture.— White  wax, 
fifteen  ounces ;  yellow  resin,  one  ounce, 
powdered;  spirits  of  turpentine,  one 
quart.  Digest  until  dissolved.  Lay  it 
on  with  a  brush  or  cloth,  and  well  polish 
with  clean  pieces  of  woolen. 

The  simplest,  and  perhaps  the  best  is 
the  solution  of  shellac  only,  but  may  add 
_gum    sandarach,  mastic,    copal,    arabic, 


benjamin,  etc,  from  the  idea  that  they 
contribute  to  the  effect.  Gum  arabic  is 
certainly  never  requred  if  the  solvent  be 
pure,  because  it  is  insoluble  in  either 
rectified  spirit  or  rectified  wood  naphtha, 
the  menstrua  employed  in  dissolving  the 
gums.  As  spirit  is  seldom  used  on  ac- 
count of  its  expense,  most  of  the  follow- 
ing are  mentioned  as  solutions  in  naphtha, 
but  spirits  can  be  substituted  when 
thought  proper: 

a.  Shellac,  one  and  one-half  pounds; 
naphtha,  one  gallon ;  dissolve  and  it  is 
ready  without  filtering. 

b.  Shellac,  twelve  ounces ;  copal,  three 
Ounces  (or  an  equivalent  of  varnish) ; 
dissolve  in  one  gallon  of  naphtha. 

c.  Shellac,  one  and  a  half  pounds,  seed- 
lac  and  sandarach,  each  four  ounces; 
mastic  two  ounces;  rectified  spirit,  one 
gallon,  dissolve. 

d.  Shellac,  two  pounds,  benzoin,  four 
ounces;  spirit,  one  gallon. 

e.  Shellac,  ten  ounces;  seed-lac,  sanda- 
rach, and  copal  varnish,  of  each  six 
ounces;  benzoin,  three  ounces;  naphtha 
one  gallon. 

To  darken  polish,  benzoin  and  dragon's 
blood  are  used;  tumeric,  and  other 
coloring  matters  are  also  added;  and  to 
make  it  lighter  it  is  necessary  to  use 
bleach  lac,  though  some  endeavor  to  give 
this  effect  by  adding  oxalic  acid  to  the 
ingredients;  it,  like  gum  arabic,  is  insolu- 
ble in  good  spirt  or  naphtha.  For  all 
ordinary  purposes  the  first  form  is  best 
and  least  troublesome,  while  its  appear- 
ance is  equal  to  any  other. 

VARNISH,  for  Frames  for  Hot-Beds. 
— Mix  four  ounces  of  pulverized  white 
cheese,  two  ounces  of  slacked  lime,  and 
four  ounces  of  boiled  linseed  oil.  Mix, 
and  add  four  ounces  each  of  whites  and 
yolks  of  eggs,  and  liquefy  the  mixture  by 
heat.  This  curious  mixture  is  said  to 
produce  a  pliable  and  transparent  varnish. 

VARNISH,  Gold.  —  a.  Tumeric,  one 
drachm;  gamboge,  one  drachm;  oil  of 
turpentine,  two  pints;  shellac,  five 
ounces;  sandarach,  five  ounces;  drag- 
on's blood,  seven  drachms ;  thin  mastic 
varnish,  eight  ounces.  Digest,  with  oc- 
casional agitation,  for  tourteen  days  in  a 
warm  place,  then  set  it  aside  to  fine,  and 
pour  off  the  clear. 

b.  Dutch  leaf,  one  part;  gamboge,  four 
parts;    gum  dragoon,  four  parts;  proof 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       441 


spirit,  eighteen  parts.  Macerate  for  twelve 
hours,  then  grind  on  a  stone  slab. 

VAENISH,  Glass.— This  is  a  solution 
of  soluble  glass,  and  should  be  thus 
made :  Fuse  together  fifteen  parts  of  pow- 
dered quartz  (or  of  fine  sand),  ten  parts 
of  potash  and  one  of  charcoal.  Pulver- 
ize the  mass,  and  expose  it  for  some  days 
to  the  air;  treat  the  whole  with  cold 
water,  which  removes  the  foreign  salts, 
etc.  Boil  the  residue  in  five  parts  of  water 
until  it  dissolves.  It  is  permanent  in  the 
air,  and  not  dissolved  by  cold  water. 
Used  to  protect  wood,  etc.,  from  fire. 

VAENISH,  Ground  Glass,  to  Imitate.— 
To  make  a  varnish  to  imitate  ground  glass, 
dissolve  ninety  grains  of  sandarach  and 
twenty  of  mastic  in  two  ounces  of  wash- 
ed methylated  ether ;  add,  in  small  quan- 
tities, a  sufficiency  of  benzine  to  make  it 
dry  with  a  suitable  grain — too  little  mak- 
ing the  varnish  too  transparent,  and  ex- 
cess making  it  carpy.  It  is  important  to 
use  washed  ether,  free  from  spirit. 

VARNISH,  Green  CopaL —Verdigris, 
crystallized  verdigris,  compound  green  (a 
mixture  of  yellow  and  blue).  The  first 
two  require  a  mixture  of  white  in  proper 
proportions,  from  a  fourth  to  two-thirds, 
according  to  the  tint  to  be  given.  The 
white  used  for  this  purpose  is  ceruse,  or 
the  white  oxide  of  lead,  or  Spanish  white. 
Proceed  as  before. 

VARNISH,  Pearl  Grey  CopaL— White 
and  black ;  white  and  blue ;  for  example, 
ceruse  and  lampblack,  ceruse  and  indigo; 
mix  them  with  the  varnish,  according  to 
tint  required. 

VARNISH,  Black,  for  Harness.— Di- 
gest shellac,  twelve  parts ;  white  turpen- 
tine, five  parts;  gum  sandarach,  two 
parts;  lampblack,  one  part;  with  spirits 
of  turpentine,  four  parts ;  alcohol,  ninety- 
six  parts. 

VARNISH,  for  Harness.  —  One-half 
pound  India-rubber,  one  gallon  of  spirits 
of  turpentine ;  dissolve  by  a  little  heat  to 
make  it  into  a  jelly,  then  take  equal  quan- 
tities of  hot  linseed  oil  and  above  mix- 
ture, and  incorporate  them  well  on  a  slow 
fire.   . 

VARNISHES,  India-Rubber.  — a.  Cut 
up  one  pound  of  India-rubber  into  small 
pieces,  and  diffuse  in  half  pound  of  sul- 
phuric ether,  which  is  done  by  digesting 
in  a  glass  flask  on  a  sand  bath.  Then 
add  one  pound  pale  linseed  oil  varnish, 


previously  heated,  and,  after  settling,  one 
pound  of  oil  of  turpentine,  also  heated 
beforehand.  Filter,  while  yet  warm,  into 
bottles.     Dries  slowly. 

b.  Two  ounces  of  India-rubber  finely 
divided  and  digested  in  the  same  way  with 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  camphene,  and 
half  an  ounce  of  naphtha  or  benzole. 
When  dissolved,  add  one  ounce  of  copal 
varnish,  which  renders  it  more  durable. 
Principally  for  gilding. 

c.  In  a  wide-mouthed  glass  bottle,  di- 
gest two  ounces  of  India-rubber  in  fine 
shavings,  with  one  pound  of  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, during  two  days  without  shaking, 
then  stir  up  with  a  wooden  spatula.  Add 
another  pound  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and 
digest,  with  frequent  agitation,  until  all  is 
dissolved.  Then  mix  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  this  solution  with  two  pounds  of  very 
white  copal  oil  varnish,  and  a  pound  and 
a  half  of  well  boiled  linseed  oil,  shake  and 
digest  in  a  sand  bath,  until  they  have 
united  into  a  good  varnish.  For  moroc- 
co leather. 

d.  Four  ounces  India-rubber  in  fine 
shavings  are  dissolved  in  a  covered  jar  by 
means  of  a  sand  bath,  in  two  pounds  of 
crude  benzole,  and  then  mixed  with  four 
pounds  of  hot  linseed  oil  varnish,  and  a 
half  pound  of  oil  of  turpentine.  Dries 
very  well. 

e.  Flexible  Varnish. — Melt  one  pound 
of  rosin,  and  add  gradually  half  a  pound 
of  India  rubber  in  very  fine  shavings,  and 
stir  until  cold.  Then  heat  again,  slowly, 
add  one  pound  linseed  oil  varnish,  heat- 
ed, and  filter. 

f.  Another. — Dissolve  one  pound  of  gum 
dammar,  and  half  a  pound  of  India  rub- 
ber, in  very  small  pieces,  in  one  pound  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  by  means  of  a  water 
bath.  Add  one  pound  of  hot  oil  varnish 
and  filter. 

g.  India  rubber  in  small  pieces,  washed 
and  dried,  are  fused  for  three  hours  in  a 
close  vessel,  on  a  gradually  heated  sand 
bath.  On  removing  from  the  sand  bath, 
open  the  vessel,  and  stir  for  ten  minutes, 
then  close  again,  and  repeat  the  fusion  on 
the  following  day,  until  some  globules  ap- 
pear on  the  surface.  Strain  through  a 
wire  sieve. 

h.  Varnish  for  Water-proof  Goods. — 
Let  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  India  rubber, 
in  small  pieces,  soften  in  a  half  pound  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  then  add  two  pounds  of 


442 


MECHANICAL. 


boiled  oil,  and  let  the  whole  boil  for  two 
hours  over  a  slow  coal  fire.  When  dis- 
solved, add  again  six  pounds  of  boiled 
linseed  oil,  and  one  pound  of  litharge, 
and  boil  until  an  even  liquid  is  obtained. 
It  is  applied  warm. 

i.  Gutta-Percha  Varnish.  —  Clean  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  gutta-percha  in 
warm  water  from  adhering  impurities,  dry 
well,  dissolve  in  one  pound  of  rectified 
resin  oil,  and  add  two  pounds  of  linseed 
oil  varnish,  boiling  hot.  Very  suitable  to 
prevent  metals  from  oxidation. 

VARNISH,  Hair. — Dissolve  one  part 
of  clippings  of  pig's  bristles,  or  of  horse- 
hair, in  ten  parts  of  drying  linseed  oil  by 
heat.  Fibrous  materials  (cotton,  flax, 
silk,  etc.),  imbued  with  the  varnish  and 
dried,  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  hair- 
cloth. 

VARNISH,  for  Iron.— Take  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, add  to  it  drop  by  drop,  and  while 
stirring,  strong  sulphuric  acid,,  until  a 
syrupy  precipitate  is  quite  formed,  and  no 
more  of  it  is  produced  on  further  addi- 
tion of  a  drop  of  acid.  The  liquid  is 
now  repeatedly  washed  with  water,  every 
time  refreshed  after  a  good  stirring,  until 
the  water  does  not  exhibit  any  more  acid 
reaction  on  being  tested  with  blue  litmus 
paper.  The  precipitate  is  next  brought 
upon  a  cloth  filter,  and,  after  all  the  water 
has  run  off,  the  syrupy  mass  is  fit  for  use. 
This  thickish  magma  is  painted  over  the 
iron  with  a  brush ;  if  it  happens  to  be  too 
stiff,  it  is  previously  diluted  with  some  oil 
of  turpentine.  Immediately  after  the 
iron  has  been  so  painted,  the  paint  is 
burnt  by  a  gentle  heat,  and,  after  cooling, 
the  black  surface  is  rubbed  over  with  a 
piece  of  woolen  stuff,  dipped  in  and 
moistened  with  linseed  oil. 

According  to  the  author,  this  varnish  is 
not  a  simple  covering  of  the  surface,  but 
it  is  chemically  combined  with  the  metal, 
and  does  not,  therefore,  wear  off  or  peel 
off,  as  other  paints  or  varnishes  do  from 
iron. 

VARNISH,  Japan,  Black.— Bitumen, 
2  ounces;  lampblack,  i  ounce;  Tur- 
key umber,  one-half  ounce;  acetate 
of  lead,  one-half  ounce ;  Venice  turpen- 
tine, one-half  ounce;  boiled  oil, twelve 
ounces.  Melt  the  turpentine  and  oil  to- 
gether, carefully  stirring  in  the  rest  of 
the  ingredients,  previously  powdered. 
Simmer  all  together  for  ten  minutes. 


VARNISH,  Mahogany. — Sorted  gum 
anime  eight  pounds,  clarified  oil  three 
gallons,  litharge  and  powdered  dried 
sugar  of  lead,  of  each  one-fourth  ot 
pound;  boil  till  it  strings  well,  then  cool 
a  little,  thin  with  oil  of  turpentine  five 
and  one  half  gallons,  and  strain. 

VARNISH,  for  Oil  Paintings.— Digest 
at  a  slow  heat  gum  sandarach,  two  parts  \ 
gum  mastic,  four  parts;  balsam  copaiva,. 
two  parts;  white  turpentine,  three  parts  j 
with  spirits  of  turpentine,  four  parts  \ 
alcohol  (ninety-five  per  cent.)  fifty-six 
parts. 

VARNISH,  for  Paintings  and  Pictures. 
— Honey,  one  pint;  the  whites  of  two 
dozen  fresh  eggs;  one  ounce  of  good 
clean  isinglass;  twenty  grains  of  hydrate 
of  potassium;  one-half-ounce  of  chloride 
ot  sodium;  mix  together  over  a  gentle 
heat  of  eighty  or  ninety  degrees  Fah. 
Be  careful  not  to  let  the  mixture  remain 
long  enough  to  coagulate  the  albumen  ot 
the  eggs;  stir  the  mixture  thoroughly, 
then  bottle.  It  is  to  be  applied  as  fol- 
lows: one  tablespoonful  of  varnish 
added  to  one-half-tablespoonful  of  good 
oil  of  turpentine,  then  spread  on  the  pic- 
tures as  soon  as  mixed. 

VARNISH,  Oak.— a.  Clear  pale  resin, 
three  and  a  half  pounds;  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, one  gallon;  dissolve. 

b.  Clear  Venice  turpentine,  four  pounds  \, 
oil  of  turpentine,  five  pounds;  mix.  Both 
are  good  common  varnishes. 

VARNISH,  Red  Copal.— a.  Vermilion, 
red  oxide  of  lead  (minnium),  red  orchre, 
or  Prussian  red,  etc.,  and  proceed  as 
before. 

b.  Dragon's  blood,  brick  red,  or  Vene- 
tian red,  etc.,  and  proceed  as  before. 

VARNISH,  for  Straw  Hats.— Take 
either  red  or  black  sealing  wax ;  to  every 
two  ounces  of  sealing  wax,  add  one  ounce 
of  rectified  spirits  of  wine;  pound  the 
wax  fine,  then  sift  it  through  a  fine  lawn 
sieve,  till  you  have  made  it  extremely 
fine;  put  it  into  a  large  phial  with  the 
spirits  of  wine;  shake  it;  let  it  stand 
near  the  fire  forty-eight  hours,  shaking  it 
often ;  then  with  a  brush  (a  hog's  bristle 
brush)  lay  it  all  over  the  hat  (or  basket). 
Let  it  dry  and  then  repeat  the  operation. 

VARNISH,  for  Stoves.— Melt  half  a 
pound  of  asphaltum,  and  add  to  it  a 
quarter  of  a  pint  of  linseed  oil,  and  one 
pint  of  turpentine.     This  quantity  will  be 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      443 


enough  for  four  grates.  If  it  be  found 
too  thick,  as  it  gets  towards  the  bottom  of 
the  bottle,  add  a  little  more  turpentine. 
It  is  for  the  black  stoves,  which  must  be 
washed  clean  of  dirt  and  black  lead,  and, 
when  dry,  apply  the  varnish  with  a 
brush. 

VARNISH,  for  Shoes.— Put  one-half 
pound  gum  shellac,  broken  up  in  small 
pieces,  into  a  quart  bottle  or  jug,  cover  it 
with  alcohol,  cork  it  tight,  and  put  it  on 
a  shelf  in  a  warm  place;  shake  it  well 
several  times  a  day,  then  add  a  piece  of 
camphor  as  large  as  an  egg,  shake  it  well, 
and  in  a  few  hours  shake  it  again,  and 
add  one  ounce  of  lamp-black.  If  the 
alcohol  is  good  it  will  be  dissolved  in  two 
days;  then  shake  and  use.  If  it  gets 
too  thick,  add  alcohol,  pour  out  two  or 
three  teaspoonfuls  in  a  saucer,  and  apply 
it  with  a  small  paint  brush.  If  the 
materials  are  all  good  it  will  dry  in  about 
five  minutes,  giving  a  gloss  equal  to 
patent  leather,  and  will  be  removed  only 
by  wearing  it  off.  The  advantage  of  this 
preparation  over  others  is,  it  does  not 
strike  into  the  leather  and  make  it  hard, 
but  remains  on  the  surface,  and  yet  ex- 
cludes the  water  almost  perfectly.  The 
same  preparation  is  admirable  for  harness, 
and  does  not  soil  when  touched,  as  is 
usually  the  case  with  lamp-black  prepara- 
tions. 

VARNISH,  Purple  Copal.— Prussian 
blue  or  vermillion,  or  any  other  blue  and 
red,  then  proceed  as  before. 

VARNISH,  Tar.— Tar,  two  gallons ;  tal- 
low, one  pound.  Melt,  then  add  ground 
ochre,  seven  pounds;  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, six  pounds.  Mix  well.  By  regulat- 
ing the  quantity  of  the  ochre,  a  very 
excellent  chocolate  paint  for  rough  out- 
door work  will  be  produced. 

VARNISH,  Turpentine. — Resin,  one 
part;  boiled  oil,  one  part.  Melt,  then 
add  turpentine,  two  parts.     Mix  well. 

VARNISH,  Transfer. — Mastic  in  tears, 
six  and  a  half  ounces ;  resin,  twelve  and 
a  half  ounces;  pale  Venice  turpentine 
(genuine)  and  sandarach,  of  each  twenty- 
five  ounces ;  alcohol,  five  pints ;  dissolve 
as  before.  Used  for  fixing  engravings  or 
lithographs  on  wood,  and  for  gilding, 
silvering,  etc. 

VARNISH,  Violet  Copal.— Vermillion, 
blue,  white,  in  proportion  as  required  to 
color  the  varnish. 


VARNISH,  for  Water  Color  Drawings. 
Take  Canada  balsam,  one  part;  oil  of 
turpentine,  two  parts;  mix;  size  the 
drawing  before  you  apply  the  varnish. 

VARNISH,  to  Make  White  Copal.— 
White  oxide  of  lead,  ceruse,  Spanish 
white,  white  clay.  Such  of  these  sub- 
stances as  are  preferred  ought  to  be  care- 
fully dried.  Ceruse  and  clay  obstinately 
retain  a  great  deal  of  humidity,  which 
would  oppose  their  adhesion  to  drying  oil 
or  varnish.  The  cement  then  crumbles 
under  the  fingers,  and  does  not  assume  a 
body. 

Another. — On  sixteen  ounces  of  melted 
copal,  pour  four,  six  or  eight  ounces  of 
linseed  oil  boiled,  and  quite  free  from 
grease.  When  well  mixed  by  repeated 
stirrings,  and  after  they  are  pretty  cool, 
pour  in  sixteen  ounces  of  the  essence  ot 
Venice  turpentine.  Pass  the  varnish 
through  a  cloth. 

VARNISH,  Yellow  Copal.  —  Yellow 
oxide  of  lead  of  Naples  and  Montpellier, 
both  reduced  to  impalpable  powder. 
These  yellows  are  hurt  by  the  contact  of 
iron  and  steel ;  in  mixing  them  up,  there- 
fore, a  horn  spatula  with  a  glass  mortar 
and  pestle  must  be  employed.  Gum 
guttse,  yellow  ochre,  or  Dutch  pink, 
according  to  the  nature  and  tone  of  the 
color  to  be  imitated. 

VARNISH,  Transparent  Green.  — A 
beautiful  transparent  green  varnish  is 
made  by  taking  a  small  quantity  of 
Chinese  blue,  with  about  twice  the 
amount  of  finely  powdered  chromate  of 
potash,  and  stirring  these  in  copal  varnish 
thinned  with  turpentine.  A  thorough 
grinding  ot  this  mixture  must  be  made 
for  the  purpose  of  intimately  incorporating 
the  ingredients,  as  otherwise  it  will  not  be 
transparent.  A  preponderance  of  chro- 
mate of  potash  gives  a  yellowish  shade 
to  the  green,  and  a  deficiency  increases 
the  amount  of  blue.  This  varnish,  thus 
colored,  produces  a  very  striking  effect  in 
japanned  goods,  paper-hangings,  etc,, 
and  can  be  made  very  cheaply. 

KALSOMINE.— Ten  pounds  whiting, 
dissolved  in  hot  or  boiling  water,  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  glue,  should  be  put  to  soak 
over  night  in  one  pint  of  water ;  it  may 
now  be  melted  on  a  stove,  stirring  it  fre- 
quently; two  ounces  of  ultramarine  blue; 
one  ounce  of  Venetian  red ;  mix  separately 
with  cold  or  soft  water,  and  strain  through. 


-444 


MECHANICAL. 


-a  stocking  or  thin  cloth — each  in  separate 
vessels.  The  whiting  may  now  be  stirred 
well ;  if  too  thick,  add  more  hot  water 
and  strain  through  a  sieve  into  a  good 
sized  pot  Add  some  of  the  blue  and  red 
alternately  until  you  get  the  shade  re- 
quired. When  your  color  is  determined 
pour  in  the  glue,  and  after  mixing  well 
apply  the  wash  hot  to  the  wall.  Should 
the  second  coat  not  be  put  on  until  the 
next  day,  heat  the  mixture,  as  the  glue 
will  not  mix  with  the  other  ingredients 
unless  pretty  warm. 

WAX,  for  Canning  Fruits. — Resin, 
one  pound;  lard,  tallow,  and  beeswax, 
each  one  ounce.  Melt,  and  stir  well 
together. 

MECHANICS,  Farmers  should  be. — On 
every  farm  there  should  be  a  shop-room, 
with  work-benches  and  a  kit  of  tools, 
comprising  all  such  as  may  be  required 
for  any  ordinary  repairs  of  buildings  or 
wooden  farm  implements,  and  every 
farmer  should  have  skill  to  use  them. 
Having  them,  many  repairs  and  necessary 
jobs  can  be  done,  in  less  time  than  would 
be  required  to  carry  the  job  to  a  regular 
mechanic,  and  often  in  a  better  manner; 
while  no  more  time  will  be  lost,  and  some 
money  will  be  saved.  With  a  soldering 
copper,  rosin,  and  solder,  with  a  few 
minutes'  practice,  much  inconvenience 
and  expense  can  be  saved  by  repairing 
tin-ware,  water-pipes,  etc.,  in  odd  mo- 
ments and  on  rainy  days. 

BUILDINGS  and  GROUNDS,  Choosing 
a  Location  for. — In  choosing  a  location, 
one  of  the  first  considerations  is  that  of 
access  to  and  egress  from  a  city,  and  if 
daily  intercourse  is  contemplated,  it  be- 
comes a  question  of  speciaj  interest.  The 
time,  trouble,  and  expense  of  travel  on 
bad  roads  are  a  severe  tax  upon  coun- 
try pleasures.  A  drive  of  half  an  hour 
on  a  hard  road,  during  a  fine  summer 
evening,  is  a  recreative  pleasure  which 
may  be  not  appreciated  when  an  hour  and 
a  half  are  spent  on  the  same  distance  dur- 
ing a  stormy  winter  morning.  A  good 
road  in  dry  weather  may  become  very 
indifferent  after  rains,  and  be  impassable 
for  three-fourths  of  the  year. 

In  these  days  of  railroads  and  steam- 
boats it  is  difficult  to  indicate  what  might 
be  considered  a  convenient  distance  from 
a  city.  Upon  a  well  managed  railroad 
a  distance  of  twenty  miles  may  be  more 


accessible  than  two  miles  upon  a  com- 
mon road.  Proximity  to  a  railroad  sta- 
tion will  always  secure  a  certainty  of  con- 
venient transit,  even  allowing  the  dis- 
tance to  be  within  an  easy  carriage  drive. 
This  facility  should  not  be  overlooked 
when  it  can  be  secured. 

Healthiness  of  locality  is  of  paramount 
importance.  Low,  flat  lands  are  gen- 
erally damp  and  cold,  and  should  never 
be  selected  for  the  habitation  either  of 
man  or  beast,  if  there  is  any  choice  in 
the  matter.  Valleys,  or  even  slight  de- 
pressions, are  equally  unsuitable.  The 
air  after  sunset  is  always  dense  in  such 
places,  dews  are  heavier  and  more  fre- 
quent; and,  as  a  consequence,  frosts  are 
more  prevalent  than  on  elevations.  Fogs 
are  most  frequent  on  low  lands.  The 
extremes  of  temperature  are  also  greater, 
especially  if  surrounded  by  forests,  which 
prevent  the  free  circulation  and  equaliz- 
ing influence  of  winds.  Wide  and  long 
valleys  between  uniform  hills  are  fre- 
quently subjected  to  sweeping  blasts. 
Even  the  vicinity  of  such  localities  ought 
to  be  avoided.  A  person  may  drain, 
cultivate,  plant,  and  otherwise  improve 
his  own  property,  and  still  be  subjected 
to  the  injurious  influences  of  unimproved 
lands  over  which  he  has  no  control. 

An  elevated  situation  is  generally 
healthy.  The  extent  of  prospect  it  se- 
cures is  also  an  advantage;  yet  it  is  not 
well  to  place  too  great  a  value  on 
distant  views.  For  permanent  residence 
the  exposure  of  elevations  is  a  disadvant- 
age. Though  cool,  airy,  and  agreeable 
in  summer,  they  may  be  bleak,  chilly,  and 
exceedingly  uncomfortable  during  winter. 
The  tender  and  delicate  varieties  of  flowers 
and  shrubbery,  as  well  as  fruits  and  culi- 
nary products,  are  less  likely  to  flourish 
when  fully  exposed  to  cold  and  unbroken 
winds. 

BUILDING  SITE,  Selecting  a.— This 
is  too  commonly  settled  by  selecting  the 
highest  point  of  the  ground,  but  not  al- 
ways wisely.  A  modern  house  set  up  on 
a  sharp  knoll  has  an  isolated  appearance 
which  is  not  readily  altered  or  improved 
by  trees,  and  it  is  with  difficulty  ap- 
proached by  roads,  if  the  grounds  slope 
suddenly  from  it. 

A  somewhat  level  plateau,  partially 
surrounded  by  higher  ground,  forms  a 
good  position  for  a  dwelling  house.    The 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       445 


ground  should  fall  from  it  in  all  direc- 
tions, more  rapidly  in  front  than  back, 
where  the  descent  may  be  merely  suffi- 
cient for  drainage.  Back  of  the  house, 
positions  should  be  selected  for  the  veg- 
etable garden,  stables,  and  other  build- 
ings, such  as  greenhouses  and  graperies, 
all  of  which  will  be  sheltered  and  pro- 
tected by  the  higher  ground  beyond. 

The  nature  of  the  soil  should  receive 
attention  in  selecting  a  spot  for  a  house. 
Clay  soils  are  retentive  of  water;  and, 
even  when  artificially  drained,  the  sur- 
face is  disagreeable  after  rains.  Clay, 
in  contact  with  foundation  walls,  keeps 
them  damp  and  cold.  The  expansion  of 
clay  when  wet,  and  shrinkage  when  dry, 
unfit  it  for  a  safe  foundation.  If  every 
other  condition  is  secured  in  a  site,  art 
can  do  much  towards  ameliorating  the 
physical  qualities  of  the  soil;  but,  for 
all  the  purposes  of  human  comfort  and 
enjoyment,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
a  house,  a  light,  open,  porous  soil  is  de- 
cidedly the  best. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  secure  the 
beauty  and  utility  of  a  natural  planta- 
tion; but,  to  select  a  site  for  a  mansion 
in  the  center  of  a  grove  of  old  trees,  with 
the  intention  of  making  them  a  nucleus 
for  future  landscape  effect,  will  generally 
prove  unsatisfactory.  In  natural  forests 
the  trees  grow  closely  together;  their 
trunks  are  long,  slender,  and  destitute  of 
branches;  and,  if  thinning  is  attempted, 
those  that  are  left  seldom  flourish  for  any 
length  of  time.  If  the  thinning  out  is 
gradual,  and  the  best  of  the  remaining 
trees  are  judiciously  pruned,  they  may 
ultimately  recover,  and  make  a  satisfac- 
tory appearance. 

Where  old  trees  abound,  it  is  difficult  to 
prepare  or  keep  a  good  lawn,  or  to  introduce 
new  shrubs  or  flowers.  The  roots  of  the 
trees  prevent  thorough  renovation  of  the 
soil,  and  the  shade  of  the  branches  in- 
terferes with  the  growth  of  plants.  There 
is  a  steady  antagonism  between  the  old 
and  the  new,  both  with  regard  to  indi- 
vidual growth  and  landscape  effect,  until 
either  the  one  or  the  other  predominates. 
It  is  no  matter  of  doubt  or  uncertainty, 
but  a  settled  question  with  all  who  have 
any  experience  in  remodeling  or  adapting 
old  woods  or  groves  to  modern  improve- 
ments, that  it  is  immeasurably  better  to 
commence  on  a  treeless,  naked  field ;  as 


a  judicious  selection  and  intermixture  of 
fast-growing  trees,  properly  planted  in  good 
soil,  will,  in  a  very  few  years,  serve  all  useful' 
purposes,  produce  such  effects  as  are  con- 
templated, and  give  far  more  satisfaction- 
than  can  be  derived  from  the  accidental 
position  and  growth  of  natural  forests,  at 
least  so  far  as  relates  to  improvements  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  rural  resi- 
dence. 

OUTBUILDINGS,  STABLES,  ETC., 
Arrangement  of. — The  selection  of  sites- 
for  the  various  buildings  required  near  a- 
country  or  suburban  residence  is  second 
in  importance  only  to  the  selection  of  a 
site  for  the  mansion.  Convenience  dic- 
tates that  these  buildings  should  be  as 
near  the  house  as  is  practically  consistent 
with  their  objects  and  character.  The- 
dwelling-house  will,  of  course,  occupy 
the  best  and  most  advantageous  position, 
and  its  superior  size  and  style  of  architec- 
ture will  always  be  such  as  to  render  all 
other  necessary  structures  of  secondary 
and  subordinate  appearance.  Such  build- 
ings as  stables  and'  ice-houses  are  so- 
obviously  necessary  to  domestic  comfort 
that  their  presence  is  not  only  expected, 
but  their  absence  conveys  an  impression 
of  poverty  or  incompleteness  altogether 
inconsistent  with  our  ideas  of  what  & 
country  home  should  be. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  endeavoring  to 
entirely  conceal  these  offices  by  planta- 
tions and  by  other  expedients,  as  is  fre- 
quently advised,  they  should  be  located 
on  the  most  eligible  sites,  and  display,  in' 
their  architectural  details  and  ornaments, 
an  expression  of  the  purposes  for  which 
they  are  intended,  and  be  judiciously 
exposed  to  view  without  rendering  con- 
spicuous the  operations  necessarily  con- 
nected with  the  structure. 

The  best  location  for  these  buildings^ 
will  be  governed,  to  some  extent,  by 
local  circumstances;  but,  where  there 
are  no  grades,  views,  or  other  exceptional 
features  to  interfere  with  the  selection,  a 
point  in  a  northeast  direction  from  the 
house  will  combine  the  greatest  number 
of  advantages. 

When  the  stables  and  other  farm  build- 
ings should  not  be  entirely  hidden  from 
view  at  certain  points,  at  the  same  time 
it  will  be  obvious  that  a  due  amount  of 
privacy  in  and  about  the  buildings  them- 
selves, as  well  as  in  the  line  of  view  from. 


446 


MECHANICAL. 


the  dwelling-house,  will  be  essential,  and 
can  readily  be  effected  by  the  introduction 
of  trees  and  shrubs  at  the  points  indi- 
cated. 

EOADS  AND  WALKS,  Laying  Out.— 
The  guiding  principle  in  designing  the 
position  of  roads  and  walks  is  utility. 
Nature  forms  no  road.  They  are  the 
works  of  men  and  animals,  and  would 
undoubtedly  always  proceed  in  straight 
lines  from  point  to  point,  if  obstructions 
of  various  kinds  did  not  interfere  and 
cause  deviations.  Necessity  will  there- 
fore suggest  where  and  how  they  should 
be  introduced.  So  far  as  regards  ap- 
proaches and  walks  to  and  from  buildings, 
the  object  of  their  introduction  is  suffi- 
ciently apparent;  but,  in  laying  out 
pleasure  grounds  and  lawn  fronts,  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  introduce  walks  for 
the  mere  purpose  of  variety.  This  is  a 
very  questionable  reason  at  the  best,  and 
not  always  successfully  accomplished; 
but  even  in  cases  of  this  kind,  they  should 
appear  to  aim  for  some  definite  object,  or 
lead  to  points  of  sufficient  importance  to 
suggest  their  utility. 

Unnecessary  roads  and  walks  should 
be  carefully  avoided.  They  are  expensive 
in  their  construction,  if  properly  made, 
and  require  constant  attention  to  keep 
them  clean  and  in  repair.  Nothing  looks 
so  woe-begone  and  poverty-stricken  as  a 
weedy,  neglected  road  to  a  house,  or 
walks  through  pleasure  grounds  or  gar- 
den. They  detract  much  from  the  beauty 
of  the  surroundings,  no  matter  how 
elaborate  or  intrinsically  worthy  they  may 
be.  An  over-supply  of  roads  and  walks 
is  always  a  serious  infliction. 

The  bearty  of  curved  lines  sometimes 
prompts  to  a  deviation  from  the  more 
available  direct  course;  and,  where  it  can 
be  done  without  too  great  sacrifice  of 
utility,  it  is  not  objectionable.  But  no 
walk  should  be  turned  from  its  obvious 
direct  course  without  an  apparently  suffi- 
cient reason.  A  change  of  level  in  the 
ground,  a  tree,  or  a  group  of  plants,  or 
other  similar  obstruction,  will  induce,  and 
seemingly  demand,  a  change  of  line. 

There  are  many  locations  where  the 
straight  line  should  be  preferred  as  a 
matter  of  taste  in  design.  As  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  strictly  horizontal 
and  the  perpendicular  lines  of  a  building, 
and  the  irregular  surfaces  surrounding  it, 


a  perfectly  straight  walk  is  in  the  best 
taste  and  adds  greatly  to  the  effect  of  the 
architecture,  while  a  frequently  curving 
walk  detracts  from  it.  So  also  a  walk 
along  the  side  of  a  straight  boundary 
fence  should  not  curve  if  both  lines  are 
visible  at  the  same  time.  Most  persons 
are  aware  of  the  great  beauty  of  straight 
walks  and  avenues  of  trees;  and  for  pub- 
lic parks  of  lesser  order,  inclosed  by 
formal  outlines,  they  can  always  be  intro- 
duced with  great  effect,  as  well  as  con- 
venience, where  curving  walks  would  be 
the  reverse.  In  this  case  beauty  depends 
upon  harmony  rather  than  contrast,  and 
more  than  either  upon  utility. 

When  roads  or  walks  are  carried  over 
irregular  surfaces,  the  natural  turns  and 
windings  necessary  to  follow  an  easy  or 
uniform  grade,  and  keep  as  near  the 
original  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible, 
will  usually  develop  pleasing  curves.  A 
little  studied  attention  in  this  matter  of 
the  course  of  a  road  will  not  only  increase 
the  beauty  of  curves  by  adding  to  them 
the  grace  of  utility,  but  also  deep  and 
expensive  cuttings,  as  well  as  heavy  em- 
bankments, will  be  avoided,  and  easy 
grades  and  economical  construction  be 
more  certainly  secured. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  branch  a  sec- 
ondary road  from  the  main  line,  it  should 
leave  the  latter  at  as  nearly  a  right  angle 
as  convenient,  and  at  the  same  time  be 
somewhat  narrower,  so  that  its  appear- 
ance may  convey  the  proper  idea  of  its 
being  subordinate,  and  so  avoid  con- 
fusion and  mistake ;  otherwise  the  roads 
leading  to  the  stable,  ice-house,  or  gar- 
den, may  be  mistaken  for  the  road  to  the 
mansion.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
walks  be  made  conspicuous  in  views  of 
natural  scenery.  If  it  is  essentially  neces- 
sary that  a  walk  should  cross  a  lawn 
where  it  would  interrupt  a  continuity  of 
view,  and  destroy  breadth  of  effect,  it 
should  be  sunk  beneath  the  line  of  vision, 
by  placing  it  in  a  slight  excavation,  which 
may  be  further  assisted  by  throwing  up  a 
small  mound  on  the  side  nearest  the 
point  of  view.  These  expedients,  as  also 
that  of  planting  thick  groups  of  low- 
growing  shrubs,  will  be  effective  and 
satisfactory  if  properly  executed. 

In  laying  out  curving  roads  it  is  not 
advisable  to  closely  follow  geometrical 
rules,  or  to  set  the  curves  out  to  any 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      447 


regular  radius.  This  plan  may  occasion- 
ally prove  perfectly  satisfactory  on  a 
strictly  level  surface,  but  it  will  have  quite 
-an  opposite  effect  where  the  ground  is 
greatly  undulating.  The  curves,  to  be 
pleasing,  must  be  "eye-sweet" — not  too 
sudden  or  abrupt — and  properly  blended 
at  their  points  of  junctions. 

EOADS  AM)  WALKS,  Construction 
of. — Very  much  of  personal  comfort  and 
pleasure  in  rural  residences  depends  upon 
good  roads.  A  smooth,  firm,  dry  road  is 
one  of  the  greatest  conveniences  and 
enjoyments;  while  a  rough,  soft,  muddy 
road  is  one  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  and 
annoyances  of  country  life.  Bad  roads 
form  the  greatest  obstacles  to  progress 
and  permanent  improvements  in  all  the 
neighborhoods  that  are  blasted  with  their 
presence ;  they  have  a  demoralizing  effect 
upon  the  inhabitants,  and  are  a  sure  sign 
•either  of  poverty  cr  mismanagement,  or 
both. 

Water  is  the  worst  enemy  to  good 
roads.  It  is,  therefore,  a  leading  principle 
in  road-making  so  to  construct  them  that 
they  may  be  kept  dry.  In  absence  of  a 
timely  recognition  of  this  principle,  many 
•costly  roads  have  proved  to  be  failures ; 
but  where  it  has  had  prominent  recogni- 
tion and  its  value  has  been  properly 
appreciated,  good  roads  have  been  made 
at  a  trifling  expense. 

After  locating  the  road  and  marking 
out  its  course,  the  sides  should  be  brought 
to  the  proper  grade  and  finished  by  a 
layer  of  sod  as  a  guide  to  further  opera- 
tions. In  crossing  a  sloping  surface  it  is 
not  necessary  to  have  both  sides  perfectly 
level,  but  the  nearer  this  can  be  secured, 
with  due  regard  to  getting  rid  of  surface 
water,  the  better  it  will  admit  of  a  neat 
iinish  and  the  more  easily  will  it  be  kept 
in  repair. 

The  road  bed  is  then  formed  by  ex- 
cavating and  removing  the  soil  to  a  depth 
ol  six  inches  at  the  sides,  curving  slightly 
higher  in  the  centre,  and  made  perfectly 
smooth  by  rolling,  producing  a  uniform 
surface  upon  which  the  material  of  the 
road  is  to  be  placed. 

The  best  stone  for  road  metal  is  tough 
granite.  Hard  brittle  stone  is  more  readily 
reduced  by  pressure,  but  in  a  well-kept 
road  this  difference  is  not  important.  It 
is,  however,  all  important  that  the  stones 
should  be   broken   small.      The   largest 


should  easily  pass  through  a  two-inch 
ring,  and  if  one-half  of  them  are  small 
enough  to  pass  through  a  ring  of  only 
one  inch  diameter,  the  road  will  ultimately 
become  all  the  more  compact. 

The  road  bed  should  be  filled  with  this 
broken  stone  to  a  level  with  the  sides, 
increasing  in  depth  toward  the  centre  at 
the  rate  of  one  inch  to  the  yard.  Thus, 
a  road  sixteen  feet  in  width  would  have  a 
depth  of  about  nine  inches  in  the  centre. 
The  utmost  care  should  be  applied  to 
regulating  the  surface,  and  the  smaller 
stones  should  be  used  on  top,  in  order  to 
secure  an  even,  compact,  carefully-molded 
grade,  which  should  be  compressed  by 
repeatedly  passing  a  heavy  roller  over  it, 
wedging  every  stone,  and  making  the 
surface  almost  as  smooth  and  solid  as  a 
pavement.  A  thin  layer,  not  more  than 
one  inch  in  thickness,  of  fine  clayey 
gravel  should  then  be  evenly  distributed 
over  the  stones,  and  the  roller  again 
applied  until  the  surface  becomes  homo- 
geneous, firm,  and  close. 

The  surface  of  the  road  will  thus  be 
higher  than  the  sodded  edges,  water  will 
therefore  pass  readily  from  it,  and  one  of 
the  main  points  of  keeping  a  good  road 
will  be  secured.  This  will  iorm  a  first- 
class  road  for  ordinary  carriage  drives,  or 
for  all  purposes  required  in  public  parks 
or  private  grounds ;  and,  if  kept  in  good 
surface  by  frequent  rolling,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  forming  of  ruts  while  it  is 
settling;  and,  if  a  facing  of  gravel  is 
applied  when  necessary,  it  will  perma- 
nently fulfill  all  requirements  of  a  good 
road. 

The  quality  of  gravel  deserves  notice. 
"Wash  gravel,  consisting  only  of  sand 
and  rounded  pebbles,  should  never  be 
used.  No  amount  of  pressure  will  render 
it  firm,  and  it  is  the  most  disagreeable 
material  to  walk  upon.  The  best  gravel 
is  that  to  be  found  in  banks  composed  of 
pebbles  mixed  with  reddish  clay;  and 
the  stones  must  be  small.  No  detail  in 
road-making  is  of  so  much  importance 
as  this.  If  a  wagon  wheel  or  the  foot  of 
a  horse  press  on  one  extremity  of  a  stone 
the  other  end  of  it  will  probably  be 
slightly  raised,  allowing  small  particles  of 
sand  to  fall  into  the  crevice,  when  the 
stone  is  loosened,  and  will  roll  on  the 
surface ;  hence  the  necessity  of  using  only 
very  finely  divided  stones  on  top,  so  that 


448 


MECHANICAL. 


they  will  be  smaller  than  the  pressing 
point,  and  not  become  disarranged  from 
leverage  or  compound  action. 

Where  stone  cannot  conveniently  be 
obtained,  the  road  bed  may  be  filled  with 
refuse  matters  of  many  kinds,  such  as 
coal  ashes,  clinkers  from  furnaces,  and 
shells.  Oyster  shells  are  plentiful  in  many 
places  near  the  seaboard,  and  form  an  ad- 
mirable road;  but  the  permanency,  as 
well  as  efficiency  of  these  materials  in  a 
road  bed,  will  depend  altogether  upon 
the  care  of  surfacing  with  proper  gravel. 
Where  it  is  impracticable  to  procure,  or 
deemed  inexpedient  to  use,  any  of  the 
foregoing  materials,  an  earth  road  may  be 
rendered  very  serviceable  by  proper  at- 
tention to  the  leading  principle — that  is, 
to  keep  it  dry.  In  this  case,  instead  of 
excavating  a  road  bed,  slight  excavations 
should  be  made  at  the  sides  and  the  ma- 
terial spread  over  the  center ;  and  that 
surface  water  may  pass  to  the  sides  more 
rapidly  and  thoroughly,  a  greater  con- 
vexity may  be  given  to  the  curve.  In 
some  sections  of  the  country  good  roads 
are  kept  up  in  this  manner,  but  they  are 
carefully  repaired  whenever  necessary, 
and  all  ruts  and  tracks  are  filled  up  as 
soon  as  they  are  formed.  The  same  general 
principles  apply  to  the  formation  of 
walks  and  foot-paths.  The  depth  of  ma- 
terial, however,  need  not  exceed  a  few 
inches.  It  is  certain  that  much  unneces- 
sary expense  is  frequentiy  laid  out  upon 
mere  foot-walks.  A  porous,  gravelly,  or 
sandy  soil  is  in  itself  a  good  walk  if  prop- 
erly shaped.  Such  walks  admit  of  great- 
er convexity  than  carriage  roads,  which 
is  equivalent  to  a  saving  of  material. 
Walks  should  be  well  filled  up.  There  is 
no  more  disagreeable  object,  or  one  that 
conveys  so  meagre  an  expression,  as 
deep,  raw  edgings  to  a  walk,  looking  as 
if  they  had  been  trimmed  with  a  plow. 
Walks  in  this  condition  may  be  servicea- 
ble as  water  courses,  but  they  are  not 
comfortable  foot-paths. 

LAWNS,  Formation  and  Management 
of. — A  fine  lawn  is  the  most  beautiful  of 
external  ornaments.  Soft,  velvety,  elastic 
turf,  smoothly  shorn  and  of  fine  color,  is 
always  pleasing,  but  not  always  attained. 
Formerly  the  emerald  lawns  of  European 
pleasure  grounds  were  considered  to  be 
unequalled;  and  it  was  thought  that 
nothing    approaching    to    their    beauty 


could  be  realized  in  this  climate  of  scorch- 
ing suns  and  summer  droughts;  but  it 
has  been  demonstrated  beyond  any  doubt 
that  lawns  may  be  produced  and  main- 
tained here,  as  fine  as  those  to  be  found 
in  any  country. 

The  primary  requisite  is  thorough  pre- 
paration of  the  soil.  Without  this,  fail- 
ure is  probable, -but  if  properly  done  at 
the  outset,  success  is  certain,  with  subse- 
quent intelligent  management.  First  of 
all,  a  good  foundation '  must  be  laid  by 
draining  and  subsoiling,  trenching,  man- 
uring, or  otherwise  loosening  or  enrich- 
ing the  soil.  With  limited  lawns,  spade- 
trenching  will  be  at  once  thorough  and 
permanent ;  but,  where  a  plow  and  other 
implements  can  be  used,  the  work  may 
be  executed  much  more  economically, 
and,  by  using  the  subsoil  plow  in  connec- 
tion with  the  common  surface  turning,  a 
depth  of  eighteen  inches  will  be  reached, 
which,  on  ordinarily  good  corn-producing 
lands,  will  be  ample  preparation  for  sl 
good  lawn.  Previous  to  the  final  plow- 
ing a  heavy  dressing  of  manure  should 
be  applied.  This  should  be  well  decom- 
posed, more  especially  if  the  soil  is  par- 
tially of  a  gravelly  or  sandy  character. 

The  surface  must  be  rendered  smooth 
and  regular.  Careful  plowing  can  ac- 
complish much  toward  making  a  smooth 
surface ;  but  whatever  the  expense  may 
be,  the  finish  should  be  made  perfect  be- 
fore sowing  the  grasses.  There  are  two 
seasons  for  sowing — autumn  and  spring, 
either  of  them  appropriate;  and  the 
choice  will  depend  upon  circumstances, 
and  is  of  secondary  consideration,  com- 
pared to  the  preparation  of  the  land.  To 
get  rid  of  weeds  and  clean  the  ground 
before  laying  it  down  to  grass,  it  is  a 
commendable  practice  to  plant  it  with 
early  potatoes.  These,  if  cultivated  with 
ordinary  care,  will  soon  cover  the  surface 
with  their  leaves,  and  prevent  the  growth 
of  weeds ;  and  the  operation  of  digging 
up  and  removing  the  crop  tends  to  pul- 
verize and  loosen  the  soil.  The  potatoes 
can  be  removed  and  grass  seed  sown  by 
the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of 
September,  and  the  grasses  will  vegetate 
and  cover  the  surface  before  frosts.  A 
top  dressing  of  thinly  sprinkled  manure 
will  protect  the  young  plants  during  the 
winter,  and  a  good  thick  set  lawn  will  be 
secured  early  in  the  following  summer. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       449 


In  hard,  clayey  loams,  where  a  suffi- 
ciently comminuted  surface  is  not  so 
easily  obtained,  the  ground  should  be 
prepared  in  the  latter  portion  of  the  year, 
and  plowed  over,  so  as  to  leave  a  rough 
surface  to  be  acted  upon  by  frosts  during 
the  winter.  This  will  insure  a  friability 
not  easily  attainable  by  mechanical  means 
on  tenacious  soils.  The  seeds  should  be 
sown  as  early  as  can  be  done  in  the 
spring,  but  not  until  the  ground  is  dry. 
Working  a  clayey  soil  when  it  is  wet  is 
ruinous  to  the  future  crop. 

In  the  immediate  preparation  of  the 
ground  before  seeding,  the  surface  should 
be  pulverized  by  the  harrow  and  roller  if 
necessary.  The  seed  will  be  sufficiently 
covered  by  passing  a  light  harrow  or 
roller  over  the  ground.  The  former  is 
best  in  clayey  or  baking  soils,  and  the 
roller  on  light  and  sandy  soil. 

The  best  grasses  for  permanent  lawns 
are  red  top  (Agrostis  vulgaris,)  and  June 
grass  (Poa  pratensis.)  The  following 
proportions  have  been  used  in  the  lawns 
of  the  Department,  with  great  satisfac- 
tion: one  bushel  red  top,  two  bushels 
June  grass,  one  quart  timothy,  and  two 
pounds  white  clover,  to  each  acre  of 
land.  These  should  be  thoroughly  mixed 
before  sowing.  This  is  heavy  seeding, 
but  experiments  demonstrate  that  a  good 
lawn  can  be  secured  only  by  seeding 
heavily,  when  sown  in  the  spring;  autumn 
sowing  may  be  thinner,  but  the  thick 
seeding  will  be  the  most  satisfactory. 
There  is  no  grass  equal  to  the  June  grass 
for  fine  lawns ;  this  is  also  known  as 
green  grass,  and  Kentucky  blue  grass. 
The  red  top  also  forms  a  good  sward 
where  the  soil  is  good,  and  the  summers 
comparatively  cool  and  moist;  but  dur- 
ing dry,  warm  weather  it  becomes  hard 
and  wiry.  The  timothy  grass  vegetates 
quickly,  and  greatly  assists  the  growth  of 
the  others.  The  clover  is  also  valuable, 
in  rapidly  producing  a  thick,  close  sod. 

The  practice  of  sowing  oats,  barley,  or 
other  grains  with  the  grasses,  under  the 
impression  that  they  will  protect  the 
young  plants  from  sun  and  drought,  is 
altogether  wrong,  as  it  practically  does 
much  more  harm  than  good.  The  larger 
growing  plants  rob  the  soil  of  its  moisture, 
to  the  destruction  of  the  tender  and  more 
feebly  rooting  grass  plants.  No  such 
protection  is  necessary,  even  were  it  pos- 
29 


sible  to  supply  it  without  injury.  With 
fair  preparation  of  ground,  and  seed  put 
in  as  soon  as  practicable  in  the  spring, 
the  lawn  will  be  fit  to  mow  in  June  at 
latest. 

A  very  successful  improver,  especially 
in  the  making  of  lawns,  sows  down  in 
August  and  adds  about  two  pounds  of 
turnip  seed  to  the  acre.  The  gradual 
growth  of  the  turnip  foliage  forms  a  con- 
genial damp  shade  for  the  vegetation  and 
spread  of  the  young  grass  plants.  The 
larger  [leaves  of  the  vegetable  also  pro- 
tect the  grass  against  injury  from  the- 
early  frosts.  Their  gradual  decay  and 
ultimate  removal  are  effected  before  the 
grasses  are  so  far  advanced  as  to  be  hurt 
by  continuous  shade,  and  a  thick  sward 
is  secured  before  winter.  A  slight  cov- 
ering of  strawy  manure  will  be  of  ad- 
vantage to  autumn-sown  lawns,  particu- 
larly so  if  the  soil  inclines  to  be  wet,  and 
therefore  liable  to  have  the  young  plants 
thrown  to  the  surface  by  the  alternate 
action  of  freezing  and  thawing.  A  heavy 
roller  should  be  passed  over  it  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  firmness  of  the  soil  will' 
admit,  in  order  to  tighten  the  earth, 
around  the  roots,  and  press  down  such 
plants  as  have  been  loosened  during  the 
winter. 

While  it  is  true  that  a  fine  lawn  can- 
not be  produced  without  good  prepara- 
tion, it  is  equally  true  that  a  fine  lawn 
cannot  be  maintained  without  frequent 
mowing.  The  recent  improvements  in 
lawn  mowers  leave  but  little  to  be  desired 
so  far  as  mowing  facilities  are  concerned. 
They  also  roll  the  lawn  at  the  same  time 
that  it  is  cut,  which  is  essential  to  the 
most  perfect  keeping.  That  which  was 
formerly  regarded  as  a  formidable  opera- 
tion is  now  one  of  the  easiest,  and  the : 
lawn  is  kept  in  good  order  at  less  cost 
than  any  other  portion  of  the  pleasure? 
grounds.  One  of  the  best  points  in  the.- 
lawn  mower  is  its  incapacity  for  cutting 
long  grass,  thus  compelling  frequent 
mowing,  which  is  the  great  secret  in  keep- 
ing a  superior  lawn.  Mow  early  and  of- 
ten is  the  rule.  Even  on  newly  seeded 
lawns  the  mower  should  be  at  work  as 
soon  as  the  grass  is  high  enough  to  cut ; 
indeed  much  injury  results  from  procras- 
tination at  this  time;  weeds  will  gain  the 
ascendancy,  and  unequal  growths  follow. 
A  lawn  sown  down  in  April  was  cut  six. 


15° 


MECHANICAL. 


times  before  the  first  of  August,  and  had 
the  appearance  of  an  old  thickset  sod. 

Neither  in  the  preparation  and  forma- 
tion of  a  lawn,  nor  in  its  keeping  in  this 
climate,  are  there  any  half-way  com- 
promises. The  work  must  be  done  thor- 
oughly to  begin  with,  and  then  timely  at- 
tention to  cutting  all  through  the  grow- 
ing season  will  insure  a  satisfactory  result. 
Neither  soil  nor  climate  can  justly  be 
blamed  for  poor  lawns,  although  it  is  a 
convenient  mode  of  shifting  responsi- 
bility, and  one  frequently  adopted. 

As  already  remarked,  lawn  mowing 
machines  will  not  operate  to  any  good 
purpose  where  the  grass  is  long ;  hence 
it  has  been  recommended  to  leave  the 
cut  grass  as  a  mulch.  During  the  first 
year  this  course  may  be  followed  with 
advantage ;  but  experience  shows  that  a 
long  continuance  of  the  practice  injures 
the  lawn  very  materially,  particularly  dur- 
ing early  spring,  or  late  in  the  season. 
In  the  hottest  portion  of  summer  the  cut 
grass  dries  up  so  thoroughly  as  to  be  but 
.of  slight  influence  either  way. 

The  lawn  will  be  benefited  by  a  top 
dressing  once  in  three  or  four  years;  not, 
however,  by  throwing  over  it  an  unsightly 
covering  of  rough,  strawy  litter,  which, 
however  beneficial,  is  not  commendable 
in  neatly  kept  grounds.  A  compost  made 
up  of  fresh  stable  manure  and  any  ordina- 
rily good  surface  soil,  thrown  together  in 
layers,  and  intermixed  and  pulverized  by 
frequent  turnings  during  the  summer,  will 
be  in  condition  for  application  any  time 
in  early  winter.  This  should  be  evenly 
.distributed,  broken  up,  and  raked  in 
.among  the  roots,  taking  advantage  of 
frost  to  assist  in  the  work  of  disintegra- 
tion, and  removing  the  rougher  portions 
altogether  before  rolling  the  lawn  in  the 
•.spring. 

FENCES  and  HEDGES.— Some  sort  of 
Ifence  is  usually  necessary  to  guard  against 
intruders,  or  to  designate  ownership,  and 
the  kind  of  fence  used  will  generally  be 
governed  by  necessity. 

Whatever  materials  may  be  used  for 
outside  fences,  they  should  be  strong  and 
substantial.  Inside  fences  for  such  pur- 
poses as  that  of  separating  the  lawn  from 
the  vegetable  garden  may  be  of  lighter 
.construction ;  especially  if  a  fence  crosses 
a  lawn,  as  seen  from  the  house  with  an 
dopen  view  beyond,  it  should  be  as  light 


and  elegant  as  is  consistent  with  strength 
and  durability.  In  such  cases  it  is  often 
desired  to  conceal  the  fence,  as  an  intru- 
sive object  in  the  landscape,  by  adopting 
the  sunken  fence.  This  maybe  described 
as  a  ditch-like  excavation  four  or  five  feet 
in  depth,  finished  by  a  perpendicular  wall 
on  the  lawn  side,  and  the  ground  flatly 
sloped  on  the  opposite. 

The  propriety  of  persistently  conceal- 
ing the  fence  in  such  positions  may  be 
questioned.  Utility  is  a  strong  element 
of  the  beautiful,  and  if  no  visible  barrier 
intervenes  between  the  pleasure  ground 
and  a  grazing  field,  we  at  once  condemn 
the  incongruity.  We  cannot  distinguish 
where  the  flower  garden  ends  or  the  graz- 
ing meadow  begins,  and  must  suppose 
that  the  cattle  can  perambulate  the  flow- 
er garden  if  they  choose ;  we  can  imagine 
the  result,  and  we  feel  that  a  fence  be- 
comes a  necessity  to  separate  objects  that 
cannot  well  be  united  without  injury  to  one 
or  both.  Wire  fences  are  well  adapted  to 
this  purpose,  as  they  are  so  light  as  not 
materially  to  interrupt  the  view;  and  if 
properly  constructed,  are  sufficiently 
strong  and  permanent. 

Even  in  those  happy  communities 
where  cattle  are  not  permitted  to  run  at 
large,  some  kind  of  fence  will  be  neces- 
sary to  designate  boundary  lines  of  prop- 
erty. It  has  been  claimed  that  the  high- 
est degree  of  rural  beauty  is  a  village 
without  fences,  or  any  other  distinctive 
marks  to  properties.  As  well  might  it  be 
claimed  that  the  best  arrangement  in  a 
picture  gallery  will  be  produced  by  taking 
the  paintings  out  of  the  frames  and  nail- 
ing the  canvas  to  the  walls.  The  love  of 
exclusive  possession  is  a  mainstay  of 
society.  Well-defined  boundary  lines  to 
property  greatly  enhance  its  enjoyment, 
especially  when  applied  to  lawns  and  gar- 
dens. 

For  this  purpose  the  live  fence  is  by 
far  the  most  appropriate,  and  that  formed 
of  evergreen  plants  the  most  permanent- 
ly beautiful.  The  Siberian  arbor  vitae, 
Nootka  cypress,  and  hemlock  spruce  are 
among  the  best  for  northern  climates. 
In  the  South  the  Chinese  arbor  vitae,  Ja- 
pan euonymus,  and  other  evergreen 
shrubs  may  be  added  to  the  list.  If  de- 
ciduous plants  are  preferred,  a  selection 
may  be  made  from  the  following  list: 
Japan  quince,  buckthorn,  elseagnus,  Ta- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       451 


pan  privet ;  and,  if  a  somewhat  formida- 
ble fence  is  desired,  the  Osage  orange 
and  honey  locust  will  answer  that  pur- 
pose. 

Hedges  are  also  useful  as  shelter  to 
gardens,  rendering  them  earlier,  more 
productive,  and  greatly  exempt  from 
casualties  of  climate  and  locality.  In 
the  growth  of  all  kinds  of  small  fruits,  as 
well  as  those  of  larger  orchard  growth, 
•shelter  is  always  of  the  greatest  benefit. 
Many  of  the  diseases  of  our  fruit  trees 
and  imperfections  in  the  products  can  be 
effaced  by  sheltering  hedges  and  planta- 
tions— facts  that  are  now  being  fully  ap- 
preciated by  fruit-growers. 

In  grounds  of  very  limited  dimensions, 
where  the  boundary  lines  are  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  house,  an  evergreen 
hedge  set  inside  the  fence  will  afford 
great  relief  to  the  eye  and  form  a  back- 
ground, as  it  were,  to  the  shrubbery  and 
flower  borders.  The  stiff  line  of  the 
hedge  can  be  modified  in  appearance  by 
planting  small,  diversified  groups  of 
shrubs,  or  low-growing  evergreens  along 
its  front.  A  continuous  border  varying 
in  width  and  of  curving  outline,  running 
in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  hedge, 
and  thickly  planted  with  flowering  shrubs 
of  variety,  interspersed  with  such  flower- 
ing herbaceous  perennials  as  hollyhocks, 
phloxes,  chrysanthemums,  delphinums, 
etc.,  is  one  of  the  best  modes  of  treating  a 
.small  pleasure  garden  and  lawn. 

WATER,  Lakes. — When  appropriately 
introduced,  the  effect  of  water  in  pleasure 
grounds  is  always  pleasing;  frequently  it  is 
strikingly  beautiful;  and,  of  all  the  ma- 
terials that  enter  into  the  composition  of 
natural  scenery,  there  are  none  that  pro- 
duce a  greater  amount  of  varied  interest 
and  beauty.  It  is,  therefore,  eagerly  de- 
sired as  an  adjunct  to  the  more  artificial 
improvements  of  private  residences,  public 
institutions,  and  city  parks,  and  is  always 
a  valuable  acquisition  where  it  can  be 
:ecired. 

To  form  an  artificial  lake,  the  first 
requisite  is  an  ample  supply  of  water  at 
all  seasons.  There  cannot  well  be  a  more 
unsatisfactory  object  in  artificial  grounds 
than  a  lake  where  the  supply  of  water  is 
insufficient  to  keep  it  properly  filled,  and 
where  natural  facilities  for  a  constant  sup- 
ply do  not  exist  its  construction  should 


not  be  attempted.  The  surface  water,  or 
casual  supply  derived  from  rains  and 
snows,  may  be  sufficient  during  winter 
and  spring,  but  entirely  inadequate  to 
meet  the  evaporation  during  summer; 
and  lakes  that  are  dependent  upon  this 
source,  and  become  partially  empty  and 
stagnant  during  the  warm  season,  are  as 
injurious  to  health  as  they  are  opposed  to 
all  correct  ideas  of  beauty. 

Water  for  ponds  is  sometimes  procured 
from  the  discharges  of  underground 
drains;  and  where  the  drained  area  is 
extensive  enough  to  furnish  all  the  water 
necessary,  which  can  be  ascertained  by 
observations  during  summer,  a  pond  may 
be  excavated  at  the  lowest  point,  allow- 
ing the  surface  of  the  water  to-  be  on  a 
level  with  the  discharge  pipes  of  the 
drains.  The  excavated  soil  can  be  used 
in  forming  the  banks  of  varied  heights 
and  configurations.  The  outline  of  the 
pond,  like  that  of  a  belt  of  trees  or  shrub- 
bery border  skirting  a  lawn,  should  be 
varied  and  irregular,  with  bold  points  and 
deep  indentations,  and  these  should  be 
a  level  lawn,  surrounded  by  curved  out- 
lines of  shrubbery,  and  that  of  a  smooth 
sheet  of  water  in  a  pond  or  small  lake, 
with  jutting  banks  and  retiring  bays,  is 
very  close,  so  far  as  relates  to  their  artistic 
treatment  in  ornamental  planting. 

The  most  natural  position  for  a  sheet  of 
water  is  in  a  hollow  or  low  ground,  oc- 
cupied by  a  constantly  running  stream. 
It  frequently  occurs  that  small  streams 
are  so  situated  that  by  skillfully  throwing 
a  dam  across  the  valley  hollow  through 
which  the  water  runs  a  large  surface  may 
be  flooded  and  the  water  permanently 
ret  lined.  The  water  level  on  the  sur- 
rounding ground  will  probably  show  a 
beautifully  varied  outline  which  may  be 
increased  or  rendered  more  definite  by 
deepening  bay-like  recesses  and  adding 
to  prominent  or  jutting  points.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  effects  that  may  be  pro- 
duced by  planting,  will  give  variety  to 
otherwise  monotonous  outlines. 

In  geometrically  arranged  flower  gar- 
dens simple  basins  of  water  may  be  in- 
troduced with  good  effect,  either  with 
fountains  or  without  them.  In  these 
situations  the  marginal  finish  or  connec- 
tion between  the  grass  and  water  should 
be  of  an  architectural  description.  Any 
attempt  made  toward  a  rugged,  or  what 


452 


MECHANICAL. 


is  usually  termed  a  natural  looking  finish, 
will  certainly  prove  unsatisfactory. 
GATES  AND  CARRIAGE  TURNS.— 

First  impressions  are  strongly  influencing, 
and  oftentimes  prove  to  be  the  founda- 
tion of  lasting  prejudices.  A  neatly  de- 
signed and  tastefully  arranged  gateway 
at  the  entrance  of  a  property  creates  the 
favorable  expectation  of  finding  these 
characteristics  pervading  other  improve- 
ments. An  imposing  entrance  way, 
therefore,  becomes  an  important  feature ; 
but  it  should  always  bear  a  close  relation 
to  the  general  style  and  scale  of  the  situa- 
tion ;  and,  if  it  is  architectural  in  design, 
should  harmonize  with  the  style  of  the 
mansion  to  which  it  is  an  adjunct;  at  the 
same  time  it  may  be  more  highly  orna- 
mented, keeping  strictly  in  mind  that  no 
amount  of  mere  decoration  will  compen- 
sate for  any  appearance  of  insufficient 
strength  or  utility. 

Iron  gates  appear  to  greatest  advantage 
when  they  are  hung  to  stone  posts  or  at- 
tached to  pillars  of  masonry.  A  single 
block  of  granite,  fashioned  into  a  post, 
forms  a  very  satisfactory  support  for  an 
ordinary  iron  gate.  Large,  heavy,  and 
elaborately  constructed  iron  gates  demand 
heavier  and  more  massive  supporting 
pillars,  ornamented  to  correspond  with 
the  style  and  finish  of  the  gate.  The 
main  or  principal  entrance  gate  to  any 
place,  even  of  the  most  humble  descrip- 
tion, should  be  placed  on  a  line  receding 
more  or  less  from  the  line  of  the  outside 
or  public  road,  being  connected  with  the 
latter  by  a  curved  line  of  fence.  The 
extent  of  this  recess  will  vary  with  the 
extent  of  the  place,  facilities  of  position, 
and  size  and  style  of  the  gate;  but  ten  to 
thirty  feet  may  be  given  as  a  range. 
Even  in  places  of  quite  limited  extent, 
the  former  distance  will  be  sufficient  to 
give  a  decided  effect,  without  encroach- 
ing too  severely  on  the  grounds,  and  will 
establish  a  largeness  of  expression  to  the 
whole  surroundings.  In  placing  posts 
for  gates  the  mistake  is  frequently  made 
of  setting  them  parallel  to  the  public  road 
instead  of  having  them  at  a  right  angle 
to  the  road  to  which  they  properly  be- 
long. When  the  private  road  leaves  the 
public  one  at  right  angles,  and  continues 
in  a  straight  line  for  some  distance,  the 
gate  will,  of  course,  be  properly  placed  in 
a  line  parallel   to  the  public  road :  but 


where  the  front  lawn  is  small  in  extent 
and  it  becomes  a  necessity  to  branch  the 
road  suddenly  to  right  or  left,  the  import- 
ance of  adhering  strictly  to  the  rule  of 
placing  the  gate  at  a  right  angle  to  the 
carriage  road  will  appear  very  conspicu- 
ous ;  for  if  the  posts  are  set  parallel  with 
the  public  road,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a 
matter  of  much  nicety  to  drive  a  carriage 
through  the  gateway  without  either  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  post  or  allowing 
the  horses  to  walk  on  the  grass  or  road 
edging.  Examples  of  this  may  be  seen 
in  most  suburban  districts. 

The  greater  the  inequality  of  the  re- 
spective distances  between  the  posts  and 
the  line  of  the  outside  or  public  road  the 
more  difference  will  there  be  in  the  length, 
of  the  curved  lines  connecting  them  with 
the  fence.  One  will  be  much  shorter 
and  have  a  different  radius  from  the 
other;  but  this  will  not  destroy  the 
symmetry  of  composition  which  a  gate- 
way should  possess,  since  the  apparent 
utility  of  the  arrangement  will  convey  a 
strong  reason  for  its  adoption,  which  can 
be  further  increased  by  the  judicious 
planting  of  trees;  besides,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  an  expression  of  symme- 
try can  be  obtained  without  having  a. 
strict  adherence  to  uniformity  in  details. 

A  space  sufficiently  large  for  allowing 
a  carriage  to  turn  is  a  necessary  conveni- 
ence to  a  house,  and  as  near  to  the  main 
entrance  as  practicable.  In  the  front  of 
very  large  buildings,  a  gravel  space  wide 
enough  for  this  purpose  is  sometimes 
provided ;  but  when  the  house  is  one  of 
ordinary  dimensions,  and  the  grounds  of 
only  moderate  extent,  a  large  gravel  space" 
will  very  materially  abridge  the  breadth 
of  the  front.  The  reflection  of  heat  from- 
gravel  is  not  pleasant,  neither  is  it  so- 
agreeable  to  the  eye  as  the  grassy  lawn. 
Some  of  the  objections  to  an  bpert  gravel 
space  are  removed  by  forming  a  circular 
carriage-way,  directly  in  front  of  the 
house,  inclosing  a  bed  for  shrubbery  or  a 
grass  plot.  The  amount  of  roadway  is, 
by  this  mode,  somewhat  reduced,  but  the 
evil  of  breaking  up  the  front  still  exists; 
nor  does  it  provide  all  the  requirements, 
of  a  carriage  turn,  as  there  is  no  alterna- 
tive but  to  perambulate  the  circle  when 
retiring;  and  the  annoyance  of  having 
vehicles  and  animals  obstructing  the 
views  from  the  principal  windows  of  the 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       453 


house  is  also  a  great  objection  to  this 
arrangement.  The  best  position  for  a 
carriage-turn  is  beyond  the  house,  so  that 
a  vehicle,  after  approaching  the  main 
entrance,  can  proceed  onward,  turn,  and 
•approach  the  house  again  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  turn  in  this  case  can  be 
partially  screened  from  the  house  by 
planting  shrubbery;  and  arrangements 
for  tying  horses  can  be  made  in  unobjec- 
tionable positions  where  they  will  not 
present  annoying  features  as  seen  from 
the  house.  This  allows  the  grass  or  lawn 
to  be  carried  closer  to  the  building,  the 
roadway  only  intervening,  and  the  side 
grouping  of  plants  can  be  executed  much 
more  effectively.  The  curve  of  the  road, 
entering  into  the  grounds  on  one  side, 
will  be  balanced  by  a  similar  curve  on 
the  other  side,  toward,  the  turn.  In  this 
proximity  to  a  building,  the  walks,  as 
well  as  artificial  plantings,  should  be 
symmetrical  in  their  tendencies,  and  in 
keeping  with  the  formal  style  of  treat- 
ment which  such  a  position  demands. 
The  central  view  from  the  building  will 
■be  open,  and  impart  an  expression  of 
freedom  and  apparent  extent  of  lawn, 
"which  is  always  pleasing,  particularly  in 
limited  areas. 

ROADS  and  AVENUES,  Planting.— 
In  the  planting  of  straight  roads  and 
avenues  it  is  essential  to  preserve  regu- 
larity of  line,  as  also  uniformity  in  the 
color  and  shape  of  the  trees.  The  nearest 
approach  to  the  sublime  in  landscape 
gardening  is  in  effects  produced  by  ex- 
tended uniform  lines  of  trees.  Continuity 
of  line  and  uniformity  of  object,  when 
-combined  with  great  extension,  produce 
sublimity.  Objects  are  sublime  which 
.possess  quantity  and  simplicity  in  con- 
junction. It  is  not  on  a  small  rivulet, 
however  transparent  or  beautifully  wind- 
ing it  may  be ;  it  is  not  on  a  narrow 
valley,  though  variegated  with  flowers  of 
a  thousand  hues ;  it  is  not  on  small  eleva- 
tions, though  they  are  clothed  with  the 
most  delightful  verdure,  that  we  bestow 
the  epithet  sublime;  but  it  is  upon 
Niagara,  the  Mississippi,  the  Andes,  the 
ocean,  the  wide  expause  of  the  firma- 
ment, or  die  immensity  of  space  uniformly 
extended,  without  limit  and  without, 
termination.  To  produce  this  effect  it  is,  j 
therefore,  imperative  that  only  one  variety 
of  tree  should  be  used.     Anything  that 


tends  to  break  up  the  uniform  continuity 
will  at  once  destroy  it.  A  straight 
avenue,  planted  with  a  variety  of  trees  of 
varied  forms,  some  broad  and  spreading, 
others  tall,  pointed,  and  spiry,  is  as  much 
at  variance  with  good  taste  as  would  be  a 
Grecian  facade,  furnished  with  columns 
embracing  all  the  different  orders  of 
architecture.  Among  the  best  trees  for 
planting  wide  avenues  are  the  tulip  tree, 
the  sugar  and  the  silver  maple,  lindens, 
sycamores,  walnuts,  oaks,  and  chestnuts. 
For  narrower  roads,  those  from  sixteen  to 
twenty  feet  in  width,  the  Norway  maple, 
the  black  and  the  white  ash,  the  horse 
chestnut,  and  those  of  kindred  habit,  will 
be  more  suitable. 

On  wide  and  long  avenues,  in  positions 
where  a  side  view  of  the  lines  is  promi- 
nent, the  wall-like  effect  may  be  very 
much  softened  and  toned  down,  by  set- 
ting a  double  or  even  a  triple  row  of 
trees,  and  this  will  be  still  further  in- 
creased by  planting  each  opposite  row, 
respectively,  with  a  distinct  kind.  An 
avenue  of  tulip  trees  will,  in  this  arrange- 
ment, be  well  supported  by  an  outside 
line  of  red  maples ;  their  forms  will  blend 
pleasingly,  and  the  contrast  of  their  spring 
verdure,  and  autumn  colorings  will  be 
agreeable.  In  a  similar  disposition  the 
sugar  maple,  sweet  gum,  and  ash-leaved 
maple  may  be  used.  Such  combinations 
may  be  indefinitely  varied  and  adapted 
to  the  embellishment  of  avenues,  as  their 
extent  and  importance  may  demand  or 
require. 

In  planting  curving  roads,  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  trees  will  obviously  be  deter- 
mined by  the  general  character  of  the 
grounds  through  which  the  road  passes. 

In  places  of  six  to  ten  acres  in  extent, 
and  in  form  nearly  of  a  square  or  paral- 
lelogram, with  the  mansion  placed  one 
hundred  yards  back  of  the  front  line,  the 
entrance  gate  may  be  judiciously  set  near 
one  of  the  corners,  and  the  road  gradually 
curve  to  the  building.  A  single  continu- 
ous row  of  trees  on  one  side  of  this  road 
would  have  a  monotonous  effect,  and  a 
row  on  each  side  would  destroy  and 
completely  break  up  any  attempt  at 
breadth  of  view.  The  road  should  rather 
appear  to  curve  round  and  pass  through 
masses  of  trees  and  shrubbery  plantations. 
While  attention  may  be  given  to  partially 
shading  the  road,  by  planting  suitable 


454 


MECHANICAL. 


trees  mainly  on  the  south  and  west  sides, 
yet  these  shade  trees  should  form  only  a 
portion  of  groups,  with  an  occasional  iso- 
lated single  specimen  tree;  or,  what  is 
still  better,  two  trees  of  the  same  kind  set 
six  to  ten  feet  apart,  so  that  when  they 
grow  up  they  will  give  a  distant  appear- 
ance as  of  a  single  tree,  with  the  addi- 
tional variety  of  aspect  when  closely 
viewed.  The  paintings  or  groups  should 
be  more  extensive  and  massive  on  the  in- 
ner circle,  around  which  the  road  will 
curve,  with  frequent  open  vistas,  looking 
in  upon  the  lawn.  The  width  and  length 
of  the  road  and  extent  of  lawn  will  desig- 
nate the  size  of  the  groups,  and  also  sug- 
gest the  particular  kinds  of  trees  and 
shrubs  of  which  they  are  to  be  composed. 
Shade  trees  may  be  thus  introduced  in 
sufficient  quantities,  even  on  winding 
roads,  to  answer  the  combined  purposes 
of  shade  and  garniture,  without  produc- 
ing an  appearance  of  strained  effort  to 
secure  it. 

Where  the  road  is  wholly  on  the  south- 
ern side  of  the  dwelling,  deciduous  trees 
should  be  used  in  front  or  near  the  build- 
ing. If  the  entrance  and  road  are  north 
of  the  house,  a  straight  avenue  of  ever- 
green trees  will  form  an  admirable  feature, 
if  ample  space  is  allowed  for  both  road 
and  trees.  The  Norway  spruce  is,  per- 
haps, the  first  choice  of  tree  for  such 
planting.  The  hemlock  spruce  is  the 
more  graceful,  and  the  best  adapted  to 
short  roads  or  narrow  grounds.  The 
Austrian,  the  Scotch,  and  the  white  pine 
may  be  used  where  the  grounds  are  ex- 
tensive. Even  when  the  Norway  spruce 
is  used  the  parallel  lines  should  be  fifty 
leet  apart,  not  only  to  admit  of  sun  and 
winds  to  act  directly  on  the  roadway, 
but  also  to  give  ample  room  for  the 
spread  of  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees; 
and  in  no  case  should  they  be  planted 
nearer  than  sixteen  feet  from  the  edge  of 
the  road ;  and  when  the  larger  and  more 
widely  spreading  pines  are  used,  a  space 
of  at  least  twenty  feet  should  be  given. 
A  very  meagre  effect  will  result  from 
planting  close  to  roadways,  narrowing 
them  into  mere  strips,  which  for  at  least 
one-half  of  the  year  are  seldom  dry. 

BUILDINGS,  Planting  near.— A  mis- 
chievous error,  and  one  too  frequently 
perpetrated,  is  that  of  placing  trees  close 
to  buildings.    Although  trees  and  shrubs 


are  the  chief  decorative  ornaments  of  a 
place,  they  become  not  only  disagreeable 
but  positively  injurious  to  animal  life,, 
when  closely  massed  around  a  habitation, 
by  shutting  out  light,  and  preventing  the 
rays  of  the  sun  and  drying  action  of 
winds  from  exerting  their  salutary  influ- 
ence on  the  walls,  which,  in  consequence, 
are  constantly  damp  and  unhealthy. 
Where  large  trees  are  allowed  to  spread 
and  overhang  the  roofs,  choking  gutters 
and  water  leaders,  and  causing  a  deposit, 
of  mold  and  other  fungoid  growths  as  far 
as  their  influence  extends,  it  is  impossible 
for  the  house  to  be  dry,  comfortable,  or 
healthy  for  human  beings.  Many  of  the 
older  houses  throughout  the  -country  are 
rendered  almost  uninhabitable  by  the 
dense  surroundings  of  trees  and  shrub- 
bery, and  the  evil  is  greatly  aggravated 
when  the  trees  are  of  evergreen  species. 
Ventilation  is  produced  by  heat,  and  a 
building  shaded  from  the  rays  of  the  sun 
by  lofty  trees,  and  sheltered  from  currents 
of  air  by  thickets  of  shrubbery,  is  de- 
prived of  the  influences  most  conducive 
to  health,  and  is  a  fitting  subject  for  the 
attention  of  a  sanitary  commission. 

Plantings  of  the  finer  species  of  dwarf 
flowering  shrubs  may  be  placed  in  mod- 
erately large  masses  on  the  lawn  near  the 
house,  without  any  great  injury,  if  not 
too  frequently  repeated;  but  even  the 
smaller  growing  shrubbery,  if  planted  in 
continuous  thickets  near  the  building,  in 
any  except  a  northerly  direction,  will 
sensibly  exclude  the  genial  cool  breezes 
so  grateful  during  summer.  A  house 
nestling  on  the  sunny  side  of  an  evergreen 
plantation  is  suggestive  of  comfort,  and 
presents  a  cheerful,  sheltered  appearance 
during  winter.  It  is  as  economical  as  it 
is  attractive,  as  many  persons  can  testify 
who  have  had  the  foresight  to  plant 
sheltering  borders  of  evergreens  in  bleak 
and  treeless  situations,  and  in  consequence 
are  realizing  a  higher  thermometric  tem- 
perature ;  but  even  these,  to  be  of  great- 
est benefit,  should  not  approach  within 
one  hundred  feet  of  the  house,  at  least 
not  in  mass.  Isolated  specimens  of  rare,, 
or  otherwise  specially  interesting  trees, 
may  be  planted  nearer,  but  only  on  the 
northern  sides  of  the  house. 

A  certain  amount  of  shade  is  very 
desirable  in  connection  with  a  house, 
especially  in   climates  where,   during  a 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       455; 


great  portion  of  the  time,  it  is  more  agree- 
able out  doors  than  it  is  in  rooms;  yet 
it  had  better  be  secured  by  covered 
verandas  than  by  trees.  It  is  also  more 
conducive  to  health  to  sit  under  a  covered 
roof.  Exposure  to  evening  dews  is  a 
well-known  fruitful  source  of  sickness, 
and  the  partial  protection  afforded  by 
the  overhanging  branches  of  trees  is  not 
sufficient  when  dew  is  falling. 

Trees  of  the  large-growing  species 
should  not  be  planted  nearer  than  sixty 
feet  to  the  walls  of  a  dwelling-house. 
Such  trees  are  the  sugar  and  the  silver 
maple,  the  sycamore,  elm,  linden,  ash, 
chestnut,  and  poplar.  Trees  of  medium 
growth,  such  as  the  Norway  and  the 
English  maple,  and  others  of  this  class, 
that  do  not  attain  a  height  of  more  than 
thirty  feet,  may  be  planted  thirty  to  lorty 
feet  from  the  building. 

Another  disadvantage  resulting  from 
surrounding  the  building  with  a  thicket 
of  foliage  is,  that  it  shuts  out  the  views 
of  immediate  and  distant  scenery,  as  seen 
from  the  house,  at  the  same  time  the 
house,  as  an  object  of  the  local  landscape, 
is  completely  hidden  from  view.  If  the 
architecture  of  the  structure  has  received 
any  study  as  a  work  of  artistic  design, 
it  should  in  itself  form  a  picture  which,  to 
be  properly  appreciated,  must  be  seen 
and  viewed  as  a  whole,  so  that  its  pro- 
portions, outlines,  elevations,  and  orna- 
mental details  may  be  taken  in  at  one 
view.  Even  beds  of  low  shrubbery,  if 
abundantly  introduced  near  the  base  of 
a  building,  will  foreshorten  the  elevation, 
obstruct  the  view  of  the  horizontal  base 
line,  and  seemingly  destroy  architectural 
proportions.  Many  of  the  finest  struc- 
tures, both  public  and  private,  are  ruin- 
ously shorn  of  their  beauty  by  careless  or 
ignorant  planters,  who,  in  their  endeavors 
to  beautify  a  building,  succeed  only  in 
concealing  those  salient  lines  and  projec- 
tions that  give  it  character  and  distinctive- 
ness. 

A  proper  connection  of  the  house  with 


its  surroundings  is  the  first  point  to  which 
attention  should  be  given  in  laying  out 
grounds,  as  it  is  the  most  prominent  and 
leading  detail  of  improvements.  A  house 
should  not  appear  to  have  risen  out  of 
the  green  lawn  like  a  tree.  It  is  necessary 
that  some  evidence  should  be  apparent 
of  suitable  preparation  having  been  made 
for  the  building  j  at  least,  a  level  platform 
of  more  or  less  width  should  project  from 
the  base  line.  The  ground  line  should 
be  level,  and  all  walks  should  correspond 
with  the  lines  of  the  ground  plan.  Zigzag 
and  curving  walks  close  to  the  straight 
lines  of  a  large,  or  even  the  most  humble 
building,  are  directly  opposed  to  beauty 
or  propriety;  they  are  sure  evidence  of 
unskilled  labor. 

The  principal  front  of  a  building 
should  show  a  terrace,  either  architectur- 
ally treated,  or  at  least  with  architectural 
appendages.  The  level  line  of  terrace 
will  furnish  a  uniform  base  to  the  build- 
ing, and  masses  of  low- growing  plants 
may  be  introduced  below  the  terrace 
where  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 
view  of  the  structure.  A  few  trees  may 
be  planted  at  the  ends  or  in  the  rearr 
which  will  serve  to  connect  the  house 
with  the  grounds  and  their  scenery,  and 
this  can  be  done  without  either  hiding  or 
overshadowing  the  building. 

It  has  long  been  laid  down  as  a  gen- 
eral principal  that  round-headed  trees- 
contrast  best  with  the  prevailing  perpen- 
dicular lines  of  Gothic  architecture,  and' 
those  of  a  pointed  or  conic  shape  with 
the  horizontal  of  the  Grecian.  It  may 
be  questioned  whether  either  of  these 
rules  is  sufficiently  accurate  to  be  worthy 
ot  consideration ;  certain  it  is  that  there 
may  be  found  compositions  of  expressive 
beauty,  where  the  arrangements  are  the 
reverse  of  those  proposed  in  the  general 
principle.  It  is  perhaps  nearer  the  facts 
to  state  that,  in  the  arrangement  of  formsr 
harmony  will  prove  more  pleasing  than 
contrast;  but  when  applied  to  colors,, 
contrast  will  develop  the  most  distinct 
and  expressive  compositions. 


L  A  W; 


OR, 


EVERT  MAN  HJS  OWN  LAWYER. 


ASSIGNMENT,  General.— .(Indorsed 

ON   THE  ASSIGNED  INSTRUMENT.) KnOW 

all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I, 
the  within  A.  L.,  in  consideration 
of  $25  to  me  paid  by  B.  C,  have 
assigned  to  the  said  B.  C,  and  all 
assigns,  all  my  interest  in,  and  to  the 
within  instrument,  and  every  part  or  par- 
cel thereof,  and  all  the  rights  and  interests 
therein,  and  thereby  conveyed,  and  I  do 
hereby  constitute  the  said  B.  C.,  my  true 
and  lawful  attorney  in  my  name,  but  at  his 
own  costs  and  charges,  to  take  all  legal 
measures,  which  may  be  necessary  to  en- 
force the  stipulations  and  agreement 
herein  contained,  or  to  recover  the 
•moneys  due  or  to  grow  due  thereon. 
Witness  my  hand  and  seal  this — of — 18 — 
A.  L.  [l.  s.J 

LEASE,  Assignment  of  a. — Know  all 
amen  by  these  presents,  that  I,  B.  C,  the 
within  named  lessee,  for  and  in  considera- 
tion of  $50  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  A.  L., 
of  the  town  of  county  of  ,  at  and 
fbefore  the  sealing  and  delivery  hereof, 
'the  receipt  whereof  I  do  hereby  acknowl- 
edge, have  granted,  assigned,  and  set  over, 
and  by  these  presents,  do  grant,  assign 
.and  set  over,  unto  the  said  A.  L.,  his 
<executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  the 
•within  indenture  of  lease,  and  all  that 
house  and  farm  [or  describe  the  property 
to  be  assigned]  therein  described,  with  the 
appurtenances ;  also  all  my  estate,  right, 
title,  term  of  years  yet  to  come,  claim  and 
demand  whatsoever  of,  in,  to,  or  out  of 
the  same.  To  have  and  to  hold  the  said 
house  and  farm,  and  the  appurtenances 
thereof,  unto  the  said  A.  L.,  his  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  for  the  residue 
of  the  term  within  mentioned,  under  the 
yearly  rent  and  covenants  within  reserved 
and  contained  on  my  part  and  behalf  to 
be  done,  kept  and  performed. 
Witness  my  hand  and  seal  this — of — 18 — 

B.  C.  [l.  s] 

PATENT  EIGHT,  Assignment  of  a.— 
Whereas,   letters    patent,    bearing    date 


the the  day  of        18 — ,  were  granted 

and  issued  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  under  the  seal  thereof,  to 
Edwin  Hough,  of  the  town  of  Hornells- 
ville,  of  the  State  of  New  York,  for  [here 
state  the  nature  of  the  invention  as  in  the 
patent]  a  more  particular  and  full  descrip- 
tion whereof  is  annexed  to  the  said  letters 
patent  in  a  schedule,  by  which  letters 
patent  the  full  and  exclusive  right  and 
liberty  of  making  and  using  the  said  in- 
vention, and  of  vending  the  same  to 
others  to  be  used,  was  granted  to  the  said 
Edwin  Hough,  his  heirs,  executors, 
administrators  or  assigns,  for  the  term  of 
seventeen  years,  from  the  same  date. 

Now,  know  all  men  by  these  presents, 
that  I,  the  said  Edwin  Hough,  for  and  in 
consideration  of  the  sum  of  $1000,  to  me 
in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby 
acknowledged,  have  granted,  assigned, 
and  set  over,  and  by  these  presents  do 
grant,  assign  and  set  over  unto  William 
A.  Dean,  of  the  said  town  of  Hornells- 
ville,  his  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  forever,  the  said  letters  patent, 
and  all  my  right,  title  and  interest  in  and 
to  the  said  invention,  so  granted  unto  me ; 
to  have  and  to  hold  the  said  letters  patent 
and  invention,  with  all  benefit,  profit  and 
advantage  thereof,  unto  the  said 
William  A.  Dean,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  in  as  full,  ample  and 
beneficial  manner,  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, as  I,  the  said  Edwin  Hough,  by 
virtue  of  the  said  letters  patent,  may  or 
might  have,  or  hold  the  same,  for  and 
during  all  the  rest  and  residue  of  the  said 
term  of  seventeen  years. 

In  witness   wnereof,    I    have   hereto 

affixed  my  hand  and  seal,  this day 

of        18 

Edwin  Hough,  [l.  s.] 

In  presence  of 

Ben.  Wiley, 

D.  R.  Shafer. 

This  assignment  should  be  recorded  in 


er.  ) 


(456) 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      45; 


the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents, 

at  Washington. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  A  JUDGMENT. 

Court,    County  of 

A..  B.    )     Recovery 


\.  B.    ) 
2.  D.   ) 


i|X3x  J4 


Costs 


.      3° 
$1,161 

3  h.  p.  M, 

Pin's  Att'y, 


Roll  filed  May  10th,  1876, 
J.  B.  W., 

In  consideration  of  $1,162,  to  me 
paid,  I  do  hereby  assign  and  transfer  to 
G.  H.,  the  judgment  above  mentioned, 
for  his  use  and  benefit,  hereby  athorizing 
him  to  collect  and  enforce  judgment 
thereof  in  my  name,  or  otherwise,  but  at 
his  own  costs  and  charges,  and  covenant- 
ing that  the  sum  of  $1,161.39  wim  tfte 
interest  from  the  10th  day  of  May, 
1876,  is  due  thereon. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal  this  1st  day 
of  January,  1876.  A.  B.  [l.  s.] 

Assignment  of  Bond  and  Mortgage. — 
Mortgage  dated  the  3d  day  of  January, 
1 876,  executed  by  A.  B.  and  wife  to  C. 

D.;  recorded  in  the County  Clerk's 

office,  in  Book  No.  —  of  Mortgages, 
page  —  &c,  bond  bearing  date  the  day 
aforesaid,  executed  by  A.  B.  to  C.  D., 
.aforesaid,  in  the  penal  sum  of  $1,000, 
conditioned  for  the  payment  of  $500  in 
Ave  years  from  the  date  thereof,  with 
interest  semi-annually. 

In  consideration  of  $500  to  me  paid 
by  E.  F.,  I  do  hereby  sell,  assign,  transfer 
and  set  over,  unto  the  said  E.  F.,  the 
bond  and  mortgage  above  described, 
hereby  authorizing  him  to  collect  and 
enforce  payment  thereof,  in  my  name 
or  otherwise,  but  at  his  own  cost  and 
charges ;  and  I  hereby  covenant  that  the 
sum  of  $500,  with  interest,  from  the  3d 
•day  of  January,  1876,  is  now  due  and 
owing  on  the  said  bond  and  mortgage, 
and  that  I  have  a  good  right  to  sell  the 
same.  * 

Witnesss  my  hand  and  seal  this  10th 
day  of  January,i876.  C.  D.  [l.  s.J 

Have  the  assignment  acknowledged 
before  the  proper  officers  and  recorded. 

Assignment  of  Bond  and  Mortgage  as 
Collateral  Security. — The  same  as  in  pre- 
ceding form  (see  Assignment  of  Bond 
and  Mortgage);  where  the  star  is  affixed 
add  the  following: 

But    this   assignment  is,   nevertheless, 


made  on  this  express  condition,  that,  if 
the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs,  executors  or  ad- 
ministrators, shall  well  and  truly  pay,  or 
cause  to  be  paid,  unto  the  said  E.  F.,  his 
heirs,  executors,  administrators  or  assigns, 
the  sum  of  $500  and  interest  thereon,  on 
or  before  the  3d  day  of  January,  i88i,this 
assignment  shall  be  void  and  of  no  effect, 
this  indenture  being  made  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  the  payment  of  the  said  sum 
of  $500,  with  interest  as  aforesaid,  and 
for  no  other  purpose  whatever.  And  in 
case  the  said  E.  F.,  his  heirs,  executors, 
administrators  or  assigns,  shall  collect 
or  receive  the  money  due  on  the  said 
mortgage  hereby  assigned,  he  shall,  after 
retaining  the  sum  of  $500  and  interest 
thereon,  and  his  reasonable  costs  and 
charges  in  that  behalf  expended,  pay 
the  surplus,  if  any,  to  the  said  C.  D.,  his 
heirs,  executors,  administrators  or  assigns. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties 
have  hereto  respectively  set  their  hands 
and  seals,  this  10th  day  of  January, 
1876.  C.  D.  [l.  s.l 

E.  F.  [ls.J 

Have  the  same  acknowledged  before 
a  proper  officer  and  recorded. 

BOOT),  for  Payment  of  Money  at  differ- 
ent times. — (The  same  as  in  last  form  to 
the  *  then  let  the  Bond  read  as  follows : 
The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such, 
that  if  the  above-bound  A.  B.,  his  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  or  any  of 
them,  shall  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause 
to  be  paid,  unto  the  above-named  C.  D., 
his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns, 
the  just  and  full  sum  of  $1000,  lawful 
money  as  aforesaid,  in  manner  following, 

to- wit,  $300,  part  thereof,  on  the 

day  of next  ensuing  the  date  there- 
of; $300  more  thereof  on  the day 

of ,  the  next  following ;  and  $400, 

the  residue,  and  in  full  payment  thereof, 

on  the ■ — day  of which  will  be 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  18 — ;  then  this 
obligation  to  be  void ;  but  if  default  be 
made  in  payment  of  any  or  either  of  said 
sums  on  the  days  and  times  hereinbefore 
mentioned  and  appointed  for  payment 
thereof  respectively,  then  this  bond  shall 
remain  in  full  force  and  virtue. 

A.  B.  [l.  s.] 

CONVEYANCES.  — See  Deeds  and 
Mortgages. 

CONTRACTS.— See  Agreements. 


458 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


Bill  of  Exchange. 

$500  New  York, 18 

Fifteen  days  after  sight  (or  as  many 
days  as  may  be  agreed  upon),  pay  to  the 
order  of  Mr.  B.  B.  five  hundred  dollars, 
and  charge  the  same  to  the  account  of 

To  L.  M.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.          C.  D. 
NOTE,  Prommissory. 
$200.  Baltimore, 18 

Thirty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay 
B.  B.  or  order  (or  bearer),  two  hundred 
dollars,  for  value  received.             B.  F. 
NOTE,  Joint  Promissory. 
$1,050.  Memphis 18 

Sixty  days  after  date  we  jointly  promise 
to  pay  C.  D.,  or  order,  (or  bearer),  one 
thousand  and  fifty  dollars,  for  value  re- 
ceived. A.  C. 

B.  H. 
NOTE,  Payable  on  Demand. 
$100.  Mobile, 18. 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I 
promise  to  pay  H.  B.,  or  order  (or  bear- 
er), one  hundred  dollars  (with  interest). 

C.  C. 
NOTE,  Payable  at  Bank. 
$300.  St.  Louis, 18 

Thirty  days  after  date,  for  value  re- 
ceived, I  promise  to  pay  C.  D.  A.,  or 
order  (or  bearer),  three  hundred  dollars, 
at  the  Bremen  Savings  Bank. 

D.  R.  S. 

NOTE,  not  Negotiable, 

$100.  Madison,  Ga., tf8 

Two  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay 
J.  H.,  one  hundred  dollars,  for  value  re- 
ceived.                                          B.  B. 
DUE  BILL. 
$50.  Cincinnati, 18 


Due  A.  W.,  fifty  dollars,  with  interest 
from  this  date.                               M.  A. 
NOTE,  with  Surety, 
$75.  Columbus,  Miss., 18 


Six  moths  from  date  I  promise  to  pay 
E.  G.,  or  order  (or  bearer),  seventy-five 
dollars,  for  value  received.  B.  B. 

X.  X. 
Note  Payable  by  Instalments. 
$500.  Albany, 18 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay 
A.  C,  or  order  (or  bearer),  five  hundred 
dollars,  in  the  following  manner:  One 
hundred  dollars  in  three  months,  two 
hundred  dollars  in  nine  months,  one  hun- 
dred dollars  in  twelve  months,  and  one 
hundred  dollars  in  fifteen  months,  from 


date,  with  interest  on  the  several  sums  as 
they  may  become  due.  W.  Z. 

DRAFT  at  Sight. 

$100.  Chicago, 18 

At  sight,  pay  J.  C,  or  order,  one  hun-  . 
dred  dollars,  and  charge  the  same  to  my 
account.  C.  E.  B. 

To  A.  X. 

BILL  OF  SALE.— Know  all  men  by 
these  presents,  that  I.,  E.  D.,  of  the  town 

of ,  county  of ,  State  of , 

of  the  first  part,  for,  and  in  consideration 
of,  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars,  lawful 
money  of  the  United  States,  to  me  in 
hand  paid,  at  or  before  the  ensealing  and 
delivery  of  these  presents,  by  C.  B.,  of  the 
second  part,  the  receipt  wherof  is  hereby 
acknowledged,  have  bargained,  sold, 
granted  and  conveyed,  and  by  these  pre- 
sents do  bargain,  sell,  grant  and  convey 
unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns 
[here  set  out  the  articles  sold],  to  have 
and  to  hold  the  same  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  forever.  And  I  do 
for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  ad- 
ministrators, covenant  and  agree  to  and 
with  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  to 
warrant  and  defend  the  said  described 
goods  hereby  sold  unto  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  against  all  and  every 
person  and  persons  whatsoever. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set 

my  hand  and  seal  the day  of 18 — 

E.  D.  [l.  s.] 
Signed,  sealed  and  delivered, ) 
in  the  presence  of  B.  B.      J 
CHATTEL   MORTGAGE    to  Secure  a 
Money  Demand. — To  all  to  whom  these 
presents  shall  come — greeting :  Know  ye, 

that  I,  A.  C.,of  the  town  of ,  county 

of ,  State  of ,  party  of  the  first 

part,  for  securing  the  payment  of  the  sum 
of  one  dollar,  to  me  in  hand  paid,  at  or 
before  the  ensealing  and  delivery  of  these 
presents,  by  B.  H.,  of  the  same  place, 
party  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt 
whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  have 
granted,  bargained,  and  sold,  and  by 
these  presents  do  grant,  bargain,  and  sell 
unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  all 
that  [here  mention  the  articles]  and  all 
other  goods  and  chattels  whatsoever, 
mentioned  and  expressed  in  the  schedule 
hereunto  annexed,  now  remaining  and 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      459 


being  in  the  possession  Of  the  said  A.  C. 
To  have  and  to  hold  all  and  singular  the 
goods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and 
sold,  or  intended  so  to  be,  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns  forever.  And 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  himself, 
his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators, 
all  and  singular,  the  said  goods  and 
chattels  above  bargained  and  sold  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
executors,  administrators  and  assigns, 
against  the  said  party  of  the  first  part, 
and  against  all  and  every  person  and 
persons  whomsoever,  shall  and  will  war- 
rant, and  by  these  presents  forever  de- 
fend.* Upon  condition,  that  if  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  shall  well  and 
truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid,  unto  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  or  assigns,  the  sum 

of  $ ,  and  interest   thereon,  on  the 

—  day  of next,  then  these  presents 

and  everything  herein  contained,  shall 
cease  and  be  void.t  And  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  for  himself,  his  executors, 
administrators  and  asigns,  does  covenant 
and  agree  to  and  with  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  to  make  punctual 
payment  of  the  money  hereby  secured; 
and  in  case  default  shall  be  made  in  pay- 
ment of  the  said  sum  above  mentioned, 
it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for,  and  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part  does  hereby 
authorize  and  empower  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  with  the  aid  and 
assistance  of  any  person  or  persons,  to 
enter  and  come  into  and  upon  the 
dwelling-house  or  premises  of  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  and  in  such  other 
place  or  places  as  the  said  goods  and 
chattels  are  or  may  be  held  or  placed, 
and  take  and  carry  away  the  said  goods 
and  chattels,  to  sell  and  dispose  of  the 
same  for  the  best  price  they  can  obtain, 
and  out  of  the  money  to  retain  the  said 
sum  above  mentioned,  with  the  interest 
and  all  expenses  thereon,  rendering  the 
overplus  (if  any)  unto  the  said  party  of 
the  first  part,  his  executors,  administrators 
and  assigns.  And  until  default  be  made 
in  the  payment  of  the  aforesaid  sum  of 
money,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  to 
remain  and  continue  in  quiet  and  peace- 
able possession  of  the  said  goods  and 


chattels,  and  the  full  and  free  enjoyment 
of  the  same,  unless  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  executors,  administrators 
or  assigns,  shall  sooner  choose  to  demand 
the  same;  and  until  such  demand  be 
made,  the  possession  of  the  said  party  of 
the  first  part  shall  be  deemed  the  posses- 
sion of  an  agent  or  servant,  for  the  sole 
benefit  and  advantage  of  his  principal,, 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  party  c 
the  first  part  has  hereunto  set  his  hand 

and  seal,  this day  of 18 — . 

A.  C.     [l.  s.] 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  )      

the  presence  of  )      

When  the  list  of  goods  are  not  all 
embraced  in  the  body  of  mortgage,  they 
may  be  embraced  in  the  schedule,  which, 
shall  be  signed  by  the  mortgagor. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  BOND  AND  MORT- 
GAGE— Indorsed  on  the  Instrument. — 
In  consideration  of  $500,  to  me  paid  by 
A.  B.,  I  hereby  sell,  assign,  transfer  and 
set  over  to  A.  B.,  the  within  mortgage 
and  the  bond  accompanying  the  same, 
and  authorize  him  to  collect  and  dis- 
charge the  same.  L.  M.  [l.  s.] 

New  York,  January  10,  1876. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE,  to  Secure  a* 
Note. — (In  the  foregoing  form  where  the 
*  is  inserted,  in  place  of  the  sentence 
from  the  *  to  the  t  insert  the  following :) 

Upon  condition  that  the  said  party  of 
the  first  part  shall  well  and  truly  pay  at 
maturity  the  full  amount,  principal  and 
interest,  of  a  certain  promissory  note 
executed  by  the  said  party  of  the  first 

part  for  $ ,  dated — day  of 18 — , 

payable  to  the  order  of  said  B.  H.,  - 
months  after  date,  then  these  presents, 
and  everything  herein  contained,  shall 
cease  and  be  void. 

BOND,  Common. — Know  all  men  by 
these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of  the  town 
of ,  county  of ,  and  State  of 


,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto 

the  said  C.  D.,  of  the  same  place,  in  the 
sum  of  $1000  [this  amount  is  called  the 
penal  sum,  and  is  usually  double  the 
amount  of  the  real  debt,  in  order  to> 
cover  interest,  costs  and  other  contin- 
gencies], good  and  lawful  money  of  the 
United  States,  to  be  paid  the  said  C.  D.^ 
his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns ; 
to  which  payment,  well  and  truly  to  be 
made,  I  do  bind  myself,  my  heirs,  execu- 


46o 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


itors,  administrators  and  assigns;  to 
which  payments,  well  and  truly  to  be 
made,  and  I  do  bind  myself,  my  heirs, 
•executors  and  administrators,  and  every 
of  them,  firmly  by  these  presents.  Sealed 
with   my   seal,    dated   the  day   of 

,  A.  D.,  18— * 

The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such 
that  if  the  above  bound  A.  B.,  his  execu- 
tors, and  administrators,  or  any  of  them, 
shall  and  do  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause 
to  be  paid,  unto  the  above-named  C.  D., 
his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns, 
the  just  and  full  sum  of  $500  lawful 
money  aforesaid,  with  legal  interest  for  the 
same,    on    or    before    the day   of 


-,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  18 — , 
without  fraud  or  further  delay,  then  this 
obligation  to  be  void  and  of  no  effect,  or 
else  to  remain  and  be  in  full  force  and 
virtue. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto 
affixed  my  hand  and  seal,  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 

A.  B.     [l.  s.] 

BOND,  to  Execute  a  Conveyance. — 
(The  same  as  in  Bond,  Common,  to  the 
*,  then  let  the  Bond  read  as  follows:) 
The  condition  of  this  bond  is  such,  that 

if  the  said  A.   B.,  on  or  before  the 

day  of next  ensuing   the  date  hereof, 

or,  in  case  of  his  death  before  that 
time,  if  the  heirs  of  the  said  A.  B., 
within months  next  after  his  de- 
cease, if  such  heirs  shall  be  then  of  full 
age,  or,  if  within  age,  then  within  the 
months  after  such  heirs  shall  be  of  full 
age,  shall  and  do,  upon  the  reasonable 
request  of,  and  at  the  charges  of  C.  D., 
his  heirs  or  assigns,  make,  execute  and 
acknowledge,  or  cause  so  to  be,  all  and 
•every  such  deed  or  deeds,  conveyance 
or  conveyances  whatsoever,  which  shall 
be  needful  for  conveying  and  confirming 
unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs  and  assigns, 
a  good,  absolute  and  indefeasible  estate 
of  inheritance  in  fee  simple,  clear  of  all 
incumbrances,  of  and  in  a  certain  mes- 
suage (hear  describe]  with  the  appur- 
tenances; and  if,  in  the  meantime,  and 
while  and  until  the  same  deed  or  deeds 
shall  be  executed,  the  said  A.  B.,  his 
heirs  and  assigns,  shall  and  do  permit 
and  suffer  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  peaceably  and  quietly  to  have, 
hold  and  enjoy  the  same  messuage  and 
tract  of  land;  then  the  above  obligation 


to  be  void;  otherwise  it  shall  be  and  remain 
in  full  force  and  virtue.         A.  B.  [l.  s.] 

AGREEMENT,  for  the  Sale  and  Pur. 
chase  of  Land. — Articles  of  Agreement 

made  and  concluded  this day  of , 

A.  D.,  18 — ,  by  and  between  A.  B.  and 
C.  D.,  of ,  in  the  State  of 

First. — The  said  A.  B.  in  considera- 
tion of  the  sum  of  $1,000  to  him  paid  by 
the  said  C.  D.,  the  receipt  whereof  is 
hereby  acknowledged;  and  in  further 
consideration  of  the  promise  of  the  said 
C.  D.,  hereinafter  contained,  dothjhereby 
promise   and   agree,  to  and  with  the  said 

C.  D.,  that  he  will,  on  or  before  the 

day  of next,   make  and    deliver  to 

the  said  C.  D.  a  good  a  sufficient  deed, 
with  the  usual  covenants  of  warranty, 
release  of  dower,  etc.,  of  all  that  tract  of 
land  situate,  lying,  and  being  in  the  town 

of ,  in  the    county    of ,  and 

State   ot ,    known  as  the ,  etc., 

[or  bounded  and  described  as  follows : — ] 

Second.  —  In  consideration  whereof, 
the  said  C.  D.  doth  hereby  promise  and 
agree,  to  and  with  the  said  A.  B.,  that  he 
will,  on  such  a  deed  being  tendered  to 
him  by  the  said  A.  B.   on   or  before  the 

day  of next,  pay  to  the  said  A.  B. 

the  further  sum  of dollars,  in  addition 

to  the  payment  already  made,  being  the 
balance  of  the  purchase  money  hereby 
agreed  upon  for  the  said  tract  of  land. 

And  to  the  true  and  faithful  perform- 
ance of  all  the  agreement,  herein  con- 
tained on  the  part  of  the  said  A.  B.  and 
C.  D.,  each  of  them  binds  himself,  his 
heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  to 
the  other,  and  his  heirs,  executors  and 
administrators. 

In  testimony  whereof,  we  have  here- 
unto set  our  hands,  on  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 


A. 
C. 


Executed  and  delivered  )   E.  F. 

in  presence  of  )   G.  H. 

AGREEMENT,  to  Build  a  House  Ac- 
cording to  a  Plan  and  Specifications 
Annexed. — Be  it  remembered,  that    on 

this day    of A.    D.,    18 — ,    it    is 

agreed  by  and  between  A.  B.,  of ,  and 

C.  D.,  of ,  in  manner  and  form  follow- 
ing, viz. : 

The  said  C.  D.,  for  the  considerations 
hereinafter  mentioned,  both  for  him- 
self, his  executors  and  administrators, 
promise  and  agree  to   and  with  the  said 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      461 


A.  B.,  his  executors,  administrators  and 
assigns,  that  he,  the  said  C.  D.,  or  his 
assigns,  shall  and  will,  within  the  space  of 

of months  next  after  the  date  hereof, 

in  good  and  workmanlike  manner  and 
according  to  the  best  of  his  art  and  skill, 

at well  and  substantially  erect,  build, 

set  up,  and  finish,  one  house  or  messuage, 
according  to  the  draught  or  scheme  and 
specifications  hereunto  annexed,  of  the 
dimensions  as  following,  viz. :  [here  insert 
specifications,  &c.,]  and  to  compose  the 
same  with  such  stone,  bricks,  and  other 
materials  as  the  said  A.  B.,  or  his  assigns, 
shall  find  or  provide  for  the  same.  In 
consideration  whereof,  the  said  A.  B.  doth, 
for  himself,  his  executors  and  administra- 
tors, promise  and  agree  to,  and  with  the 
said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  administrators 
and  assigns,  well  and  truly  to  pay,  or 
cause  to  be  paid,  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  or 

his    assigns,   the    sum  of dollars,    in 

manner  following :  that  is  to  say,  the  sum 
of dollars,  part  thereof,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  said  work;  the  sum  of dol- 
lars more,  another  part  thereof,  when  the 
the  same  shall  be  completely  finished; 
and,  also,  that  he,  the  said  A.  B.,  his  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  or  assigns,  shall 
and  will,  at  his  and  their  own  proper  ex- 
pense, find  and  provide  all  the  stone, 
brick,  tile,  timber  and  other  materials 
necessary  for  making  and  building  the 
said  house ;  and  for  the  performance  of 
all  and  every  the  articles  and  agreements 
above  mentioned,  the  said  A.  B.  and 
C.  D.  do  hereby  bind  themselves,  their 
executors,  &c,  each  to  the  other,  in  the 
penal  sum  of  $500,  firmly  by  these 
presents. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto 
set  our  hands  and  seals,  this         day   of 

,  A.  D.,  18—  A.  B.  [l.  s. 

C.  D.Tl.  s. 
CONTRACT  OF  COPARTNERSHIP.— 
Articles   of    co-partnership  made  this 

day  of ,  18 ,  by  and  between 

A.  A.   and  B.   B.,  both  of  the  town  of 


county  of witnesseth: 

That  the  said  parties  hereby  agree  to 
form,  and  do,  form  a  co-partnership,  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  on  the  general 
(kind  of  business  here  insert)  business  on 
the  following  terms  and  articles  of  agree- 
ment, to  the  faithful  performance  of 
which  they  mutually  engage  and  bind 
themselves,  each  to  the  other. 


The  name  and  style  of  the  co-partner- 
ship shall  be  (here  insert  whatever  name 
the  firm  is  to  be  known  by),  and  shall  com- 
mence on  the day  of ,  18 — ,  and 

continue    for     the    period    of years. 

Each  of  the  parties  agree  to  contribute  to 
the  funds  of  the  partnership  the  sum  of" 
$  in  cash,  which  shall  be  paid  in,  on 

or  before  the— —day  of- ,  18 — ;  and 

each  of  said  parties  shall  devote  and  give 
all  his  time  and  attention  to  the  business, 
and  to  the  care  and  superintendence  of 
the  same. 

All  profits  which  may  accrue  to  the  said 
partnership  shall  be  divided  equally,  and 
all  losses  happening  to  the  said  firm, 
from  bad  debts,  depreciation  of  goods,  or 
any  other  cause  or  accident,  and  all  ex- 
penses of  the  business,  shall  be  borne  by 
the  said  parties  equally. 

All  the  purchases,  sales,  transactions 
and  accounts  of  the  said  firm  shall  be 
kept  in  regular  books,  which  shall  always 
be  opened  to  the  inspection  of  both  par- 
ties and  their  legal  representatives  respec- 
tively. 

An  account  of  stock  shall  be  taken, 
and  an  account  between  the  parties  shall 
be  settled  as  often  as  once  a  year,  and  as 
much  oftener  as  either  partner  may  de- 
sire and  in  writing  request. 

Neither  of  said  parties  shall  subscribe 
any  bond,  sign  or  indorse  any  note  of 
hand,  accept,  sign  or  indorse  any  draft  or 
bill  of  exchange,  or  assume  any  other 
liability,  verbal  or  written,  either  in  his 
own  name  or  the  name  of  the  firm,  for 
the  accommodation  of  any  other  person 
or  persons  whatsoever,  without  the  con- 
sent in  writing  of  the  other  party;  nor 
shall  either  party  lend  any  of  the  funds  of" 
the  co-partneship  without  such  consent 
of  the  other  partner. 

No  large  purchases  shall  be  made,  (if 
desired  a  limited  amount  can  be  named), 
nor  any  transactions  out  of  the  usual  course 
ot  the  business  shall  be  undertaken  by  eith- 
er of  the  partners,  without  previous  consul- 
tation with  and  approbation  of  the  other 
partner;  neither  shall  withdraw  from  the 
joint  stock,  at  any  time,  more  than  his 
share  of  the  profits  of  the  business  then 
earned,  (if  desired,  an  amount  can  be 
named),  nor  shall  either  party  be  entitled 
to  interest  on  his  share  of  the  capital ; 
but  if,  at  the  expiration  of  the  year,  a 
balance  of  profits  be  found  due  to  either 


4&3 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


partner,  he  shall  be  at  liberty  to  withdraw 
the  said  balance,  or  to  leave  it  in  the 
business,  provided  the  other  partner  con- 
sent thereto,  and  in  that  case  he  shall  be 
allowed  interest  on  said  balance. 

At  the  expiration  of  the  aforesaid  term, 
or  earlier,  dissolution. of  this  co-partner- 
ship, if  the  said  parties,  or  their  legal 
representatives  cannot  agree  in  the  divi- 
sion of  the  stock  then  on  hand,  the 
whole  co-partnership  effects,  except  the 
debts  due  the  firm,  shall  be  sold  at  public 
auction,  at  which  both  parties  shall  be  at 
liberty  to  bid  and  purchase  like  individ- 
uals, and  the  proceeds  shall  be  divided, 
after  payment  of  the  debts  of  the  firm,  in 
the  proportions  aforesaid. 

For  the  purpose  of  securing  the  per- 
formance of  the  foregoing  agreements,  it 
is  agreed  that  either  party,  in  case  of  any 
violation  of  them,  or  either  of  them,  by 
the  other,  shall  have  the  right  to  dissolve 
this  co-partnership  forthwith,  on  his 
becoming  informed  of  such  violation. 

In  witness  whereof,  we,  the  said  A. 
A.  and  B.  B.,  have  hereto  set  our  hands, 
the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

[A.  A. 
Executed  and  delivered  in  )  B.  B. 

presence  of  I 

C.  C. 

D.  D. 

AGREEMENT,  to  Continue  a  Partner- 
ship.— Endorse  the  following  on  the 
original  articles :  Whereas,  the  partnership 
evidenced  by  the  within  written  articles, 
has  this  day  expired  by  limitations  con- 
tained herein  (or  will  expire  on  the 

day  of 18 — ,)  it  is  hereby  mutually 

agreed  that  the  same  shall  be  continued, 
on  the  same  terms  and  with  all  the  pro- 
visions and  restrictions  herein  contained, 

for  the  further  term  of years  from 

this  date  (or  from  the day  of 

18— .) 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereto  set 
our  hands  this day  of 18 — . 

A.  A. 

B.  B. 
AGREEMENT,  to  Sell  and    Deliver 

Wood.  —  Memorandum  of  agreement 
made   this day    of 18 — ,   by 


and  between  A,  A.,  of  the  town  of- 

and  B.  B.,  of  the  village  of ,  wit- 

nesseth:  That  the  said  A.  A.,  for  the 
sum  of  $ —  per  cord,  hereby  agrees  to 
sell  and  deliver  to  the  said  B.  B., 


cords  of  good  sound  (name  kind)  wood, 
and  to  securely  and  properly  pile  the 
same  (name  place)  on  the  lot  of  the  said 
B.  B.  Said  wood  is  to  be  cut  during  the 
month  (this  can  be  left  out)  to  be  cut  four 
feet  long,  and  properly  piled  on  said  lot, 

on  or  before  the day  of next. 

Said  wood  when  piled  as  aforesaid,  is  to 
be  measured  by  D.  F.,  and  the  said  B. 
B.  agrees  to  pay  the  said  A.  A.  the  sum 
of  $ —  for  each  and  every  cord  so  de- 
livered ;  payment  to  be  made  by  install- 
ments on  each  cords  as  they  are 
delivered,  whenever,  and  as  soon  as  the 
said  A.  A.  shall  furnish  to  the  said  B.  B. 
the  certificate  of  the  said  D.  F.,  that  such 
■cords  or  additional  of  wood  have 


been  delivered  and  properly  piled  on 
said  lot. 

Witness  our  hands,  the  day  and  year 
first  above  written.  A.  A. 

B.  B. 

QUIT  CLAIM  DEED.— Know  all  men 
by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.   B.,  of  the 

town  of county  of ,  for  divers 

good  causes  and  considerations  thereunto 

moving,  especially  for  $ received  to 

my  full  satisfaction,  having  remised, 
released,  and  forever  quit-claimed,  and 
by  these  presents  do  for  myself,  my  heirs, 
executors  and  administrators,  justly  and 
absolutely  remise,  release  and  forever 
quit-claim  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  and  to  his 
heirs  and  assigns  forever,  all  such  right 
and  title,  as  I,  the  said  A.  B.,  have  or 
ought ,  to  have,  in  or  to  all  that  (insert 
here  description  of  premises),  to  have 
and  to  hold  the  above  released  premises, 
unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs  and  assigns, 
to  his  and  their  only  proper  wse  and 
behoof  forever ;  so  that  neither  I,  }the 
said  A.  B.,  or  any  other  person  in  my 
name  and  behalf,  shall  or  will  hereafter 
claim  or  demand  any  right  or  title  to  the 
premises,  or  any  part  thereof;  but  they, 
and  every  of  them,  shall  by  these  pres- 
ents be  excluded  and  forever  barred. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto 
set  my  hand  and  seal,  the day  of 


in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  18- 
A.  B.     \l.  s.] 
Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  )  S.  M. 
in  the  presence  of  )  P.  P. 

"WARRANTY  DEED.— This  indenture, 

made  the day  of ,  in  the  year 

of  our  Lord,  18 — ,  between  A.  B.,  of  the 
town  of ,  county  of ,   State 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      463 


of ,  and  S.  B.,  his  wife,  parties  of 

the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  of  the  same 
place,  party  of  the  second  part,  witness- 
-eth,  that  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part, 
for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of 

$ ,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States 

of  America,  to  them  in  hand  paid,  by  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt 
whereof  is  hereby  confessed  and  acknowl- 
edged, have  granted,  aliened,  remised, 
released,  enfeoffed  and  confirmed,  and  by 
these  presents  do  alien,  remise,  release, 
enfeoff  and  confirm  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  and  unto  his  heirs 
and  assigns  forever,  all  (insert  descrip- 
tion), together  with  all  and  singular,  the 
hereditaments  and  appurtenances  there- 
unto, belonging,  or  in  anywise  appertain- 
ing, and  the  reversion  and  reversions, 
remainder  and  remainders,  rents,  issues 
add  profits  thereof,  and  all  the  estate, 
right,  title,  interest,  claim  and  demand 
whatsoever,  of  the  said  parties  of  the 
first  part,  either  in  law  or  equity,  of,  in 
.and  to  the  above  granted  premises,  with 
the  said  hereditament  and  appurtenances; 
to  have  and  to  hold  the  above  mentioned 
and  described  premises,  with  the  appur- 
tenances, and  every  part  and  parcel 
thereof,  to  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever ;  and 
the  said  A.  B.,  for  himself,  his  heirs, 
-executors  and  administrators,  does  cove- 
nant, grant,  bargain,  promise  and  agree, 
to  and  with  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  warrant  and 
forever  to  defend  the  above  granted 
premises,  and  •  every  part  and  parcel 
thereof,  now  being  in  the  quiet  and 
peaceable  possession  of  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  against  the  said  parties 
of  the  first  part,  their  heirs,  executors, 
administrators  and  assigns,  and  against 
all  and  every  other  person  or  persons 
-claiming  or  to  claim  the  said  premises,  or 
any  part  thereof. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties  of 

the   first   part   have   hereunto   set    their 

hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first 

above  written.  A.  B.     [l.  s. 

S.  B.     [l.  s.' 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  )  D.  D. 

the  presence  of  J  X.  X. 

MORTGAGE,  with  Covenant  to  Insure. 
This  indenture,  made  the  day   of 

,    18 — ,   between   A.    B.,   of  the 

town  of ,  and  S.  B.,  his  wife,  parties 


of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  of  the  town 

of ,  party  of  the  second  part,  wit- 

nesseth,  that  the  said  parties  of  the  first 

part,  in  consideration  of  $ to  them 

duly  paid,  have  sold,  and  by  these  pres- 
ents do  grant  and  convey  to  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  and  to  his  heirs 
and  assigns  forever,  all  (insert  description) 
with  the  appurtenances,  and  all  the 
estate,  title  and  interest  of  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part  therein.  And  the  said  A. 
B.  covenants  with  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  and  his  assigns,  to  keep  the 
building  now  standing,  or  hereafter  to  be 
erected  on  the  above  described  premises, 
insured  in  some  solvent  insurance  com- 
pany in  this  State,  to  the  amount  of  at 

least  $ ,  and  keep  the  policy  of  such 

insurance  assigned  to  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part  and  his  heirs  and  assigns; 
and  in  case  of  any  failure  in  this  cove- 
nant, the  party  of  the  second  part,  or  his 
assigns,  may  effect  an  insurance  to  the 
amount  aforesaid,  and  the  premium  and 
expense  of  such  insurance  may  be  added 
to,  and  may  be  deemed  part  of  the 
money  hereby  secured.*  This  grant  is 
intended  as  a  security  for  the  payment  of 

$ ,  and  interest  thereon,  as  follows: 

$ in  one  year  from  the  date  hereof; 

and  the  balance  in years   from   the 

date  hereof;  interest  being per  cent. 

per  annum,  payable  semi-annually,  on  all 
sums  unpaid,  according  to  the  condition 
of  a  certain  bond  or  writing  obligatory, 
bearing  even  date  herewith,  executed  by 
the  said  A.  B.,  to  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  as  a  collateral  security,  which 
payments,  together  with  all  the  premiums 
and  expenses  for  policies  of  insurance,  if 
duly  made,  will  render  this  conveyance 
void.  And  if  default  shall  be  made  in 
payment  of  the  principal  or  interest  above 
mentioned,  or  in  keeping  said  premises 
insured,  and  the  policy  assigned  as  herein 
covenanted  for,  then  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  and  his  assigns  are 
hereby  authorized,  pursuant  to  statute,  to 
sell  the  premises  above  granted,  or  so 
much  thereof  as  will  be  necessary  to 
satisfy  the  amount  hereby  secured,  with 
the  costs  and  expenses  allowed  by  law; 
rendering  the  overplus,  if  any  there  may 
be,  to  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part, 
their  heirs  and  executors,  administrators 
or  assigns. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties  of 


4^4 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


the  first  part,  have  hereunto  set  their 
hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first 
above  written.  A.  B.     [l.  s.l 

S.  B.     [l.  s.j 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  the  )    S.  D. 
presence  of  )    B.  D, 

MORTGAGE,  for  Purchase  Money. — 
Insert  immediately  after  the  description 
in  the  foregoing  mortgage,  the  following: 

Being  the  same  premises  this  day  con- 
veyed by  the  said  C.  D.  to  the  said  A.  B., 
and  these  presents  are  given  to  secure  the 
the  payment  of  (part  of)  the  considera- 
tion money  of  the  said  premises. 

[When  the  mortgage  is  given  for  the 
purchase  money,  or  a  part  of  the  pur- 
chase, it  is  not  necessary  that  the  wife 
join  in  the  mortgagej 

MORTGAGE  to  Secure  Notes.— The 
same  as  Mortgage  with  Covenant  to 
Insure.  At  *  insert  the  following,  in 
place  of  the  remaining  portion : 

This  conveyance  is  intended  to  secure 
the  payment  of  a  certain  promissory 
note,  or  any  notes  given  in  renewals 
thereof;  said  note  was  given  by  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part  to  the 
said  party    of    the    second     part,    for 

the  sum  of  $ ,  bearing  date ,  18 — , 

and  payable  one  year  after  date  thereof, 
with  interest;  and  if  the  amount  of  said 
note,  principal  and  interest,  and  all  notes 
given  in  renewal  thereof,  shall  be  paid  at 
maturity,  then  these  presents  shall  become 
void ;  but  if  default  shall  be  made  in  the 
payment  of  the  said  note,  or  notes,  given 
in  renewal  thereof,  or  any  part  thereof, 
(or  in  keeping  said  premises  insured, 
and  the  policy  assigned,  as  herein 
covenanted  for),  then  the  party  of 
the  second  part,  and  his  assigns,  are 
hereby  authorized,  pursuant  to  stat- 
ute, to  sell  the  premises  above  granted,  or 
so  much  thereof  as  will  be  necessary 
to  satisy  the  amount  hereby  secured, 
with  costs,  and  expenses  allowed  by  law ; 
rendering  the  surplus,  if  any  there  be,  to 
the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  their 
heirs  and  executors,  administrators  or 
assigns. 

EXEMPTION,  Waiver  of.— Whereas,  I 
have  become  indebted  to  C.  D.  in  the 
sum  of  $ ,  and  have  confessed  judg- 
ment to  him  for  that  amount,  to  secure 
his  indebtedness,  (or  he  has  obtained  judg- 
ment against  me  for  that  amount) ;  now, 
to  secure  and  make  safe  the  said  C.  I)., 


and  in  consideration  of  $1  to  me  paid,  I 
do  hereby  release  and  waive  any  and  alii 
benefit  or  advantage  by  me  obtained  by 
virtue  of  my  certificate  recorded  (or,  the- 
cause  inserted  in  my  deed,)  under  and  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  an  act 
entitled,  "An  Act  to  exempt  from  sale  or 
execution  the  homestead  of  a  householder 
having  a  family,"  {or  whatever  the  act 

may  be),    passed ,    18 — ,   so  that 

said  property,  so  held  by  me  as 
exempt  by  said  statute  and  said  certificate 
(or  clause  in  said  deed),  may  be  levied 
upon  and  sold  on  execution  issued 
against  me  for  a  demand  owing  by  me 
to  the  said  C.  D. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  this ,. 

18—  N.  W.  [l.  s.] 

County  of ,  State  of ,  s.  s. : 

On  this  day  of ,  18 — ,  before 

me  came  the  above  named  N.  W.,  to 
me  known  to  be  the  person  described  in,, 
and  who  executed  the  foregoing  {or  the 
within)  instrument  ,  and  acknowledged 
the  execution  thereof. 

M.  O.,  Commissioner  of  Deeds. 

LEASE  OF  A  HOUSE.— This  indenture, 

made  this         day  of ,  18 — ,  between 

A.  B.,  of  the  one  part,  and  C.  D.,  of 
the  other  part,  witnesseth,  that  the  said 
A.  B.,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the 
rent,  covenants  and  agreements  herein- 
after in  and  by  these  presents  mentioned,, 
reserved  and  contained  on  the  part  and 
behalf  of  the  said  C.  D.,  his  executors, 
administrators  and  assigns,  to  be  paid, 
observed,  done,  and  performed,  have 
granted,  demised,  leased  and  to  farm  let,, 
and  by  these  presents  doth  grant,  lease,  and 
to  farm  let  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns,  all  that 
brick  (mention  kind,  if  not  a  brick,) 
house,  messuage,  or  tenement,  with  all 
and  singular,  its  appurtenances,  situate, 
standing,  and  being  in  a  certain  street  or 
place,  called  (name  place,  or  street,) 
together  with  all  and  singular  its  appur- 
tences  whatsoever,  to  the  said  brick  house, 
(or  whatever  kind  it  may  be,)  messuage, 
tenement,  and  premises  belonging,  or  in 
any  wise  appertaining,  and  therewith 
heretofore  held,  used,  occupied  and  enjoyed 
by  F.  G.,  late  occupier  thereof.  (In  case  of 
a  new  house,  the  portion  in  italics  to  be 
left  out.)  To  have  and  to  hold  said 
(name  kind)  house,  messuage  and  tene- 
ment, and  all  and    singular    other    the 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       465 


premises  therein,  before  granted  and 
demised,  or  mentioned,  or  intended  to  be, 
with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  CD., 
his  exeeutors,  administrators  and  assigns, 

from  the day  of ,  next  ensuing, 

the  day  of  the  date  of  these  presents,  for 
and  during,  and  until  the  full  end  of  the 

term  of years    from    thence    next 

ensuing,  and  fully  to  be  complete  and 
ended;  yielding  and  paying  therefor 
yearly,  and  every  year  during  the  said 
term,   unto  the  said  A.  B.,   his  heirs,  or 

assigns,  the  yearly  rent  of  $ ,  on  the 

day  of ,  18 — ,  in  every  year;  the 

first  payment  thereof  to  begin,  and  to  be 
made,  &c,  next  ensuing  the  date  of 
these  presents.  Provided,  always,  never- 
theless, and  it  is  the  true  intent  and  mean- 
ing of  these  presents,  and  of  the  said 
parties  hereunto,  that  if  it  should  happen 
that  the  said  yearly  rent  of  $ ,  here- 
by reserved,  or  any  part  thereof,  be  be- 
hind and   unpaid  by   the   space  of- 


next  over,  or  after  any  of  the  said  days, 
whereon  the  same  ought  to  be  paid  as 
aforesaid;  that  then,  and  from  thence- 
forth, it  shall,  and  may  be  lawful  to,  and 
for  the  said  A.  B.,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  into  and  upon  the 
said  demised  premises,  and  every  or  any 
part  or  parcel  thereof,  with  their  appur- 
tenances, in  the  name  of  the  whole,  to 
re-enter,  and  the  same  to  have  again,  re- 
possess, and  enjoy,  as  in  his,  or  their 
first  or  former  estate,  or  estates ;  and  him, 
the  said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators, and  assigns,  and  all  and  every 
other,  the  occupier  or  occupiers  of  the 
said  demised  premises,  from  thence  utterly 
expel,  remove  and  put  out,  anything  in 
these  presents  contained  to  the  contrary 
thereof  in  any  wise  notwithstanding. 
And  the  said  C.  D.,  for  himself,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators,  and  assigns,  doth 
covenant  and  grant,  to  and  with  the  said 
A.  B.,  his  heirs,  and  assigns,  by  these 
presents,  in  manner  following;  that  is  to 
say:  that  he,  the  said  C.  D.,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns,  shall, 
and  will,  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to 
be  paid,  unto  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  or 
assigns,  the  above  yearly  rent,  above 
reserved,  according  to  the  true  intent  of 
these  presents,  clear  of,  and  over  and 
above  all  taxes  and  reprises  whatsoever. 
And  the  said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  ad- 
ministrators and  assigns,  shall  and  will, 

3° 


from  time  to  time,  and  at  all  times  here- 
after, during  the  said  term  hereinbefore 
granted,  at  his  and   their  own    proper 
costs   and  charges,  well,  and  sufficiently 
keep  in  repair,  the  said  demised  premises, 
with   their   appurtenances,   and   all    the 
glass,  windows,  pavements,  privies,   sinks 
and  gutters  (here  name  any  other  special 
objects)  belonging  to   the  same,  in,  by,, 
and  with   all    manner    of   needful    and 
necessary  reparations   and    amendments 
whatsoever,  when,   and  as  soon   as    the  ■ 
damage   shall   require  (damages  by  fire' 
only    excepted);   and  the  same  premises, - 
with  all  and  singular  their  appurtenances,  ■ 
being  in   and  by  all  things  so  well  and 
sufficiently  repaired  and  kept  (except  as  • 
before  excepted,)  at  the  end,  expiration,, 
or  other  sooner  determination  of  the  said 
terms    hereby    granted,   shall  and    will- 
quietly  and    peaceably    leave    and  sur- 
render, and  yield  up  unto  the  said  A.  B.r 
his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns, 
in    good  and   sufficient  repair  and  con- 
dition (reasonable  use  and  wearing  there- 
of, and   damage    by    fire,    as  aforesaid, 
only  excepted);  that  he,  the  said  C.  D., 
will,   from   time  to  time,  and  at  all  times; 
hereafter,  during   the    said    time  hereby 
granted,   pay    and    discharge    all  taxes,, 
charges,  and  impositions,  which  shall  be- 
taxed,   charged,     imposed,    or    assessed 
upon  the  said  messuage  or  tenement,  or" 
premises,  or  any  part  thereof. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties- 
have  hereunto  set  their  hands  and  seals, . 
the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

A.  B.  [s.  s.j 
C.  D.  [s.  s.J 

RECEIPT,  for  Money  Paid  by  Another 

Person. — Boston,  18 — .     Received1 

of  M.  B.,  at  the  hands  of  XX,  seventeen? 
dollars,  in  full  payment  for  a  horse,  by 
me  sold  and  delivered  to  the  said  M.  B. 
$17.  D.  S. 

STRAY,  Notice  of,  for  the  Town  Clerk;- 
— To  all  persons  whom  it  may  concern :: 

Take  notice,  that  on  the day  of 

■,  18 — ,  one  yoke  of  working  oxen, 


of  a  red  color,  with  a  white  spot  in  the 
forehead  of  each,  and  the  left  hind  foot 
of  each  one  white,  and  having  on  brass 
buttons,  strayed  upon  my  enclosed  lands, 
in  the  town  ot  Lenox,  where  I  reside,  (or 
give  as  near  description  as  possible)  and 
now  remain  there.  B.  B-. 

Lenox, ,  18 — . 


L66 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


LEASE,  Farm. — This  indenture,  made 

this day  of ,  in  the  year  of  our 

Lord  18 — ,  between  A.  B.,  of  the  town  cf 

,  county  of ,  State  of ,  party 

of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  of  the  same 
place,  party  of  the  second  part,  witness- 
eth :  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part, 
in  consideration  of  the  rents,  covenants 
and  agreements  hereinafter  mentioned,  re- 
served and  contained  on  the  part  of  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators  and  assigns,  to  be  paid, 
kept  and  performed,  has  demised,  and  to 
farm  let,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  executors,  administrators  and  as- 
signs, all  (here  insert  description)  with  the 
appurtenances,  unto  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  executors,  administrators 

and  assigns,  from  the  day  of  , 

1 8 — ,  for  the    full   term  of years, 

then  next  ensuing,  yielding  and  paying 
therefor,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  yearly  and 
-every  year  during  the  said  term  hereby 
granted,    the    yearly    rent    or    sum     of 

$ in    equal    half   yearly  payments, 

to-wit:  on  the  day   of ,  and 

in  each  year  and  every  year;  pro- 
vided that  if  the  yearly  rent  above 
reserved  or  any  part  theeof,  shall  be 
unpaid  on  any  day  of  payment  where- 
in the  same  ought  to  be  paid,  as  afore- 
.  said ;  or  if  default  shall  be  made  in  any 
of  the  covenants  or  agreements  herein 
-  contained,  on  the  part  of  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  then  and  from  thence- 
forth it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  party 
•  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  to  re- 
enter upon  said  demised  premises,  and 
the  same  to  have  again,  as  in  their  first 
.  and  former  estate.  And  the  said  party  of 
.the  second  part  does  covenant  and  agree 
with  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his 
heirs  and  assigns,  that  he,  the  said  party 
•of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  admin- 
istrators or  assigns,  will  pay  yearly, or  every 
year  during  the  said  term,  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns, 
the  yearly  rent  above  reserved,  on  the 
days  and  in  the  manner  limited  and  pre- 
scribed as  aforesaid,  for  the  payment 
thereof,  without  any  deduction  or  delay. 
And  that  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  executors,  administrators  or 
.assigns,  will,  at  his  own  proper  costs  and 
.charges,  bear,  pay  and  discharge  all  taxes, 
•duties  and  assessments  as  may,  during  the 


said  term  hereby  granted,  be  charged, 
assessed  or  imposed  upon  the  said  de- 
mised premises.  And  that  on  the  deter- 
mination of  the  estate  hereby  granted,  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  or  assigns,  shall  and 
will  leave  and  surrender  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators  or  assigns,  shall  and  will 
leave  and  surrender  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  the 
said  demised  premises  in  as  good  state 
and  condition  as  they  are  now  in,  ordina- 
ry wear  and  damages  by  the  elements  ex- 
cepted. And  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part  does  covenant  and  agree  with  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns,  paying 
the  said  yearly  rent  above  reserved,  and 
performing  the  covenants  and  agreements 
aforesaid  on  his  part,  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  shall,  and  may,  at  all 
times  during  the  said  term  hereby  grant- 
ed, peaceably  have,  hold  and  enjoy  the 
said  demised  prtmise*  without  any  man- 
ner of  trouble  or  hindrance  of,  or  from, 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs 
or  assigns,  or  any  other  person  or  per- 
sons whomsoever. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  the  parties  to  these 
presents  have  hereunto  set  their  hands 
and  seals.  A.  B.  [l.  s. 

C.  D.  [l.  s. 
Sealed  and  delivered  in  ) 
the  presence  of        ) 

E.  F. 

G.  H. 

LEASE,  Assignment  of,  Indorsed  — 
Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I, 

A.  B.,  in  consideration  of  $ to  me  in 

hand  paid  by  C.  D.,  the  receipt  whereof 
I  do  hereby  acknowledge,  have  bargain- 
ed, sold,  assigned  and  set  over,  and  by 
these  presents  do  bargain,  sell,  assign  and 
set  over  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  execu- 
tors, administrators  and  assigns  [or,  if  a 
durable  lease,  say  his  heirs  or  assigns]  as 
well  the  within  written  indenture,  as  also 
all  the  term  and  interest  in  all  and  singu- 
lar the  lands,  tenements,  hereditaments 
and  premises  within  mentioned,  yet  re- 
maining under  and  by  virtue  of  the  said 
indenture,  and  likewise  all  my  estate, 
right,  title,  interest,  claim,  property  and 
demand  of,  in,  or  to  the  same  lands,  ten- 
ements,   hereditaments     and     premises, 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      467 


-within  indenture,  or  likewise  howsoever; 
subject,  nevertheless,  to  the  rents  and 
covenants  in  the  said  indenture  con- 
tained. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto 

set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  day  of 

,  18 .  A.  B.  [l.  s.] 

LIEN,  Mechanics' — Contractors'. — To 
Miles  Hawley  [or  insert  the  name  of  the 
officer,  town  and  county,]  Town  Clerk,  of 
the  town  of  Hornellsville,  in  the  county  of 
Steuben. 

Take  notice,  that  I,  a  resident  of  said 
town,  have,  or  claim  to  have,  a  lien  upon 
the  building  herein  described  and  the  ap- 
purtenances, and  the  lot  upon  which  the 
same  stands,  as  security  for  the  amount 
due  me,  in  pursuance  of  the  statute  made 
and    provided.      The    said    building    is 

known  as  No.  ,  on  street,  in 

Hornellsville,  or  stands  on  the  lot  bound- 
ed and  described  as  follows:  [insert 
description]    and  said  house  and  lot  is 

owned  by *.     That  the  claim  against 

said  lot,  or  the  owner  thereof,  is  for  work, 
labor  and  sendees  as  carpenter  and  join- 
er [if  any  other  trade,  mention  it  in  place 
of  carpenter  and  joiner,]  and  for  materi- 
als, furnished  by  me  as  the  contractor 
with  the  said for  the  building,  alter- 
ing or  repairing  said  house,  under  and  in 
pursuance  of  an  agreement  made  with 

;  that  days  have  not  elapsed 

since  the  performance  and  completion  of 
such  labor  [or  the  furnishing  of  the  ma- 
terials.] Yours,  etc.,         D.  R.  S. 

Hornellsville, 18 — . 

LIEN,  Mechanics' — Workman  or  Other 
Person. — (The  same  as  foregoing  to  the* 
after  which  insert  the  following  instead.) 

That  the  claim  against  said  is  for 

work  by  me  performed  as  a  carpenter  and 
joiner  [or  whatever  trade  it  may  be]  for 

months,  labor  performed  by  me  on 

said  building,  in  pursuance  of  an  agree- 
ment with  A.  B.,  the  contractor,  amount- 
ing to  $ [or  is  for  a  large  quantity  of 

lumber  and  building  materials  furnished 
for  and  used  in  the  erection  of  said  house, 
in  pursuance  of  an  agreement  with  said 

A.  B.,  amounting  to  the  sum  of  $ ), 

and  that days  have  not  elapsed  since 

the  performance  and  completion  of  said 
labor  [or  since  the  said  materials  were 
furnished.]  Yours  truly, 

D.  R.  S. 

Hornellsville,  N.  K,  18—. 


PARTNERSHIP.— See  Agreements. 

ATTORNEY,  Power  of— Common  Law. 
Know  by  all  these  presents,  that  I,  M.  B., 

of  the  town  of ,  county  of  , 

State   of  ,  have  made,  constituted 

and  appointed,  and  by  these  presents  do 
make,  constitute  and  appoint  C.  D.,  of 

,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney  for  me, 

and  in  my  name,  place  and  stead  [here 
insert  the  general  power  given,  and  if 
necessary  the  limit  to  same;]  giving  and 
granting  unto  my  said  attorney  full  power 
and  authority  to  do  and  perform  all  and 
every  act  and  thing  whatsoever  requisite 
and  necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about 
the  premises,  as  fully,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  as  I  might  or  could  do  if  per- 
sonally present,  with  full  power  of  substi- 
tution and  revocation,  hereby  ratifying 
and  confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney 
or  his  substitute  shall  lawfully  do  or  cause 
to  be  done  by  virtue  thereof. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set 

my  hand  and  seal,  the day  of , 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord  18 — . 

M.  B.  [l.  s.] 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  the  presence 
of  H.  H. 

ATTORNEY,  Power  of. — Revocation. 
Know  all  men  by  these  presents :  That 
whereas  I,  M.  B.,  did,  in  and  by  my  let- 
ter of  attorney  dated  ,  18 — ,  consti- 
tute C.  D.  my  true  and  lawful  attorney, 
for  me  and  in  my  name  to  [here  insert 
the  power  given  in  the  original  letter  of 
attorney,]  as  by  the  said  letter  of  attorney 
appears :  Now,  therefore,  the  said  M.  B., 
by  these  presents,  do  hereby  revoke, 
countermand,  annul  and  make  void  the 

said  letter  of  attorney,  dated 18 — , 

and  all  power  therein  and  thereby,  or  in 
any  manner  given  or  intended  to  be  given 
the  said  C.  D. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set 

my  hand  and  seal,  this day  of , 

18—.  M.  B. 

RECEIPT,  a  General. — Baltimore , 

18 — .  Received  of  O.  P.  the  sum  of  one 
thousand  dollars,  in  full  of  all  demands 
against  him.  D.  S. 

$1,000. 

RECEIPT,  for  Rent.— New  York , 

18 — .  Received  of  M.  P.  one  hundred 
dollars,  being  one  month's  rent,  due  this 
day  for  my  dwelling  house  [if  stores,  in- 
sert it  in  place  of  dwelling  house,]  and 


468 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


street,  now  occupied  by 
D.  S. 


estate,  No.  - 
said  M.  P. 
$100. 

EECEIPT,  on  Account. — Syracuse, , 

1 8 — .  Received  of  M.  B.,  fifty  dollars  on 
account.  D.  S. 

$50. 

RELEASE,  of  all  Demands. — Know  all 
men  by  these  presents,  that  I.,  A.  B.,  for 
and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  thirty 
dollars  and  seventy-five  cents,  to  me  paid 
by  the  said  C.  D.,  (the  receipt  whereof  I 
do  hereby  acknowledge)  have  remised, 
released  and  forever  discharged,  and  I 
do  hereby,  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  remise,  re- 
lease, and  forever  discharge,  the  said  C. 
D.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administra- 
tors, of  and  from  all  debts,  demands,  ac- 
tions, and  causes  of  action,  which  I  now 
have,  or  which  may  result  from  the  exist- 
ing state  of  things,  from  any  and  all 
contracts,  liabilities,  doings,  and  omis- 
sions, from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to 
this  day. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto 

set  my  hand   and   seal,   this day  of 

,  18—.  A.  B.     [l.  s.] 

STRAY,  Not  Redeemed,  Notice  of  Sale, 

— Take  notice,  that  whereas,  on  the 

day  of last,  there  strayed  on  to  my 

enclosed  land,  in  the  town  of  Lenox, 
(here  describe  property)  and  the  same 
not  having  been  redeemed  by  the  owner 
thereof,  now,  in  pursuance  of  the  statute 
in  such  cases  made  and  provided,  I  shall 
expose  the  same  for  sale  at  public  auc- 
tion, to  the  highest  bidder,  on  the 

day    of next    or    instant,    at  — 

o'clock,  (a.  m.  or  p.  m.)  in  front  of  the 
town  house,  in  said  town  of  Lenox. 

B.  B. 

Dated  the day  of 18 — . 

WILLS,  Common  Form.— I,  A.  G.,  of 


-,  county  of - 


State  of- 


widow  of  the  late  J.  G.,  mindful  of  the 
uncertainties  ot  human  life,  do  make, 
publish  and  declare  this  my  last  will  and 
testament,  in  manner  following : 

First. — After  the  payment  of  my  just 
debts  and  funeral  expenses,  I  give,  de- 
vise and  bequeath  to  my  daughter,  J.  W., 
wife  of  A.  W.,  the  sum  of  $1,000. 

Second. — I  give  and  devise  and  be- 
queath to  my  daughter  L.  P.,  wife  of  E. 
P.,  the  sum  of  $100. 

Third. — I  give,  devise,  and  bequeath  to 


my  daughter,  E.  D.,  wife  of  H.  D.,  the: 
sum  of  $400. 

Fourth. — All  the  rest,  residue  and  re- 
mainder of  all  my  estates,  both  real  and 
personal,  I  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to 
myson,  S.  G.,  and  to  my  daughters,  J.  W.,, 
L.  P.  and  E.  D.,  to  be  equally  divided 
between  them  and  their  heirs,  share  and 
share  alike,  the  child  or  children  of  a 
deceased  child  taking  that  which  his,  her 
or  their  parents  would  have  taken  if 
living. 

Fifth. — In  case  there  should  not  be 
sufficient  of  my  property  to  fully  comply 
with  the  first,  second  and  third  provisions, 
of  this,  my  will,  then  I  direct  that  my 
estate  be  divided  into  fourteen  equal 
shares  or  portions,  and  that  five  ot  the 
said  shares  or  portions  be  given  to  my 
said  daughter,  J.  W.,  and  that  six  of  the 
said  shares  or  portions  be  given  to  my 
daughter,  E.  D.,  and  the  remaining  three 
shares  or  portions  be  given  to  my  daugh- 
ter, L.  P.,  the  child  or  children  of  a  de- 
ceased daughter  to  have  the  shares  or 
portions  which  his,  her  or  their  parent 
would  have  taken  if  living. 

Sixth. — I  hereby  nominate  and  appoint 
my  son-in-law,  H.  D.,  the  executor  of 
this,  my  last  will  and  testament,  and 
hereby  authorize  and  empower  him,  the- 
said  H.  D.,  to  compound,  compromise 
and  settle  any  claim  or  demand  which 
may  be  against  or  in  favor  of  my  said 
estate.  In  witness  whereof  I  have  here- 
unto set  my  hand  and  seal,  this day 

of ,  18—.  A.  G.     [l.  s.] 

Signed,  published  and  declared  by  the 
said  testatrix,  to  be  her  last  will  and  tes- 
tament in  the  presence  of  us,  who  have 
signed  our  names  at  her  request,  as  wit- 
nesses in  her  presence  and  in  the  presence: 
of  each  other. 

B.  B.,  of  the  village  of . 

C.  C.,  of  the  village  of -. 

WILL,  Codicil  to  a.— I,  A.  G.,  of  the 

town  of ,  county  of ,  State 

of ,  do  make  this  codicil  to  my 

last  will,  in  words  as  follows : 

Whereas,  in  and  by  my  last  will  and 

testament,    dated    on  or    about , 

18 — ,  by  the  first  item  thereof,  give,  de- 
vise and  bequeath  to  my  daughter,  J.. 
W.,  the  wife  of  A.  W.,  thesum  of  $1,000, 
and  whereas,  I  loaned  to  the  said  A.  W., 
in  his  lifetime,  the  sum  of  $1000,  and  for 
which  sum  he  was  indebted  to  me  at  the 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       469 


time  of  his  decease,  and  his  estate  is  still 
indebted  to  me  for  that  amount  now,  I 
hereby  revoke  said  bequest  of  $1,000,  so 
.given  by  said  first  item  of  my  will,  and 
in  lieu  and  instead  thereof,  give  to  my 
said  daughter,  J.  W.,  the  claim  which  I 
have  against  the  estate  of  the  said  A.  W., 
and  authorize  my  executor  to  assign  the 
said  claim  to  my  said  daughter,  J.  W., 
but  should  it  happen  that  the  said  claim 
•of  $1,000  should  be  paid  to  me  previous 
to  my  decease,  then  I  direct  that  the  sum 
of  $1,000  to  be  paid  my  said  daughter, 
J.  W.,  in  the  same  manner,  as  if  this 
codicil  to  my  will  had  not  been  executed. 

In   witness   whereof  I  have  hereunto 

set  my  hand  and  seal,  this day  of 

,  18—.  A.  G.     [l.  s.] 

Published  and  declared  by  the  said  A. 
*G.  to  be  the  codicil  to  her  last  will  and 
testament,  in  the  presence  of  us,  who 
.have  signed  the  same  as  witnesses,  in  her 
presence,  at  her  request,  and  in  the  pres- 
ence of  each  other. 

L.  B.,  merchant  of- 


J.  R.,  of  the  village  of- 


WILL,  Devise  of  an  Estate  for  Life,  in 
Xieu  of  Dower,  Remainder  to  His  Chil- 
dren.— Item.  I  give  and  devise  unto 
my  said  wife,  all  that  in  said  messuage  or 
tenement,  with  the  appurtenances,  situate 
.(here  describe)  with  the  lands  and  heredi- 
taments thereunto  belonging,  and  the 
rents,  issues  and  profits  thereof,  for  and 
during  the  term  of  her  natural  life;  and 
from  and  after  the  decease  of  my  said 
wife,  I  give  and  bequeath  the  said  mes- 
suage or  tenements,  lands  and  heredita- 
ments, unto  such  child  or  children  as  I 
shall  leave  or  have  living  at  the  time  of 
■my  decease,  and  to  their  heirs  and  as- 
signs forever,  and  if  I  shall  have  no  such 
child  or  children,  then  I  give  and  devise 
the  said  legacy  to  my  said  wife  aforesaid, 
and  I  hereby  declare  the  said  gift  is  in- 
tended to  be,  and  is  so  given  to  her,  in 
full  satisfaction  and  recompense  of,  and 
for  her  dower  and  thirds,  which  she  may, 
or  can  in  any  wise,  claim  or  demand  out 
of  my  estate. 

WILL,  Proviso  that  Sums  Advanced  to 
Children  Shall  be  Taken  as  Part  of  Por- 
tion.— Item.  Provided  always,  and  I  do 
hereby  declare  that  in  case  I  shall,  in  my 
lifetime,  advance  and  pay  to  any  of  my 
children,  either  sons  or  daughters,  any 
sum  or  sums  of  money,  for  his  or  their 


benefit  or  advancement  in  the  world  or 
otherwise,  and  shall  signify  the  same  in 
writing  under  my  hand,  then  if  any  such 
sum  or  sums  shall  be  equal  to  the  share 
or  shares  of  such  child  or  children  re- 
spectively, of  and  in  the  premises  (here 
described),  by  me  hereby  devised  or  be- 
queathed for  their  respective  benefits, 
such  sum  or  sums  so  paid  or  advanced 
shall  in  that  case  be  accounted  in  full 
satisfaction  of  the  share  or  shares  of 
such  child  or  children  respectively  in  the 
said  estate  and  premises,  but  if  such 
advanced  sum  or  sums  shall  be  less  than 
the  share  or  shares  of  such  child  or 
children  respectively,  of  and  in  the  said 
premises  (here  describe),  then  such  sum 
or  sums  shall  be  accounted  as  part  only 
of  the  share  or  shares  of  such  child  or 
children  therein,  and  in  that  case  such 
child  or  children  shall  not  receive,  or 
be  entitled  to  any  share  or  interest  of,  or 
in  such  parts  of  the  said  premises,  etc., 
which  shall  have  been  paid  or  advanced 
to  him,  her  or  them,  for  the  purpose 
aforesaid,  until  the  other  or  others  of 
such  child  or  children  shall  have  re- 
ceived as  much  of  the  said  premises  (here 
describe)  as  shall  make  his,  her  or  their 
share  or  shares  thereof  equal  to  what 
shall  have  been  so  paid  or  advanced  to 
or  for  the  benefit,  advantage,  or  prefer- 
ment of  such  child  or  children  respect- 
ively, to  the  end  and  intent  that  the  said 
premises  may  be  equally  divided  among 
all  such  children,  share  and  share  alike. 

WILL,  Guardian,  Appointment  of. — " 
And  I  hereby  commit  the  guardianship' 
of  all  my  children,  until  they  shall  re- 
spectively attain  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years,  unto  my  said  wife,  during  her 
life,  if  she  shall  so  long  continue  my 
widow;  and  from  and  after  her  decease 
or  second  marriage,  unto  my  trusty  and 
much  esteemed  friend  A.  B.,  his  executors 
and  assigns,  (and  do  hereby  declare  that 
the  expenses  of  the  maintenance  and  ed- 
ucation of  my  said  children,  until  they 
shall  attain  the  age  aforesaid,  or  become 
entitled  to  the  sum  or  sums  of  money 
hereby  provided  for  their  benefits  respect- 
ively, shall  be  paid  and  borne  by  my  said 
wife,  by  and  out  of  the  moneys  and 
estate  given  and  bequeathed  to  her  in 
and  by  this,  my  will. 

WILL,  Power  of  Executors  to  Convey 
Real  Estate. — I  will  and  ordain  that  the 


47° 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


executor  of  this,  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment, shall,  with  all  convenient  speed  af- 
ter my  decease,  bargain  sell  and  alien,  in 
fee  simple,  all  my  lands,  for  the  doing, 
executing  and  perfect  finishing  whereof, 
I  do  by  these  presents  give  to  my  said 
executor  full  power  and  authority  to 
grant,  alien,  bargain,  sell,  convey  and 
assure  all  the  same  lands  to  any  person 
or  persons,  and  their  heirs  forever,  in  fee 
simple,  by  all  and  every  such  lawful  ways 
and  means  in  the  law  as  to  my  said  ex- 
ecutor, or  to  his  counsel  learned  in  law, 
shall  seem  fit  or  necessary. 

LAWS,  FENCE,  for  Each  State.— In  the 
older  States  the  laws  regulating  fences  are 
substantially  alike.  As  to  height,  a  legal 
fence  is  generally  four  and  a  half  feet,  if 
constructed  of  rails  or  timber.  Ditches, 
brook,  ponds,  creeks,  rivers,  &c,  sufficient 
to  turn  stock,  are  deemed  equivalents  for  a 
fence.  In  case  a  stream  or  other  body  of 
water  is  considered  inadequate  to  the 
turning  of  stock,  the  facts  are  investigated 
by  officers  known  as  fence  viewers,  who 
will  designate  the  side  of  the  water  upon 
which  a  fence  shall  be  erected,  if  the 
fence  be  deemed  necessary,  the  cost  to  be 
equally  borne  by  the  parties  whose  lands 
are  divided.  Occupants  of  adjoining 
lands  which  are  being  improved  are 
required  to  maintain  partition  fences  in 
equal  shares.  Neglect  to  build  or  to 
keep  in  repair  such  fences  subjects  the 
negligent  party  to  damages,  as  well  as 
double,  and  in  some  States  treble,  the 
cost  of  building  or  repairing,  to  the 
aggrieved  party.  A  persbn  ceasing  to 
improve  land  cannot  remove  his  fence 
unless  others  interested  refuse  to  purchase 
within  reasonable  time.  A  provision  in 
the  laws  of  several  of  these  States,  which 
is  well  calculated  to  serve  the  interests  of 
neighbors,  saving  the  expense  of  fence 
building,  is  one  permitting  persons  owning 
adjoining  lots  or  lands  to  fence  them  in  one 
common  field,  and  for  the  greater  ad- 
vantage of  all,  allowing  them  to  form  an 
association,  and  to  adopt  binding  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  management  of 
their  common  concerns,  and  such  equit- 
able modes  of  improvement  as  are 
required  by  their  common  interest;  but 
in  all  other  respects  each  proprietor  may, 
a{iis  own  expense,  inclose,  manage  and  im- 
prove his  land  as  he  thinks  best,  maintain- 
ing his  proportion  of  the  general  inclosure. 


Maine,  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Connecticut. — The  laws 
regulating  fences  in  the  New  England- 
States  differ  only  in  a  few  particulars. 
The  required  height  of  a  fence  in  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  and  New  Hampshire, 
is  four  feet;  in  Vermont,  four  and  a  half 
feet;  in  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecti- 
cut, a  hedge,  with  a  ditch,  is  required  to 
be  three  feet  high  upon  the  bank  of  the 
ditch,  well  staked,  at  the  distance  of  two 
and  a  half  feet,  bound  together  at  the 
top,  and  sufficiently  filled  to  prevent 
small  stock  from  creeping  through,  and 
the  bank  of  the  ditch  not  to  be  less  than 
one  foot  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
A  hedge  without  a  ditch  to  be  four  feet 
high,  staked,  bound,  and  filled;  post-and 
rail  fence  on  the  bank  of  a  ditch  to  be 
four  rails  high,  each  well  set  in  post,  and 
not  less  than  four  and  a  half  feet  high. 
A  stone  wall  fence  is  required  to  be  four 
feet  high,  with  a  flat  stone  over  the  top, 
or  surmounted  by  a  good  rail  or  pole ;  a 
stone  wall  withont  such  flat  stone,  rail,  or 
post  on  top  to  be  four  and  a  half  feet  high. 
In  each  of  the  New  England  States 
there  are  plain  provisions  in  regard  to 
keeping  up  division  fences  on  equal 
shares,  and  penalties  for  refusal  to  build 
them,  and  when  built  for  neglect  to  keep 
them  in  repair.  Fence-viewers  in  the 
respective  towns  settle  all  disputes  as  to 
division  fences.  Owners  of  adjoin- 
ing fields  are  allowed  to  make  their  own 
rules  and  regulations  concerning  their 
management  as  commons.  No  one  not 
choosing  to  enclose  uncultivated  land  can 
be  compelled  to  bear  any  of  the  expense 
of  a  division  fence,  but  afterward  elect- 
ing to  cultivate,  he  must  pay  for  one-half 
the  fence  erected  on  his  line. 

New  York  and  New  Jersey. — Similar 
provisions  for  the  maintenance  of  division 
fences  exist  in  New  York;  whenever  a 
division  has  been  injured  by  a  flood  or 
other  casualty,  each  party  interested  is 
required  to  replace  or  repair  his  propor- 
tion within  ten  days  after  notification. 
When  electors  in  any  town  have  made 
rules  or  regulations  prescribing  what 
shall  be  deemed  a  sufficient  fence,  per- 
sons neglecting  to  comply  are  precluded 
from  recovering  compansation  for  dam- 
ages done  by  stock  lawfully  going  at. 
large  on  the  highways,  that  may  enter  on 
their    lands.    The  sufficiency  of  a  fence 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       47 r 


is  presumed  until  the  contrary  is  estab- 
lished; assessors  and  commissioners  of 
highways  perform  the  duties  of  fence- 
viewers. 

Pennsylvania. — In  Pensylvania  towns 
and  counties  secure  special  legislation  as 
to  the  running  of  stock  or  other  cattle  at 
large.  Fences  in  New  Jersey  are  required 
to  be  four  feet  and  two  inches  in  height, 
if  of  post  and  rails,  timber,  boards, 
brick  or  stone ;  other  fences  must  be  four 
and  a  half  feet,  and  close  and  strong 
enough  to  prevent  horses  and  neat  cattle 
from  going  through  or  under.  Partition 
fences  most  be  proof  against  sheep* 
Ditches  and  drains  made  in  or  through 
salt  marshes  and  meadows  for  fencing 
and  draining  the  same,  being  five  feet 
wide  and  three  feet  deep,  and  all  ditches 
or  drains  made  through  other  meadows 
being  nine  feet  wide  at  the  surface  and 
four  and  a  half  feet  wide  at  the  bottom, 
three  feet  deep,  and  lying  on  mud  or 
miry  bottom,  are  considered  lawful  fences. 
Division  fences  must  be  equally  main- 
tained. If  one  party  ceases  improving 
he  cannot  take  away  his  fence  without 
first  having  given  twelve  months'  notice. 
Hedge    growing  is   encouraged  by    law. 

Delaware. — In  Newcastle  and  Kent 
Counties,  Delaware,  a  good  structure  of 
wood  or  stone,  or  well-set  thorn  four  and 
a  half  feet  high,  or  four  feet  with  a  ditch 
within  two  feet  is  a  lawful  fence;  in 
Sussex  County  four  feet  is  the  height 
required.  Fence-viewers  are  appointed  by 
the  court  of  general  sessions  in  each 
••hundred."  Partition  fences  are  provided 
for  the  same  as  in  other  States. 

Maryland,  Virginia,  "West  Virginia, 
and  North  Carolina — There  is  no  general 
law  in  Maryland  regulating  fences,  the 
law  being  local  and  applicable  to  par- 
ticular counties.  In  Virginia  a  lawful 
fence  is  five  feet  in  height,  including  the 
mound  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  if  the 
fence  is  built  on  a  mound.  Certain 
water  courses  are  specified  as  equivalent 
to  fences.  Four  feet  is  the  height  of  a 
legal  fence  in  West  Virginia,  and  five 
feet  in  North  Carolina.  In  the  latter 
State  persons  neglecting  to  keep  their 
fences  in  order  during  the  season  ot 
crops  are  deemed  guilty  of  misdemeanor, 
and  are  also  liable  to  damages.  Certain 
rivers  are  declared  sufficient  fences. 

South  Carolina. — In  South  Carolina 


fences  are  required  to  be  six  feet  high 
around  "provisions."  All  fences  strongly 
and  closely  made  of  rails,  boards,  post 
and  rails,  or  an  embankment  of  earth 
capped  with  rails  or  timber  of  any  sort, 
or  live  hedges  five  feet  in  height,  measured 
from  the  level  or  surface  of  the  earth,  are 
deemed  lawful;  and  every  planter  is 
bound  to  keep  up  such  lawful  fence 
around  his  cultivated  grounds,  except 
where  a  navigable  stream  or  deep  water- 
course may  be  a  boundary.  No  stakes  or 
canes  that  might  injure  horses  or  cattle: 
are  allowed  in  an  inclosure. 

Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Missis- 
sippi. — The  laws  of  Georgia  provide  that 
all  fences,  or  inclosures  commonly  called 
worm  fences,  shall  be  five  feet  high,  and 
from  the  ground  to  the  height  of  three 
feet  the  rails  must  not  be  more  than  four 
inches  apart.  All  paling  fences  are 
required  to  be  five  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  the  poles  not  more  than  two  inches- 
apart.  Any  inclosure  made  by  means 
of  a  ditch  or  trench  must  be  three  feet 
wide  and  two  feet  deep,  and  if  made  of 
both  fence  and  ditch,  the  latter  must  be 
four  feet  wide  and  the  fence  five  feet  high 
from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  All  water- 
courses that  are  or  have  been  navigable  are- 
deemed  legal  fences  as  far  up  the  stream, 
as  navigation  has  ever  extended,  when- 
ever, by  reason  of  freshets  or  otherwise,, 
fences  cannot  be  kept,  and  are  subject  to- 
the  rules  applicable  to  other  fences.  The 
fences  in  Florida  are  required  to  be  five 
feet  in  height,  but  where  there  is  a  ditch 
four  feet  wide  the  five  feet  may  be 
measured  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 
If  the  fence  is  not  strictly  according  to  law, 
no  action  for  tresspass  or  damages  by 
stock  will  lie.  In  Alabama  all  inclos- 
ures or  fences  must  be  at  least  five  feet 
high,  and,  if  made  of  rails,  be  well  staked 
and  ridered,  or  otherwise  sufficiently 
locked;  and  from  the  ground  to  the 
height  of  three  feet  the  rails  must  not  be 
more  than  four  inches  apart;  if  made  ot 
palings,  the  poles  must  be  not  more  than 
three  inches  apart;  or  if  made  with  » 
ditch,  four  feet  wide  at  the  top;  the  fence, 
of  whatever  materials  composed,  must  be 
five  feet  high  from  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  and  three  feet  from  the  top  of  the 
bank,  and  close  enough  to  prevent  stock 
of  any  kind  from  getting  through.  No 
suit  for  damages  can  be  maintained  if  the 


■47  2 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER- 


fence  is  not  a  legal  one.  For  placing  in 
..an  inclosure  any  stakes,  pits,  poison,  or 
.anything  which  may  kill  or  injure  stock, 
a  penalty  of  $50  is  provided.  Partition 
fences  must  be  equally  maintained.  Fences 
in  Mississippi  are  required  to  be  five  feet 
high,  substantially  and  closely  built  with 
plank,  pickets,  hedges,  or  other  substan- 
tial materials,  or  by  raising  the  ground 
into  a  ridge  two  and  a  half  feet  high  and 
erecting  thereon  a  fence  of  common  rails 
or  other  materials  two  and  a  half  feet  in 
height.  Owners  of  adjoining  lands,  or 
lessees  thereof  for  more  than  two  years, 
are  required  to  contribute  equally  to  the 
erection  of  fences,  if  the  lands  are  in 
cultivation  are  used  for  pasturing.  No 
owner  is  bound  to  contribute  to  the 
.erection  of  a  dividing  fence  when  pre- 
pared to  erect  a  fence  of  his  own,  and  to 
leave  a  lane  on  his  own  land  be- 
tween himself  and  the  adjoining  own- 
<er;  but  the  failure  to  erect  such  fence 
for  sixty  days  is  deemed  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  intention  to  do  so, 
.and  determination  to  adopt  the  fence 
..already  built. 

Texas,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Indiana.  —  In 
Texas  every  gardener,  farmer,  or  planter 
is  required  to  maintain  a  fence  around 
his  cultivated  lands  at  least  five  feet  high 
and  sufficiently  close  to  prevent  hogs 
from  passing  through  it,  not  leaving  a 
space  of  more  than  six  inches  in  any  one 
place  within  three  feet  of  the  ground. 
Fences  in  Arkansas  must  be  five  feet 
high.  In  all  disputed  cases  the  sufficiency 
.of  a  fence  is  to  be  determined  by  three 
disinterested  householders,  appointed  by 
a  justice  of  the  peace.  Division  fences 
are  provided  for  as  in  the  majority  of  the 
■other  States.  In  Tennessee  every 
planter  is  required  to  make  a  fence  around 
Jus  cultivated  land  at  least  five  feet  high. 
When  any  trespass  occurs  a  justice  of 
the  peace  will  appoint  two  freeholders  to 
view  the  fence  as  to  its  sufficiency,  and  to 
ascertain  damages.  If  a  person,  whose 
fence  is  insufficient,  should  injure  any 
animal  which  may  have  come  upon  his 
lands,  he  is  responsible  in  damages.  In 
case  of  dispute  between  the  parties  as 
to  a  division  fence,  a  justice  of  the  peace 
will  appoint  three  disinterested  free- 
holders to  determine  the  proportion  to 
l5vs     maintained   by    each.     No    owner, 


whose  fence  is  exclusively  on  his  own 
land,  can  be  compelled  to  allow  his 
neighbor  to  join  it.  In  Kentucky  all 
sound  and  strong  fences  of  rails,  plank,  or 
iron,  five  feet  high,  and  so  close  that 
cattle  and  other  stock  cannot  creep 
through,  or  made  of  stone  or  brick  four 
and  a  half  feet  high,  are  deemed  legal 
fences.  Division  fences  cannot  be 
removed  without  consent  of  the  party  on 
adjoining  land,  except  between  November 
1  and  March  1  in  any  year,  six  months' 
notice  having  been  given.  In  Missouri 
all  fields  must  be  inclosed  by  hedge  or 
fence.  Hedges  must  be  five  feet  high; 
fences  of  posts  and  rails,  posts  and 
palings  posts  and  plank,  or  palisades,  four 
and  a  half  feet;  turf,  four  feet,  with 
trenches  on  either  side  three  feet  wide  at 
top  and  three  feet  deep ;  worm  fence  at 
least  five  feet  high  to  top  of  rider,  or,  if 
not  ridered,  five  feet  to  top  rail,  and 
corner  locked  with  strong  poles  rails  or 
stakes.  Double  damage  may  be  recov- 
ered from  any  person  maiming  or  killing 
animals  within  his  inclosure  if  adjudged 
insufficient.  In  Illinois  fences  must  be 
five  feet  high.  The  laws  regulating 
division  fences  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
New  England  States.  In  cases  of  dis- 
pute three  disinterested  householders 
decide  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  any  fence. 
Proprietors  of  commons  may  make  their 
own  regulations.  Line  fenoes  are  pro- 
tected on  public  highways.  In  Indiana 
any  structure  or  hedge,  or  ditch,  in  the 
nature  of  a  fence,  used  for  purposes  of 
inclosure,  which  shall,  on  the  testimony 
of  skillful  men,  appear  to  be  sufficient,  is 
a  lawful  fence. 

Ohio  and  Wisconsin.  —  The  laws  of 
Ohio  provide  that  whenever  a  fence  is 
erected  by  any  person  on  the  line  of  his 
land,  and  the  person  owning  the  land  ad- 
joining shall  make  an  enclosure  on  the 
opposite  side,  the  latter  shall  pay  one- 
half  the  value  of  the  fence  as  far  as  it  an- 
swers the  purpose  of  a  division  fence,  to 
be  adjudged  by  the  township  trustees. 
A  legal  fence  in  Wisconsin  is  four  and  a 
half  feet  high  if  of  rails,  timber,  boards, 
or  stone  walls  or  their  combinations,  or 
other  things  which  shall  be  deemed  equiv- 
lent  thereto  in  the  judgment  of  the  fence- 
viewers.  While  adjoining  parties  culti- 
vate lands  they  must  keep  up  fences  in 
equal  shares ;  double  value  of  building  or 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       473 


repairing  may  be  recovered  from  delin- 
quents. The  law  regulating  division 
fences  is  similar  in  most  particulars  to 
those  of  the  New  England  States  and 
Illinois.  Overseers  of  highways  perform 
the  duties  of  fence-viewers. 

Michigan.  —  Fences  in  Michigan 
must  be  four  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  in 
good  repair;  consisting  of  rails,  timber, 
boards,  or  stone  walls,  or  any  combina- 
tion of  these  materials.  Rivers,  brooks, 
ponds,  ditches,  hedges,  etc.,  deemed  by 
the  fence-viewers  equivalent  to  a  ience, 
are  held  to  be  legal  inclosures.  No  dam- 
ages for  trespass  are  recoverable  if  the 
fence  is  not  ot  the  required  height.  Par- 
tition fences  must  be  equally  maintained 
as  long  as  parties  improve  their  lands. 
When  lands  owned  in  severalty  have 
been  <  occupied  in  common,  any  occupants 
may  have  lands  divided.  Fences  extend- 
ing into  the  water  must  be  made  in  equal 
shares,  unless  otherwise  agreed  by  par- 
ties interested.  If  any  person  determines 
not  to  improve  any  portion  of  his  lands 
adjoining  a  partition  fence,  he  must  give 
six  months'  notice  to  all  the  adjoining  oc- 
cupants, after  which  he  will  not  be  re- 
quired to  keep  up  any  part  of  the  fence. 
Overseers  of  highways  act  as  fence- 
viewers. 

Minnesota. — In  Minnesota  four  and 
.a  half  feet  is  the  legal  height.  Partition 
fences  are  to  be  kept  in  good  repair  in 
equal  shares.  In  case  of  neglect,  com- 
plaint may  be  made  by  the  aggrieved 
party  to  the  town  supervisors,  who  will 
proceed  to  examine  the  matter,  and  if 
they  determine  that  the  fence  is  insuffi- 
cient, notice  will  be  given  to  delinquent 
occupant  of  land ;  and  if  he  fails  to  build 
or  repair  within  a  reasonable  time,  the 
complainant  may  build  or  repair,  and  may 
recover  double  the  expense,  with  interest 
at  the  rate  of  one  per  cent,  per  month,  in 
a  civil  action.  No  part  of  a  division 
fence  can  be  removed  if  the  owner  or  oc- 
cupant of  adjoining  land  will,  within  two 
months,  pay  the  appraised  value.  When 
any  uninclosed  grounds  are  afterward  in- 
closed, the  owner  or  occupant  is  required 
to  pay  for  one-half  of  each  partition 
fence ;  the  value  thereof  to  be  determined 
by  a  majority  of  the  town  supervisors. 
If  a  party  to  a  division  fence  discontinues 
the  improvement  of  his  land,  and  gives 
six  months'  notice  thereof  to  the  occu- 


pants of  adjoining  lands,  he  is  not  re- 
quired to  keep  up  any  part  of  such  fence 
during  the  time  his  lands  are  unimproved, 
and  he  may  remove  his  portion  if  the  ad- 
joining owner  or  occupant  will  not  pay 
therefor.  County  commissioners  are  the 
fence- viewers  in  counties  not  divided  into 
towns. 

Iowa. — A  legal  fence  in  Iowa  is  four 
and  half  feet  high,  constructed  of  strong 
materials,  put  up  in  a  good,  substantial 
manner.  In  all  counties  where,  by  a  vote 
of  the  legal  voters,  or  by  an  act  of  the 
general  assembly,  it  is  determined  that 
hogs  and  sheep  shall  not  run  at  large,  a 
fence  made  of"  three  rails  of  good,  sub- 
stantial material,  or  three  boards  not  less 
than  six  inches  wide  and  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  thick,  such  rails  or  boards  to  be 
fastened  in  or  to  good,  substantial  posts, 
not  more  than  ten  feet  apart  where  rails 
are  used;  or  any  other  fence  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  fence  viewers,  shall  be 
equivalent  thereto,  is  deemed  a  lawful 
fence,  provided  that  the  lowest  or  bottom 
rail  shall  not  be  more  than  twenty  nor 
less  than  sixteen  inches  from  the  ground, 
and  that  the  fence  shall  be  fifty-four 
inches  in  height.  The  respective  owners 
of  enclosed  lands  must  keep  up  fences  \ 
equally  as  long  as  they  improve.  In 
case  of  neglect  to  repair  or  rebuild,  the 
adjoining  owner  may  do  so;  and  the 
work  being  adjudged  sufficient  by  the 
fence-viewers,  and  the  value  determined, 
the  complainant  may  recover  the  amount, 
with  interest  at  the  rate  of  one  per  cent, 
per  month.  If  an  owner  desires  to  throw 
his  field  open,  he  shall  give  the  adjoin- 
ing parties  six  months'  notice,  or  such 
shorter  notice  as  may  be  directed  by  the 
fence-viewers. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska. — In  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  fences  may  be  of  posts  and 
rails,  posts  and  palings,  or  posts  and 
planks,  at  least  four  and  a  half  feet  high  ; 
of  turf,  four  feet,  and  staked  and  ridered, 
with  a  ditch  on  either  side  at  least  three 
feet  wide  at  top  and  three  feet  deep ;  a 
worm  fence  must  be  at  least  four  and  a 
half  feet  high  to  top  of  rider,  or  if  not 
ridered,  four  and  a  half  feet  to  top  rail, 
the  corners  to  be  locked  with  strong 
rails,  posts,  or  stakes.  The  bottom  rail, 
board  or  plank  in  any  fence  must  not 
be  more  than  two  feet  from  the  ground 
in    any    township,   and  in   those  town 


474 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


ships  where  hogs  are  not  prohibited  from 
running  at  large  it  must  not  be  more 
than  six  inches  from  the  ground.  All 
such  fences  must  be  substantially  built 
and  sufficiently  close  to  prevent  stock 
from  going  through.  Stone  fences  are 
required  to  be  four  feet  high,  eighteen 
inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  twelve  at 
top.  All  hedges  must  be  of  sufficient 
height  and  thickness  to  protect  the  field 
or  enclosure.  A  wire  fence  must  con- 
sist of  posts  of  ordinary  size  for  fencing 
purposes,  set  in  the  ground  at  least  two 
feet  deep,  and  not  more  than  twelve  feet 
apart,  with  holes  through  posts,  or  sta- 
ples on  the  side,  not  more  than  fifteen 
inches  apart,  and  four  separate  lines  of 
fence  wire,  not  smaller  than.  No.  9,  to  be 
provided  with  rollers  and  levers  at  suita- 
ble distances,  to  strain  and  hold  the  wires 
straight  and  firm.  Owners  of  adjoining 
lands  must  maintain  fences  equally.  In 
case  ot  neglect  of  one  party  to  build  or 
repair,  another  party  may  do  so  and  re- 
cover the  amount  expended,  with  interest 
at  the  rate  of  one  per  cent,  per  month. 
A  person  not  improving  his  land  is  not 
required  to  keep  up  any  portion  of  a  di- 
vision fence.  The  trustee,  clerk,  and 
treasurer  of  each  township  act  as  fence- 
viewers,  to  adjust  all  disputes  concerning 
fences.  A  legal  fence  in  Nebraska  is  de- 
scribed as  any  structure,  or  hedge,  or 
ditch  in  the  nature  of  a  fence,  used  for 
the  purposes  of  enclosure,  which  is  such 
as  good  husbandmen  generally  keep. 
Division  fences  must  be  equally  main- 
tained. A  party  may  remove  his  portion 
of  a  division  fence  by  giving  sixty  days' 
notice.  If  removed  without  such  notice 
the  party  so  doing  is  liable  lor  full  dam- 
ages. Where  a  fence  is  injured  or  de- 
stroyed by  fire  or  flood  it  must  be  repair- 
ed within  ten  days  after  notice  by  inter- 
ested persons.  Justices  of  the  peace  are 
ex  officio  fence-viewers. 

California. — Legal  fences  in  Califor- 
nia are  described  with  great  particular- 
ity. Wire  fences  must  consist  of  posts 
not  less  than  twelve  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence, set  in  the  ground  not  less  than 
eighteen  inches,  and  not  less  than  eight 
feet  apart,  with  not  less  than  three  hori- 
zontal wires,  each  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  the  first  to  be  eighteen  inches 
from  the  ground,  the  other  two  above  at 
intervals  of  one  foot,  all  well  stretched 


and  securely  fastened  from  post  to  post, 
with  one  rail,  slat,  pole,  or  plank,  of  suita- 
ble size  and  strength,  securely  fastened 
to  the  post,  not  less  than  four  and  a  half 
feet  from  the  ground.  Post  and  rail 
fence  must  be  made  with  posts  of  the 
same  size  and  at  the  same  distances  apart 
and  the  same  depth  in  the  ground  as. 
above  required,  with  three  rails,  slats,  or 
planks  of  suitable  size  and  strength,  the 
top  one  to  be  four  and  a  half  feet  from 
the  ground,  the  other  two  at  equal  dis- 
tances between  the  first  and  the  ground, 
all  securely  fastened  to  the  post.  Picket 
fences  must  be  of  the  same  height  as 
above,  made  of  pickets  not  less  than  six 
inches  in  circumference,  placed  not  more 
than  six  inches  apart,  driven  in  the 
ground  not  less  than  ten  inches,  all  well 
secured  at  the  top  by  slats  or  caps. 
Ditch  and  pole  fence :  the  ditch  must  not 
be  less  than  four  feet  wide  on  the  top  and 
three  feet  deep,  with  embankment  thrown 
on  inside  of  ditch,  with  substantial  posts 
set  in  the  embankment  not  more  than 
eight  feet  apart,  and  a  plank,  pole,  rail,  or 
slat  securely  fastened  to  posts  at  least  five 
feet  high  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 
Pole  fence  must  be  four  and  a  half  feet 
high,  with  stakes  not  less  than  three 
inches  in  diameter,  set  in  the  ground  not 
less  than  eighteen  inches,  and  when  the 
stakes  are  placed  seven  feet  apart  there 
must  not  be  less  than  six  horizontal  poles 
well  secured  to  the  stakes;  if  the  stakes 
are  six  feet  apart,  five  poles;  if  three  or 
four  feet,  four  poles ;  if  two  feet  apart 
three  poles,  and  the  stakes  need  not  be 
less  than  two  inches  in  diameter;  if  one 
foot  apart,  one  pole,  and  the  stakes  need 
not  be  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter. 
The  above  is  a  lawful  fence  so  long  as  the 
stakes  and  poles  are  securely  fastened  and 
in  a  fair  state  of  preservation.  Hedge 
fence  is  considered  lawful  when  by  relia- 
ble evidence  it  shall  be  proved  equal  in 
strength  and  as  well  suited  to  the  protec- 
tion of  inclosed  lands  as  the  other  fences 
described.  Brush  fence  must  be  four  and 
a  half  feet  high  and  at  least  twelve  inches 
wide,  with  stakes  not  less  than  two  inches 
in  diameter,  set  in  the  ground  not  less 
than  eighteen  inches,  and  on  each  side, 
every  eight  feet,  tied  together  at  the  top,, 
with  horizontal  pole  tied  to  the  outside 
stake  five  feet  from  the  ground.  In  the 
case  of  partition  fences,  if  one  party  re- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      475 


fuse  or  neglect  to  build  or  maintain  his 
share  the  other  may  do  so  and  recover 
the  value.  Three  days'  notice  to  repair 
is  sufficient.  The  sufficiency  of  a  fence  is 
to  be  determined  by  three  disinterested 
householders. 

LAWS,  STOCK,  for  Each  State.— In  a 
majority  of  the  States  there  are  general 
laws  prohibiting  cattle  and  other  stock 
from  running  at  large ;  in  some  instances, 
however,  authority  is  delegated  to  coun- 
ties or  towns  to  make  by-laws  upon  the 
subject,  or  there  is  special  legislation  for 
particular  counties  or  districts.  The  law 
cf  estrays  differs  in  the  various  States  in 
no  essential  particulars.  If  a  beast  is 
found  running  at  large,  in  violation  of 
law,  it  may  be  taken  up  and  impounded, 
where  public  pounds  have  been  provided ; 
or  it  may  be  held  by  the  person  so  taking 
up  on  his  own  premises.  If  the  owner  is 
known,  notice  must  be  given  to  him  at 
once ;  if  unknown,  the  animal  must  be 
advertised  for  a  specified  time;  and  no 
owner  claiming  it,  must  be  sold  to  the 
highest  bidder.  The  person  taking  up 
the  estray  is  entitled  to  a  reasonable  com- 
pensation for  maintaining  the  beast.  In 
some  States,  after  a  certain  time,  the 
estray  becomes  the  property  of  the  per- 
son taking  it  up,  the  prescribed  legal  no- 
tice having  been  given.  When  an  ani- 
mal is  found  doing  damage  on  the  land 
of  another,  the  fences  being  constructed 
according  to  law,  it  may  be  held  as  secu- 
rity for  damages.  In  all  cases  where  the 
owner  is  known,  he  must  be  notified  of 
the  facts,  and  a  reasonable  time  allowed 
him  to  leclaim  and  to  inspect  damages. 
In  the  majority  of  the  States,  also,  owners 
of  stock  are  required  to  adopt  certain  ear- 
marks, marks,  or  brands,  and  to  make  a 
record  of  them. 

Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont. 
— In  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  towns 
may  make  by-laws  concerning  the  run- 
ning of  animals  at  large.  The  laws  of 
Maine  provide  that  persons  injured  by 
beasts  may  sue  for  damages,  and  distrain 
the  animal.  New  Hampshire  allows 
the  owners  of  stock  impounded  for  doing 
damage  four  days  to  respond  to  notice  of 
the  fact;  and  if  he  fails  to  answer,  the 
animals  may  be  sold  and  the  amount  of 
the  damages  deducted  from  the  proceeds. 
In  Vermont,  twenty  days  are  allowed 
for  redemption.     Ungelded  animals  are 


not  allowed  to  run  at  large.  Rams  must 
be  restrained  from  August  i  to  Decem- 
ber i,  and  be  marked  with  the  initials  of 
the  owner's  name ;  and  if  found  at  large, 
a  forfeit  of  $5  is  due  for  each  one  taken 
up  to  the  person  so  taking  up.  The 
owner  of  such  animals  is  responsible  for 
all  damages  done  by  them.  Sheep  in- 
fected with  foot  rot  or  scab  must  be  dili- 
gently restrained,  and  for  all  damages  re- 
sulting from  neglect  of  this  provision  the 
owner  is  responsible,  and  is  also  subject  to 
a  fine  of  $10.  Any  person  finding  such 
diseased  animals  at  large,  may  take  them 
as  forfeit,  and  no  action  at  law  or  in 
equity  will  lie  for  their  recovery.  Any 
person  who  shall  drive,  or  in  any  manner 
bring,  into  the  State  any  neat  cattle, 
knowing  them,  or  any  of  them,  to  have 
the  pleuro-pneumonia,  or  of  having  been 
exposed  to  that  disease,  is  liable  to  a  for- 
feit of  a  sum  not  over  $500,  or  to  im- 
prisonment in  a  county  jail  for  not  more 
than  twelve  months,  nor  less  than  one 
month.  Towns  may  establish  regula- 
tions, appoint  officers  or  agents,  and  raise 
and  appropriate  money  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  and  arresting  the  spread  of 
pleuro-pneumonia.  »     ■ 

Massachusetts. — The  laws  of  Massa-' 
chusetts  provide  that  when  a  person  is 
injured  in  his  crops  or  other  property  by 
sheep,  swine,  horses,  mules,  or  neat  cat- 
tle, he  may  recover  damages  in  an  action 
of  tort  against  the  owner  of  the  beasts,  or 
by  distraining  the  beasts  doing  the  dam- 
age ;  but  if  the  beasts  were  lawfully  on 
the  adjoining  lands,  and  escaped  there- 
from in  consequence  of  the  neglect  of  the 
person  who  suffered  the  damage  to  main- 
tain his  part  of  the  division  fence,  the 
owner  of  the  beasts  shall  not  be  liable  for 
such  damages.  The  selectmen  of  towns- 
and  the  mayor  and  aldermen  of  cities,  in 
case  of  the  existence  of  pleuro-pneumonia. 
or  any  other  contagious  disease  among 
cattle,  shall  cause  the  infected  animals  or 
those  exposed  to  infection  to  be  secured 
in  some  suitable  place  or  places,  and 
kept  isolated,  the  expense  of  keeping  to 
be  paid,  one-fifth  by  city  or  town,  and 
four-fifths  by  the  State.  They  may  pro- 
hibit the  departure  of  cattle  trom  any  in- 
closure,  or  exclude  them  therefrom;  may 
make  rules  in  writing  to  regulate  or  pro- 
hibit the  passage  of  any  neat  cattle  to  or 
through  their  respective  cities  or  towns,. 


-476 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


or  from  place  to  place,  and  arrest  and 
detain  them  at  the  cost  of  the  owners. 
They  are  authorized  to  brand  infected 
animals,  or  those  exposed  to  infection, 
with  the  letter  "P"on  the  rump.  For 
selling  an  animal  so  branded,  there  is  lia- 
bility to  fine  not  exceeding  $500,  or  im- 
prisonment not  exceeding  one  year.  No- 
tice of  any  suspicion  of  the  existence  of 
contagious  disease  must  be  given,  with  a 
penalty  for  neglect  or  refusal.  A  board 
-of  commissioners  is  appointed  for  the 
State,  with  authority  to  use  any  measure 
to  control  the  introduction  of  diseased 
cattle  into  the  State,  or  the  spread  of 
disease.  The  rules  and  regulations  made 
by  this  board  supersede  those  of  the  se- 
lectmen of  towns,  and  mayor  and  alder- 
men of  cities.  The  moving  of  cattle  into 
other  States  without  permission  is  pro- 
hibited. The  law  of  1867  provides  that 
no  cattle  diseased,  or  suspected  of  being 
-diseased,  shall  be  killed,  except  by  order 
of  the  governor.  The  owners  of  cattle 
ordered  to  be  killed  are  indemnified. 

Rhode  Island. — In  Rhode  Island, 
animals  trespassing  on  lands  are  held  a 
year  and  a  day;  and,  if  a  horse,  must 
have  a  withe  kept  about  his  neck  during 
that  time.  Each  town  is  required  to 
•erect  and  maintain  at  its  own  charge  one 
or  more  public  pounds,  and  it  is  lawful 
for  any  freeholder  or  qualified  elector  or 
field  driver,  and  it  is  made  the  duty  of 
•every  surveyor  of  highways,  to  take  up 
and  impound  any  horse,  neat  cattle, 
sheep,  or  hog  found  at  large  in  any  high- 
way or  common.  Provisions  of  the  act 
extend  also  to  goats  and  geese.  In  i860, 
in  view  of  the  dangerous  disease  which 
had  become  prevalent  in  other  States, 
the  general  assembly  enacted  that  neat 
•cattle  might  only  be  brought  into  the 
•State  from  places  west  of  the  Connecticut 
River,  upon  thoroughfares  leading  into 
the  western  and  southern  portions  of  the 
State,  under  regulations  established  by  a 
■board  of  commissioners,  until  they  should 
prohibit  importations  from  any  of  said 
places.  For  a  violation  of  the  provisions 
of  the  act,  a  penalty  was  provided,  not 
exceeding  $300  for  each  offence,  and 
liability  to  indictment,  and,  on  conviction, 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year. 
In  case  of  the  introduction  of  a  number 
-of  diseased  cattle  at  the  same  time,  the 
introduction   of  each   animal    is   to    be 


deemed  a  separate  and  distinct  offense. 
Town  councils  are  empowered  to  take  all 
necessary  measures  to  prevent  the  break- 
ing out  or  spreading  of  any  infectious 
diseases  among  the  neat  cattle  in  their  re- 
spective towns,  and  to  prescribe  penalties 
in  money,  not  exceeding  $500.  A  board 
of  commissioners  is  provided  for,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  governor,  consisting  of 
one  person  from  each  county,  to  see  that 
the  law  is  faithfully  executed.  It  is  made 
the  especial  duty  of  the  board  to  endeavor 
to  obtain  full  information  in  relation  to 
the  disease  known  as  pleuro-pneumonia, 
and  to  publish  and  circulate  the  same,  at 
their  discretion ;  and  in  case  the  disease 
should  break  out,  or  there  should  be  a 
reasonable  suspicion  of  its  existence  in 
any  town,  they  are  required  to  examine 
the  several  cases  and  publish  the  result  of 
their  examination,  in  order  that  the  public 
may  have  correct  information.  If  satis- 
fied of  its  existence  in  any  town,  they 
must  give  public  notice  of  the  fact  in 
printed  handbills,  posted  up;  and,  there- 
after, any  incorporated  company  or  per- 
son who  may  drive,  carry,  or  transport 
any  neat  cattle  out  of  the  town  into  any 
other  town  in  the  State,  is  liable  to  the 
penalties  above  stated.  Any  person  who 
sells  or  offers  to  sell  any  cattle  known  to 
be  infected  with  pleuro-pneumonia,  or 
with  any  disease  dangerous  to  public 
health,  is  liable  to  indictment,  and,  on 
conviction,  to  punishment  by  fine  not  ex- 
ceeding $1,000,  or  imprisonment  not  ex- 
ceeding two  years.  The  act  of  March 
26,  1864,  provides  that  any  person  know- 
ingly bringing  into  the  State  any  neat  cattle 
or  other  animals  suffering  from  any  infec- 
tious disease,  or  who  knowingly  exposes 
such  cattle  or  other  animals  to  other  cattle 
and  animals  not  infected  with  such  dis- 
ease, shall,  upon  conviction,  pay  a  fine  of 
not  less  than  $100,  and  not  exceeding 
$500. 

Connecticut. — The  laws  of  Connecti- 
cut allow  owners  of  sheep  to  keep  flocks 
in  common,  and  to  make  their  own  rules 
and  regulations  concerning  their  care  and 
safety.  No  horses,  asses,  mules,  neat 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  geese  are  allowed 
to  go  at  large  in  any  highway  or  com- 
mon, or  to  roam  at  large  for  the  purpose 
of  being  kept  or  pastured  on  the  highway 
or  common,  either  with  or  without  a 
keeper.     Any  person  may  seize  and  take 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      477 


into  his  custody  and  possession  any  ani- 
mal which  may  be  trespassing  upon  his 
premises,  provided  the  animal  enter  from 
the  highway,  or  through  a  fence  belong- 
ing to  the  owner  of  the  animal,  or 
through  a  lawful  fence  belonging  to  any 
other  person.  He  must  give  immediate 
notice  to  the  owner,  if  known,  and  may 
demand  for  every  horse,  mule,  ass,  ox, 
cow,  or  calf,  25  cents;  and  for  every 
sheep,  goat,  goose,  or  swine,  10  cents; 
together  with  just  damages  for  injuries 
occasioned  by  such  animals,  if  applied 
for  within  twenty-four  hours  after  such 
notice  shall  have  been  given.  If  the 
owner  is  not  known,  the  animal  shall  be 
sold  by  the  town  clerk,  after  due  public 
notice. 

New  York. — The  cattle  laws  of  New 
York  allow  any  person  to  seize  and  take 
into  his  custody  any  animal  which  may 
be  in  any  public  highway,  and  opposite 
to  land  owned  or  occupied  by  him,  or 
which  may  be  trespassing  upon  his  prem- 
ises. Notice  must  be  given  to  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  or  a  commissioner  of  high- 
ways of  the  town  in  which  the  seizure 
has  been  made,  who  shall  post  up  notices 
in  six  public  places  that  the  animal  will 
be  sold  in  not  less  than  fifteen  nor  more 
than  thirty  days.  The  surplus  money, 
after  payment  of  all  charges,  is  subject  to 
the  order  of  the  owner  for  one  year.  The 
owner,  before  sale,  may  pay  all  charges 
and  take  the  animal.  If  the  animal  has 
been  trespassing  by  the  willful  act  of 
another  than  the  owner  to  effect  that 
object,  the  owner  is  entitled  to  the  ani- 
mal upon  making  demand,  after  paying 
the  compensation  fixed  by  the  justice  or 
commissioner,  but  no  other  costs;  and 
the  person  committing  such  willful  act 
will  be  held  liable  to  a  penalty  ot  $20. 

New  Jersey. — In  New  Jersey  town 
committees,  upon  notice  of  the  existence 
of  any  disease  supposed  to  be  contagious, 
are  required  personally  to  examine  the 
cause,  and  if  the  symptoms  which  char- 
acterize contagious  diseases  are  exhibited, 
shall  cause  such  animals  to  be  removed 
and  kept  separate  and  apart  from  other 
cattle  and  stock,  five  hundred  feet  distant 
from  any  highway,  and  the  same  distance 
from  any  and  all  neighbors.  If  any  die 
of  the  disease,  or  are  killed,  they  must  be 
buried  immediately,  five  hundred  feet 
distant,  etc.,  as  above.     No  cattle  that 


have  been  sick,  and  have  recovered  from 
any  supposed  contagious  or  infectious, 
disease,  shall  mix  with  other  cattle,  or  be 
removed,  unless  permission  has  been 
given  by  the  town  committee.  Any  per- 
son knowingly  storing  a  hide,  or  any 
other  portion  of  a  diseased  animal,  is 
subject  to  a  fine.  The  town  committee 
are  authorized  to  prohibit  the  importation 
or  passage  of  cattle  from  other  places 
into  or  through  their  respective  towns. 
After  notice  of  prohibition,  owners  are 
liable  to  a  fine  of  $100  for  every  animal, 
driven  into  a  township.  A  fine  of  $100 
is  imposed  for  every  animal  sold  and 
known  to  be  diseased.  The  act  of  1866 
authorizes  the  Agricultural  Society  of  the 
State  to  take  measures  for  preventing  the. 
introduction  or  increase  of  rinderpest, 
and  any'  other  disease  among  cattle,  at 
their  discretion.  In  this  State,  animals 
affected  with  glanders  are  authorized  to 
be  killed.  Cattle  must  not  be  marked 
by  chopping  both  ears;  nor  must  either 
ear  be  cropped  more  than  one  inch. 

Pennsylvania. — The  running  of  cattle 
at  large  is  controlled  in  Pennsylvania 
by  towns  and  counties,  through  special 
legislation.  The  sale  of  cattle  or  sheep 
affected  with  pleuro-pneumonia,  or  any 
other  contagious  disease,  is  punished  by 
fine  not  exceeding  $500,  or  imprisonment 
not  exceeding  six  months.  Animals  must 
not  be  sold  alive  from,  or  slaughtered  on, 
premises  where  disease  is  known  to  exist, , 
nor  for  a  period  of  two  months  after  dis- 
ease shall  have  disappeared  from  the 
premises.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  not 
allowed  to  run  at  large  where  any  con- 
tagious disease  prevails.  Constables  of 
townships  are  required  to  take  up  and 
confine  any  animals  so  found,  until  all 
costs  are  paid. 

Delaware. — In  Delaware,  by  act  of 
general  assembly,  cattle  are  forbidden  to 
run  at  large  in  certain  districts.  Stallions 
over  eighteen  months  old  are  not  per- 
mitted to  be  at  large. 

Maryland. — The  laws  of  Maryland- 
provide  that  any  person  aggrieved  by 
trespass  upon  his  premises  of  any  cattle, 
hogs,  or  sheep  in  the  possession  or  care 
of  a  non-resident,  may  impound  them, 
and  have  the  damages  sustained  by  the 
trespass  valued  on  oath  by  two  disinter- 
ested citizens  of   his   county,   and    the- 


478 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


animals  may  be  sold  for  the  damages  and 
costs. 

Virginia. — The  laws  of  Virginia  pro- 
vide that  if  any  horses,  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  or  goats  enter  into  any  grounds 
inclosed  by  a  lawful  fence,  the  owner  or 
manager  shall  be  liable  to  the  owner  of 
the  ground  for  all  damages;  and  for 
every  succeeding  trespass  by  such  animals, 
the  owner  shall  be  liable  for  double  dam- 
ages ;  and,  after  having  given  at  least  five 
days'  notice  to  the  owner  of  the  animals 
of  the  fact  of  two  previous  trespasses,  the 
aggrieved  party  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
animals  if  again  found  trespassing  on  the 
same  lands.  Horses  diseased  and  un- 
altered, are  not  allowed  to  be  at  large. 
Every  person  shall  so  restrain  his  dis- 
tempered cattle,  or  such  as  are  under  his 
care,  that  they  may  not  go  at  large  off  the 
land  to  which  they  belong;  and  no  per- 
son shall  drive  any  distempered  cattle 
into  or  through  the  State,  or  from  one 
part  of  it  to  another,  unless  it  be  to 
remove  them  from  one  piece  of  ground  to 
another  of  the  same  owner;  and  when 
any  such  cattle  die,  the  owner  thereof,  or 
person  having  them  in  charge,  shall  cause 
them  to  be  buried  (with  their  hides  on) 
four  feet  deep.  Any  justice,  upon  proof 
before  him  that  any  cattle  are  going  at 
large,  or  are  driven  in  or  through  his 
county  or  corporation,  in  violation  of 
law,  may  direct  the  owner  to  impound 
them ;  and  if  he  fail  to  do  so,  or  suffer 
them  to  escape  before  obtaining  a  certifi- 
cate that  they  may  be  removed  with 
safety,  they  shall,  by  order  of  the  justice, 
be  killed  and  buried  four  feet  deep,  with 
their  hides  on,  but  so  cut  that  no  one 
may  be  tempted  to  dig  them  up.  For 
the  protection  of  sheep  special  laws  have 
been  passed  taxing  dogs  in  certain  coun- 
ties, and  for  their  restraint  in  those  coun- 
ties. 

North  Carolina.— In  North  Carolina, 
if  cattle  are  driven  from  one  part  of  the 
State  to  another,  they  must  be  certified  to 
be  healthy,  sound,  and  free  from  any 
infectious  distemper;  the  granting  of  such 
certificate  by  any  justice,  without  affi- 
davit, is  a  misdemeanor  in  office.  Stallions 
and  mules  over  two  years  old  are  not 
allowed  to  go  at  large,  under  a  penalty  of 
$10.  Damages  for  injury  done  by  tres- 
passing animals  are  recoverable  as  in 
other  States, 


South  Carolina. — In  South  Carolina 
horses,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  or  goats  break- 
ing into  any  field  having  a  crop  of  any 
kind  growing  or  ungathered,  with  a  law- 
ful fence,  may  be  seized  and  kept  con- 
fined until  notice  is  given  to  the  owner, 
Within  twenty-four  hours  of  the  seizure, 
who  shall  be  bound  to  pay  the  owner  of 
such  field  50  cents  a  head  for  each  horse 
or  mule,  and  25  cents  for  every  head  of 
cattle,  hogs,  etc.,  before  he  is  entitled  to 
have  the  animal  delivered  up  to  him. 
For  the  second  breaking,  within  one 
month  after  the  first,  the  owner  is  liable 
to  the  person  injured  for  all  damages 
sustained,  in  addition  to  the  fine.  Full 
satisfaction  lies  for  injuring  any  animal 
found  in  any  field  where  the  fence  is  not 
a  lawful  one. 

Georgia.— In  the  State  of  Georgia,  if 
any  trespass  or  damage  is  committed  by 
stock  on  any  lands  not  protected  by  law- 
ful fences,  the  owner  of  the  animal  is  not 
liable  to  answer  for  trespass ;  and  if  the 
owner  of  the  premises  should  kill  or 
injure  the  animal  in  any  manner  he  is 
liable  in  three  times  the  damages.  When 
fences  are  made  pursuant  to  law,  and  any 
animal  breaks  in,  the  owner  of  the  in- 
closure  shall  not  kill  or  injure  him  for  the 
first  breaking,  and  not  until  after  notice 
is  given  to  the  agent  or  owner,  if  possi- 
ble, but  the  owner  shall  be  liable  for 
double  the  damage  done  by  his  stock. 

Florida. — In  Florida  there  can  be  no 
trespass  or  damage  if  the  fence  is  not  a 
lawful  one ;  nor  in  such  case  can  stakes, 
canes,  or  other  devices  to  maim  or  kill 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  etc.,  be  used,  under 
a  penalty  of  $10  for  each  offence  and 
damages.  Marks  upon  stock  are  required. 

Alabama. — Any  person  is  allowed  in 
Alabama  to  take  up  any  horse,  mare, 
jack,  neat  cattle,  hog,  or  sheep  found 
running  at  large,  if  the  owner  is  unknown. 
If  any  stallion  or  jackass  over  two  years 
of  age  is  found  at  large  it  must  be  taken 
before  a  justice  who  shall  cause  it  to  be 
advertised.  The  taker  up  is  entitled  to 
$5  from  the  owner,  and  reasonable  com- 
pensation for  keeping.  If  such  stallion 
or  jackass  is  not  claimed  within  three 
months  it  may  be  gelded. 

Mississippi. — The  laws  of  Mississippi 
provide  that  every  owner  of  cattle,  horses, 
mules,  hogs,  sheep,  or  goats  shall  be  liable 
for  all  injuries  and  trespasses  committed 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       479 


"by  breaking  into  grounds  inclosed  by- 
legal  fence.  If  any  person  whose  fence 
is  not  a  lawful  one,  shall  hurt,  wound, 
lame,  or  kill,  by  shooting,  or  hunting  with 
dogs,  or  otherwise,  any  cattle,  etc.,  that 
may  have  broken  into  his  inclosure,  he 
shall  pay  the  owner  double  damages.  A 
ranger  is  elected  in  each  county  to  attend 
specially  to  estrays,  of  which  he  is  re- 
quired to  keep  a  record.  When  any  per- 
son finds  horses,  mules,  jacks,  cattle,  sheep, 
or  hogs  straying  upon  his  land  he  may 
take  them  up  and  forthwith  send  them  to 
the  owner,  if  known;  if  unknown,  he 
must  give  notice  to  the  ranger,  or  some 
justice  of  the  peace.  The  owner  of  all 
estrays  appraised  at  $10  and  not  exceed- 
ing $20  is  allowed  six  months,  and  if  less 
than  $10,  three  months,  from  the  date  of 
certificate  of  appraisement  to  claim  and 
prove  his  property.  It  is  not  lawful  for 
any  drover  or  other  person  to  drive  any 
horses,  mules,  cattle,  hogs,  or  sheep  of 
another  from  the  range  to  which  they 
belong;  but  it  is  made  his  duty  if  any 
such  stock  join  his,  to  halt  immediately  at 
the  nearest  pen,  or  some  other  convenient 
place,  and  separate  such  stock  as  does 
not  belong  to  him,  or  to  the  person  by 
whom  he  may  be  employed.  For  neglect 
a  forfeit  of  $20  for  every  offence  is  pro- 
vided, and  liability  to  all  damages.  Any 
person  may  confine  and  geld  any  stallion 
above  the  age  of  two  years  found  running 
at  large,  at  the  risk  of  the  owner,  but 
this  will  not  apply  to  stallions  usually 
kept  up,  but  to  those  which  accidentally 
escape.  Any  animal  addicted  to  fence 
breaking  may  be  taken  up  by  owner  of 
land,  who  may  recover  75  cents  a  day  for 
keeping,  provided  owner  has  been  noti- 
fied, if  known;  but  condition  of  fence 
may  be  shown  in  mitigation  of  damages. 
Double  damages  may  be  recovered  for 
injury  to  animals  where  fence  is  not  a 
lawful  one.  Defacing  or  altering  marks 
of  animals  subjects  to  a  penalty  of  im- 
prisonment in  the  penitentiary  for  not 
more  than  three  years,  or  fine  of  not 
more  than  $500,  and  imprisonment  in 
•county  jail  for  not  more  than  one  year, 
or  both. 

Texas. — No  neat  cattle  belonging  to 
non-residents  are  allowed  to  be  taken  into 
Texas  for  grazing  or  herding  purposes, 
under  pain  of  forfeiture  to  the  county  into 
which   they  shall  have  been  so  taken. 


Severe  penalties  for  altering  the  brands 
are  provided  in  this  State. 

Arkansas. — In  Arkansas,  if  any  horse, 
cattle,  or  other  stock  break  into  any  in- 
closure, the  fence  being  of  the  required 
height  and  sufficiency,  the  owner  of  the 
animal  shall,  for  the  first  offence,  make 
reparation  for  true  damages ;  for  the  sec- 
ond offence,  double  damages ;  and  for  the 
third  the  party  injured  may  kill  the  tres- 
passing beasts,  without  being  answerable. 
If  any  stallion  or  jack  over  two  years  old 
is  found  running  at  large,  the  owner  may 
be  fined  $2  for  the  first  offence,  and  $10 
for  each  subsequent  offence,  and  is  liable 
for  all  damages  that  may  be  sustained. 
Any  person  may  take  up  such  animal, 
and,  if  not  claimed  within  two  days,  may 
castrate,  and  recover  $3  for  doing  so; 
but  the  life  of  the  animal  must  not  be  en- 
dangered. If  any  such  animal  cannot  be 
taken  up,  he  may  be  killed,  if  notice  be 
first  put  up  at  the  court-house,  and  at 
three  other  of  the  most  public  places  in 
the  county  for  ten  days,  accurately  describ- 
ing the  animal. 

Tennessee. —  In  Tennessee  stallions 
and  jackasses  over  fifteen  days  old  are 
not  allowed  to  run  at  large  under  a  pen- 
nalty  to  the  owner  of  not  less  than  $5  or 
more  than  $25.  The  animal  may  be 
taken  before  the  nearest  justice  of  the 
peace  who  shall  give  public  notice.  If 
not  claimed  within  three  months  the  ani- 
mal may  be  gelded  at  the  risk  and  ex- 
pense of  the  owner.  The  party  taking 
him  up  is  entitled  to  $5  and  reasonable 
expenses  for  keeping. 

West  Virginia. — There  is  no  law  in 
force  in  West  Virginia  to  prevent  cattle 
from  running  at  large ;  but  if  they  break 
into  an  inclosure  and  destroy  any  grain 
or  crops,  the  owner  is  liable,  provided  the 
the  fence  is  a  lawful  one.  A  law  exists  to 
prevent  diseased  sheep  from  traveling  on 
the  highway. 

Kentucky. — In  Kentucky  breechy  and 
mischievous  bulls  may  be  taken  up  and 
altered ;  a  jack  or  stallion  may  be  gelded 
if  found  at  large,  allowing  the  owner,  ii 
known,  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  miles  a 
day  to  reach  the  place  where  the  animal 
is  held,  and  recover  the  animal;  when 
the  owner  is  not  known,  the  animal  is 
dealt  with  as  an  estray,  and  may  be  or- 
dered by  a  justice  to  be  gelded.  If  the 
owner  of  any  distempered  cattle  permits 


480 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


them  to  run  at  large,  or  drives  them 
through  any  part  of  the  State,  he  is  liable 
to  a  fine  of  $10  tor  each  head;  and  if  any 
die  the  owner  must  cause  them  to  be 
buried,  subject  to  a  penalty  of  $5  for  neg- 
lect in  each  case. 

Missouri. — The  State  of  Missouri  has 
created  a  board  of  cattle  inspectors  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  the  Texas  or  Span- 
ish fever.  The  county  court  of  each 
county  is  authorized  to  appoint  three 
competent  persons  to  act  as  a  board  for 
the  inspection  of  cattle  supposed  to  be 
distempered  or  affected  with  the  disease 
known  as  the  Texas  or  Spanish  fever. 
They  may  stop  any  drove  of  cattle.  If 
they  adjudge  cattle  to  be  diseased  or  dis- 
tempered, and  in  a  condition  to  communi- 
cate any  contagious  or  infectious  disease, 
they  are  required  to  order  the  cattle  to  be 
removed  from  the  county  without  delay, 
upon  the  same  route  upon  which  they 
came  in,  if  practicable.  If  the  owners 
comply  with  the  order  they  will  not  be 
further  liable ;  but  if  they,  or  the  persons 
having  the  cattle  in  charge,  wilfully  delay 
or  neglect  to  do  so,  the  president  of  the 
board  will  direct  the  sheriff  to  drive  the 
cattle  out  by  the  route  they  came  in,  or  to 
kill  them,  if  the  board  think  it  necessary 
in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  dis- 
ease. The  parties  owning  or  in  charge  of 
the  cattle  ordered  to  be  removed  or  killed 
are  liable  for  all  the  costs  that  may  accrue 
in  case  of  examination,  removal,  or  kill- 
ing. The  act  to  prevent  the  introduction 
of  diseased  cattle  into  the  State  provides 
that  no  Texas,  Mexican,  or  Indian  cattle 
shall  be  driven  or  otherwise  conveyed  into 
any  county  in  the  State  between  the  first 
day  of  March  and  the  first  day  of  Decem- 
ber in  each  year,  but  this  does  not  apply 
to  any  cattle  which  have  been  kept  the 
entire  previous  winter  in  the  State.  Cattle 
may  be  carried  through  the  State  by  rail- 
road or  steamboat,  provided  they  are  not 
unloaded,  but  the  railroad  company  or 
owners  of  the  steamboat  are  responsible 
for  all  damages  which  may  result  from  the 
Spanish  or  Texas  fever,  should  the  same 
occur  along  the  line  of  transportation; 
and  the  existence  of  such  disease  along 
the  route  shall  be  prima  facie  evidence 
that  the  disease  has  been  communicated 
by  such  transportation.  For  every  head 
of  cattle  brought  into  the  State  contrary 
to  law  a  fine  ot  $20  may  be  recovered,  or 


the  party  may  be  imprisoned  in  the  county 
jail  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than 
twelve  months,  or  may  be  subjected  to- 
both  fine  and  imprisonment.  It  is  lawful 
for  any  three  or  more  householders  to* 
stop  any  cattle  which  they  may  have 
good  reason  to  believe  are  passing 
through  any  county  in  violation  of  the 
act. 

Illinois. — In  Illinois  the  owner  of 
animals  breaking  through  a  legal  fence  is 
liable  to  full  damages  for  the  first  trespass, 
and  to  double  damages  for  any  subse- 
quent trespass.  Where  the  fence  is  insuf- 
ficient, and  the  landowner  injures  or  des- 
troys animals,  he  is  answerable  in  dam- 
ages. Stallions  over  one  year  old  are  not 
permitted  to  run  at  large ;  but  if  so  found 
may  be  gelded,  if  the  owner  does  not  re- 
claim them,  one  day  for  every  fifteen^ 
miles'  distance  of  the  animal  from  home 
being  allowed,  after  notice.  Diseased 
horses,  mules,  and  asses  must  be  kept 
within  the  owner's  inclosure,  under  pen- 
alty of  $20  damages.  Estray  hogs  must 
be  sold  between  Nov.  1  and  March  1. 
To  convey  any  Texas  or  Cherokee  cattle 
into  the  State  between  the  first  day  of 
October  and  the  first  day  of  March  ren- 
ders the  party  so  doing  liable  to  a  fine 
not  exceeding  $2,000  nor  less  than  $500,, 
and  imprisonment  at  the  discretion  of  the 
court.  Any  and  all  fines  are  paid  into  the 
county  treasury,  subject  to  the  order  of 
the  board  of  supervisors  or  county  court, 
for  the  purpose  of  being  divided  pro  rata 
among  persons  who  may  have  suffered 
damage  or  loss  on  account  of  any  such 
Texas  or  Cherokee  cattle.  All  persons  or 
corporations  are  liable  to  injured  parties 
for  any  damage  arising  from  the  introduc- 
tion, by  any  of  them,  of  any  diseased  cat- 
tle. It  is  made  the  duty  of  any  circuit 
or  county  judge,  or  justice  of  the  peace, 
.upon  oath  of  any  householder,  setting 
forth  that  Texas  or  Cherokee  cattle  are 
spreading  disease  among  the  native  cattle, 
to  forthwith  issue  a  warrant  to  any  sheriff 
or  constable  of  the  county,  commanding 
him  to  arrest  and  impound  such  cattle, 
and  keep  them  by  themselves  until  the 
first  day  of  October  following.  "Texas 
and  Cherokee  cattle"  are  defined  to  mean 
a  class  or  kind  of  cattle,  without  reference 
to  the  place  from  which  they  may  have 
come. 

Indiana. — In  Indiana  the  laws  regu- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      48* 


lating  the  running  at  large  of  cattle  and 
other  stock  are  local  in  their  application, 
county  boards  designating  what  animals 
may  or  may  not  run  at  large.  However 
when  any  animal  is  found  at  large  con- 
trary to  the  local  law,  and  has  been  taken 
up,  the  owner  may  reclaim  it  within  ten 
days,  after  which  time  the  animal  may  be 
sold. 

Ohio. — It  is  unlawful  in  the  State  of 
Ohio  for  any  one  to  sell,  barter,  or  dis- 
pose of,  or  permit  to  run  at  large,  any 
horse,  cattle,  sheep,  or  other  domestic 
animal,  knowing  them  to  be  infected  with 
contagious  or  infectious  disease,  or  to 
have  been  recently  exposed  thereto,  un- 
less he  first  duly  informs  the  party  to 
whom  he  may  sell  as  to  the  facts.  The 
fine  for  so  doing  is  not  less  than  $20  nor 
more  than  $200,  with  costs,  or  confine- 
ment in  the  county  jail  not  more  than 
thirty  days.  For  allowing  infected  ani- 
mals to  come  in  contact  with  animals 
belonging  to  another,  a  fine  is  provided 
of  not  less  than  $50  nor  more  than  $500, 
with  costs  of  prosecution,  or  confinement 
in  the  county  jail  not  less  than  ten  nor 
more  than  fifty  days.  If  any  horse,  mule, 
ass,  or  any  neat  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  or 
goats,  running  at  large,  break  into  or 
enter  any  inclosure  other  than  inclosures 
of  railroads,  the  owner  is  liable  for  all 
damages,  and  an  amimal  so  breaking  into 
or  entering  an  inclosure  is  not  exempted 
from  execution  issued  on  any  judgment 
or  decree  rendered  by  any  court.  For 
allowing  any  such  animal  to  run  at  large 
in  any  public  highway  or  upon  any 
uninclosed  land,  or  for  herding  any  of 
them  for  the  purpose  of  grazing  on 
premises  other  than  those  owned  or 
occupied  by  the  owner  or  keeper  of  the 
animals,  the  party  offending  is  liable,  for 
every  violation,  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than 
$1  nor  more  than  $5.  But  a  general 
permission  may  be  granted  by  the  com- 
missioners of  any  county  for  certain 
animals  to  run  at  large,  and  in  any  coun- 
ties where  there  is  no  such  general  per- 
mission, township  trustees  may  grant 
special  permits,  such  general  and  special 
permits  terminating  on  the  first  Monday 
of  March  of  each  year ;  and  special  per- 
mits are  revokable  at  the  discretion  of 
the  trustees,  upon  three  days'  notice 
in  writing  to  the  owner  of  the  animals. 
Special  permits  must  be   directed  to  in- 

31 


dividuals,  and  for  particular  animals 
described  therein.  The  owner  of  tres- 
passing animals  is  liable  for  all  damages 
upon  premises  of  another  without  refer- 
ence to  the  fence  which  may  inclose  the 
premises.  Any  person  may  take  up  and 
confine  an  animal  found  at  large  contrary 
to  law,  and  the  owner  may  reclaim  the 
same  within  ten  days.  The  fees  are  as 
follows :  For  taking  up  and  advertising 
each  horse  or  mule,  $1;  neat  cattle,  75; 
cents  each;  swine,  50  cents  each;  sheep- 
or  geese,  25  cents  each;  and  reasonable 
pay  for  keeping  the  same.  It  is  unlawful 
for  the  owner  or  keepers  of  any  animals 
knowingly  to  permit  them  to  enter  the 
enclosure  of  any  railroad,  or,  having 
entered,  to  remain  therein;  or  to  lead  or 
drive  any  such  animals  within  the  in- 
closure, or  along  or  upon  the  track  of 
any  railroad,  at  any  other  place  than  the 
regular  street  or  road  crossing,  farm 
crossing,  or  way. 

Michigan. — In  Michigan  it  is  not  law- 
ful for  any  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  or  swine 
to  run  at  large  on  the  highways,  except 
in  those  counties  or  parts  of  counties 
where  it  shall  be  otherwise  determined 
by  the  board  of  supervisors  in  such 
county.  Where  the  law  is  in  force,  any 
person  may  seize  and  hold  in  his  posses- 
sion  any  animal  lound  running  at  large, 
and  give  notice  to  a  justice  of  the  peace 
or  a  commissioner  of  highways,  who  is 
required  to  post  up  notices  describing 
the  animal.  The  animal  must  be  sold  at 
public  outcry  in  not  less  than  thirty  days 
nor  more  than  sixty  days  after  date  of 
notice;  but  the  owner  may  redeem  the 
animal  by  paying  costs  and  compensa- 
tion for  keeping — redemption  to  be  made 
within  one  year.  Any  animal  found  tres- 
passing by  the  willful  act  of  another,, 
may  be  taken  by  the  owner  on  demand,, 
after  paying  resonable  compensation,  but 
the  person  committing  the  act  is  liable  to> 
a  fine  of  $20.  Any  person  taking  up  a. 
beast  going  at  large  contrary  to  law,  or 
contrary  to  any  by-law  of  a  township,  is 
entitled  to  fifty  cents  per  head  for  all 
horses,  mules,  asses,  and  neat  cattle,  and 
10  cents  per  head  for  all  sheep,  goats  and 
swine.  When  any  person  is  injured  in 
his  land  by  animals,  he  may  recover  dam- 
ages in  action  for  trespass  against  the 
owner  of  the  beasts,  or  by  distraining  the 
beasts  doing  damage,  unless  the  animal*-. 


482 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


shall  have  been  lawfully  on  adjoining  lands, 
and  shall  have  escaped  therefrom  in  con- 
sequence of  the  neglect  of  the  person 
who  has  suffered  the  damage,  to  main- 
tain his  part  of  the  divison  fence. 

Wisconsin. — The  laws  of  Wisconsin 
permit  towns  to  make  regulations  con- 
cerning the  running  of  animals  at  large. 
The  owner  or  occupant  of  lands  may  dis- 
train all  beasts  doing  damage  within  his 
inclosure,  and  when  any  distress  shall  be 
made  the  person  distraining  is  required 
to  keep  such  beast  in  some  place  or  other 
than  in  the  public  pound  until  his  dam- 
ages are  appraised;  and  within  twenty- 
four  hours  he  shall  apply  to  a  justice  of 
the  peace,  who  shall  appoint  three  dis- 
interested free-holders  to  appraise  the 
damages  sustained.  If  within  twenty- 
four  hours  after  the  appraisement  the 
damages  are  not  paid,  the  animals  may 
b>e  placed  in  the  public  pound,  to  be 
there  maintained  until  the  amount  of  dam- 
ages and  costs  is  recovered  by  due  pro- 
cess of  law.  If  the  owner  of  any  sheep 
infected  with  contagious  disease  permits 
any  of  them  to  go  at  large  out  of  his  own 
inclosure  at  and  season  of  the  year,  he 
shall  forfeit  the  sum  of  $5  for  each  and 
every  such  sheep,  to  the  person  who  may 
enter  complaint,  for  each  time  they  are 
so  found  running  at  large.  If  the  owner 
neglect  to  restrain  such  sheep,  any  per- 
son is  authorized  to  take  them  up  and 
put  them  in  some  safe  place  other  than 
the  public  pound.  Rams  are  not  per- 
mitted to  go  at  large  between  July  15  and 
December  1,  and  the  owner  forfeits  $10 
to  the  person  taking  up  the  animal  for 
■  each  time  so  found  abroad. 

Minnesota. — The  electors  of  each  town 
in  the  State  of  Minnesota  have  power 
.at  their  annual  meetings  to  determine  the 
number  of  pound  masters,  and  the  loca- 
tion of  pounds,  and  regulations  for  im- 
pounding animals,  and  to  fix  the  time 
and  manner  in  which  cattle,  mules,  asses, 
and  sheep  may  be  permitted  to  go  at 
large,  provided  that  no  cattle,  horses, 
mules,  nor  asses  be  allowed  to  go  at 
large  between  the  15th  of  October  and 
the  1  st  of  April.  The  owner  or  occupant 
of  lands  may  distrain  all  beasts  doing 
damage  upon  his  lands  during  the  night- 
time, from  8  o'clock  in  the  evening  until 
:sunrise ;  and  when  any  distress  is  made 
the  distrainer  shall  keep  such  beasts  in 


some  secure  place  other  than  the  public 
pound,  until  his  damages  are  appraised, 
unless  the  same  is  made  on  Sunday,  in 
which  case,  before  the  next  Tuesday 
morning  thereafter  he  shall  apply  to  a 
justice  of  the  peace  of  the  town,  who 
shall  appoint  three  disinterested  persons 
to  appraise  damages.  No  damage  can 
be  recovered  by  the  owner  of  any  lands 
for  damage  committed  by  any  beasts  dur- 
ing the  daytime,  until  it  is  first  proved 
that  the  lands  were  inclosed  by  a  lawful 
fence.  Distress  may  be  made  at  any 
time  before  the  beasts  doing  damage 
escape  from  the  lands,  and  without  re- 
gard to  the  sufficiency  of  fences.  The 
owner  of  any  horse  or  other  animal,  hav- 
ing the  disease  known  as  the  glanders, 
who  knowingly  permits  such  animal  to 
run  at  large,  or  be  driven  upon  any  of 
the  highways  of  the  State,  or  any  hotel 
keeper,  or  keeper  of  any  public  barn,  who 
permits  any  animal  having  such  disease 
to  be  stabled,  such  person  shall  be  deem- 
ed guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon 
conviction  before  any  justice  of  the  peace, 
shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  more 
than  $100  nor  less  than  $25. 

Iowa. — In  Iowa  no  stallion,  jack,  bull, 
boar,  or  buck  is  permitted  to  run  at  large. 
Persons  aggrieved  are  allowed  to  distrain 
any  such  animals,  and  compel  the  owner 
to  pay  damages.  If  the  animal  is  not  re- 
deemed within  seven  days,  seven  days' 
notice  of  its  sale  at  public  auction  must 
be  given,  the  proceeds  to  apply  on  dam- 
ages after  deducting  costs.  If  any  do- 
mestic animal,  lawfully  on  adjoining  land, 
escapes  therefrom  in  consequence  of  the 
neglect  of  the  person  suffering  damage  to 
maintain  his  part  of  the  division  fence, 
the  owner  of  the  animal  is  not  liable  for 
any  damages.  If  beasts  are  not  lawfully 
upon  the  adjoining  land,  and  came  upon 
it,  or  of  they  escaped  therefrom  into  the 
injured  inclosure,  in  consequence  of  the 
neglect  of  the  adjoining  owner  to  main- 
tain a  partition  fence  or  any  part  of  one, 
which  it  was  his  duty  to  maintain,  then 
the  owner  of  the  adjoining  land  shall  be 
liable  as  well  as  the  owner  of  beasts. 
Fence-viewers  appraise  all  damages.  An 
act  of  April  8,  1868,  forbids  anyone  to 
bring  into  the  State,  or  to  have  in  posses- 
sion, any  Texas,  Cherokee,  or  Indian 
cattle.  Transportation  on  railroads  through 
the    State    is    not    forbidden,    nor    the 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       4S3 


driving  through  any  part  of  the'  State  of 
such  Texas  or  southern  cattle  as  have 
been  wintered  at  least  one  winter  north 
■of  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State  of 
Missouri  or  Kansas.  The  penalty  of  vi- 
olation is  a  fine  not  exceeding  $5,000,  or 
imprisonment  in  county  jail  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  court,  not  to  exceed  six 
months,  together  with  all  damages  that 
may  accrue  by  reason  of  such  violation  of 
the  law.  Any  one  driving  or  importing 
•diseased  sheep  into  the  State,  knowing 
the  disease  to  be  contagious,  is  deemed 
guilty  of  misdemeanor,  and  is  punishable 
by  fine  of  not  less  than  $50  nor  more 
than  $100.  The  same  fine  is  imposed 
upon  any  person  who  may  turn  out  of  his 
inclosure,  or  sell  sheep,  knowing  them  to 
be  diseased. 

Kansas. — In  Kansas  when  a  majority 
of  the  electors' in  any  township  petition 
•county  commissioners  for  orders  to  con- 
fine animals  during  the  night  time,  such 
orders  shall  be  made  and  notice  thereof 
.given.  The  owner  is  liable  for  depreda- 
tions of  animals  during  the  continuance 
•of  such  orders,  without  regard  to  con- 
dition of  fences.  Persons  damaged  in 
their  property  have  a  lien  upon  the  stock. 
If  any  stallion  or  jack  over  the  age  of 
two  years  is  found  at  large,  the  owner,  if 
known,  must  be  notified  of  the  fact,  and 
if  he  fails  or  refuses  to  confine  the  animal 
he  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  $5  for  the  first 
■offense,  and  $10  for  each  subsequent 
offense,  and  all  damages.  Stallions  and 
jacks,  not  used  for  breeding  purposes, 
may  be  castrated  by  the  person  taking 
them  up,  if  the  owner  fails,  after  three 
days'  notice,  to  reclaim  the  same,  and 
pay  damages,  or  such  animals  may  be 
killed  after  six  days'  notice.  Any  bull, 
boar,  or  stag  found  running  at  large  may 
be  taken  up  at  any  time  or  place.  Electors 
of  townships  may  decide  whether  swine 
may  run  at  large  or  not,  at  least  ten 
voters  having  petitioned  for  the  submis- 
sion of  the  question.  No  horse,  mule,  or 
ass  diseased  with  glanders  is  allowed  to 
be  at  large,  under  a  penalty  of  not  less 
than  $5  nor  more  than  $100.  Knowing- 
ly to  import  or  drive  into  the  State  sheep 
affected  with  contagious  disease  is  a  mis- 
demeanor, with  a  fine  not  to  exceed 
$200.  The  same  penalty  is  provided  for 
any  owner  allowing  such  sheep  to  run  at 
large,    together    with    responsibility   for 


damages  to  other  owners.  Rams  must 
be  restrained  between  June  15  and  De- 
cember 15,  under  penalty  of  $5  for  each 
day  allowed  at  large.  In  February,  1867, 
a  sanitary  measure  was  passed  for  the 
protection  of  cattle  from  the  ravages  of 
the  Spanish  fever.  Stock  from  Texas 
and  the  Indian  Territory  brought  into  the 
State  between  the  first  day  of  March  and 
the  first  day  of  December  in  any  year, 
are  not  to  be  driven  through  the  State 
except  in  the  remoter  parts  of  the  plains, 
and  then  not  within  five  miles  of  any 
highway  or  "ranche,"  except  by  the  con- 
sent of  the  owner  of  the  latter.  Violation 
of  the  law  is  treated  as  a  misdemeanor, 
and  the  first  offense  is  punishable  by  fine 
of  $100  to  1,000,  and  imprisonment  from 
thirty  days  to  six  months ;  for  subsequent 
offenses  the  penalties  are  doubled. 

Nebraska. — In  Nebraska  cattle  and 
other  stock  are  restrained  in  particular 
counties.  The  legislation  concerning  cat- 
tle, etc.,  is  also  of  a  local  character  in  the 
State  of  California. 

Oregon. — The  laws  of  Oregon  inter 
diet  the  running  at  large  of  any  stallion, 
jack,  or  mule,  over  eighteen  months  old, 
within  the  months  of  April,  May,  June, 
July,  September  and  October.  If  not 
kept  for  breeding  purposes,  the  animal 
may  be  gelded.  If  kept  for  breeding 
purposes,  the  distrainer  may  return  him 
to  the  owner,  and  recover  $2.  The 
owner  of  such  an  animal  is  liable  for  dam- 
ages. Animals  affected  with  contagious 
diseases  must  not  be  brought  into  the 
State  under  a  penalty  of  not  less  than  $50 
nor  more  than  $500  for  the  introduction 
of  each  animal  so  diseased. 

PUBLIC  LANDS,  Manner  of  Acquiring 
Title  to. — The  following  directions  for 
acquiring  title  to  the  public  lands  are 
communicated  by  the  Commissioner  of 
the  General  Land  Office : 

There  are  two  classes  of  public  lands ; 
the  one  class  at  $1  25  per  acre,  which  is 
designated  as  minimum,  and  the  other  at 
$2  50  per  acre,  or  double  minimum. 

Title  may  be  acquired  by  purchase,  at 
public  sale,  or  by  ordinary  "  private 
entry,"  and  by  virtue  of  the  pre-emp- 
tion and  homestead  laws. 

i.  At  public  sale,  where  lands  are 
"  offered  "  at  public  auction  to  the  highest 
bidder,  either  pursuant  to  proclamation  by 
the  President  or  public  notice  given  in 


484 


LAW—EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


accordance  with  directions  from  the  Gen- 
eral Land  Office. 

2.  By  private  entry  or  location.  The 
lands  of  this  class  liable  to  disposal  are 
those  which  have  been  offered  at  public 
sale,  and  thereafter  remain  unsold,  and 
which  have  not  been  subsequently  re- 
served, or  otherwise  withdrawn  from 
market.  In  this  class  of  offered  and  un- 
reserved public  lands  the  following  steps 
may  be  taken  to  acquire  title : 

Cash  Purchases. — The  applicant  must 
present  a  written  application  to  the  regis- 
ter for  the  district  in  which  the  land  de- 
sired is  situated,  describing  the  tract  he 
wishes  to  purchase,  giving  its  area. 
Thereupon  the  register,  if  the  tract  is 
vacant,  will  so  certify  to  the  receiver, 
stating  the  price ;  and  the  applicant  must 
then  pay  the  amount  of  the  purchase 
money.  The  receiver  will  then  issue  to 
the  purchaser  a  duplicate  receipt,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  month  the  register  and 
receiver  will  make  returns  of  the  sale  to 
the  General  Land  Office,  from  whence, 
when  the  proceedings  are  found  regular, 
a  patent,  or  complete  title  will  be  issued ; 
and  on  surrender  of  the  duplicate  receipt 
such  patent  will  be  delivered,  at  the  op- 
tion of  the  patentee,  either  by  the  Com- 
missioner at  Washington,  or  by  the  regis- 
ter at  the  district  land  office. 

Warrants,  Location  with. — Application 
must  be  made  as  in  cash  cases,  but  must 
be  accompanied  by  a  warrant  duly  assign- 
ed as  the  consideration  for  the  land;  yet 
where  the  tract  is  $2  50  per  acre,  the 
party,  in  addition  to  the  surrendered  war- 
rant, must  pay  in  cash  $1  25  per  acre,  as 
the  warrant  is  in  satisfaction  of  only  so 
many  acres  at  $1  25  per  acre  as  are  con- 
tained in  the  tract  located.  A  duplicate 
certificate  of  location  will  then  be  furnish- 
ed the  party,  to  be  held  until  the  patent 
is  delivered,  as  in  cases  of  cash  sales. 

Agricultural  College  Scrip. — This  scrip 
is  applicable  to  lands  not  mineral,  which 
may  be  subject  to  private  entry  at  $1  25 
per  acre,  yet  is  restricted  to  a  technical 
"  quarter  section ; "  that  is,  lands  em- 
braced by  the  quarter  section  lines  indi- 
cated on  the  official  plats  of  survey,  or  it 
may  be  located  on  a  part  of  a  "  quarter 
section,"  where  such  part  is  taken  as  in 
full  for  a  quarter ;  but  it  cannot  be  ap- 
plied to  different  subdivisions  to  make  an 
area  equivalent  to  a  quarter  section.  The 


manner  of  proceeding  to  acquire  title  with 
this  class  of  paper  is  the  same  as  in  cash 
and  warrant  cases,  the  fees  to  be  paid 
being  the  same  as  on  warrants.  The  lo- 
cation of  this  scrip  is  restricted  to  three 
sections  in  each  township  of  land. 

Pre-emptions. — These  may  be  made 
under  the  general  pre-emption  laws,  upon 
"  offered"  and  "  unoffered"  land ;  and  in 
certain  States  and  Territories  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  including  that  part  of  Minne- 
sota east  of  the  river,  may  have  legal  in- 
ception by  actual  settlement  upon  unsur- 
veyed  land,  although  in  such  cases  no  de- 
finitive proceedings  can  be  had  as  to  the 
completion  of  title  until  after  the  surveys: 
are  officially  returned  to  the  district 
land  office. 

The  act  of  March  3,  1853,  extends  the 
pre-emption  from  one  quarter,  or  one 
hundred  and  sixty  acres,  at  $2  50  per 
acre,  to  every  "  alternate "  United  States 
or  reserved  section  along  the  line  of  rail- 
roads. 

The  act  of  March  27,  1854,  protects, 
the  right  of  settlers  on  sections  along  the 
line  of  railroads  where  settlement  existed 
prior  to  withdrawal,  and  in  such  cases, 
allows  the  tract  to  be  taken  by  pre-emp- 
tion at  $1  25  per  acre. 

Where  the  tract  is  "offered"  the  party 
must  file  with  the  district  land  office  his. 
declaratory  statement  as  to  the  fact  of  his 
settlement  within  thirty  days  from  the 
date  of  said  settlement,  and  within  one 
year  from  that  date  must  appear  before 
the  register  and  receiver  and  make  proof 
of  his  actual  residence  on  and  cultivation 
of  the  tract,  and  secure  the  same  by  pay- 
ing cash,  or  by  filing  warrant  duly  assigned 
to  the  pre-emptor. 

Where  the  tract  has  been  surveyed  and 
not  offered  at  public  sale,  the  claimant 
must  file  within  three  months  from  date 
of  settlement,  and  make  proof  and  pay- 
ment before  the  day  designated  in  the 
President's  proclamation  for  offering  the 
lands  at  public  sale.  Should  the  settler 
in  either  of  the  aforesaid  cases  die  before 
establishing  his  claim  within  the  period 
limited  by  law,  the  title  may  be  perfected 
by  the  executor,  administrator,  or  one  of 
the  heirs,  by  making  the  requisite  proof 
of  settlement  and  paying  for  the  land; 
the  entry  to  be  made  in  the  name  of  "  the 
heirs"  of  the  deceased  settler,  and  the 
patent  will  be  issued  accordingly.. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      485 


In  those  States  and  Territories  in  which 
settlements  are  authorized  by  law  on  un- 
survcyed  land,  the  claimant  must  file  notice 
of  settlement  within  three  months  after  the 
receipt  of  the  township  plat  of  survey  at 
the  district  land  office,  and  make  proof 
and  payment  as  required  in  the  case  of 
tracts  which  have  been  surveyed  and  not 
offered  at  public  sale. 

Homestead  Lands. — The  original  Home- 
stead act  of  May  20,  1862,  gives  to  every 
citizen,  and  to  those  who  have  declared 
their  intention  to  become  such,  the  right 
to  a  homestead  on  surveyed  lands.  This 
is  conceded  to  the  extent  of  one  quarter 
section,  or  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres, 
held  at  $1  25  per  acre,  or  eighty  acres  at 
$2  50  per  acre,  in  any  organized  district 
embracing  surveyed  public  lands.  To 
obtain  homesteads  the  party  must,  in  con- 
nection with  his  application,  make  an  affi- 
davit before  the  register  or  receiver  that 
he  is  over  the  age  of  twenty-one,  or  the 
head  of  a  family ;  that  he  is  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  or  has  declared  his  in- 
tention to  become  such,  and  that  the  entry 
is  made  for  his  exclusive  use  and  bene- 
fit, and  for  actual  settlement  and  cultiva- 
tion. Where  the  applicant  is  prevented 
by  reason  of  bodily  infirmity,  distance,  or 
other  good  cause,  from  personal  attend- 
.ance  at  the  district  land  office,  the  affi- 
davit may  be  made  before  the  clerk  of 
the  court  for  the  county  within  which  the 
party  is  an  actual  resident. 

The  Amendatory  Act  of  March,  1864, 
xelaxes  the  requirements  of  personal  at- 
tendance at  the  district  office  to  persons 
in  the  military  or  naval  service,  where  the 
party's  family  or  some  member  is  residing 
on  the  land  that  it  is  desired  to  enter,  and 
upon  which  a  bona  fide  improvement  and 
cultivation  has  been  made.  In  such  cases 
the  said  act  of  1864  allows  the  beneficiary 
to  make  the  affidavit  before  the  officer 
commanding  in  the  branch  of  the  service 
in  which  he  may  be  engaged,  and  the 
same  may  be  filed  by  the  wife  or  other 
representative  of  the  absentee  with  the 
register,  together  with  the  homestead  ap- 
plication. His  claim  in  that  case  will 
become  effective  from  the  date  of  filing, 
provided  the  required  fee  and  commis- 
sions accompany  the  same;  but  imme- 
<Iiately  upon  his  discharge  he  must  enter 
upon  the  land  and  make  it  his  bona  fide 


home,  as  required  by  the  original  act  of 
May  20,  1862. 

Upon  faithful  observance  of  the  law  in 
regard  to  settlement  and  cultivation  for 
the  continuous  term  of  five  years,  and  at 
the  expiration  of  that  time,  or  within  two 
years  thereafter,  upon  proper  proof  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  land  officers,  and 
the  payment  to  the  receiver,  the  register 
will  issue  his  certificate  and  make  proper 
return  to  the  General  Land  Office  as  the 
basis  of  a  patent  or  complete  title  for  the 
homestead.  In  making  final  proof  it  is 
indispensable,  under  the  statute,  that  the 
homestead  party  shall  appear  in  person 
at  the  district  land  office,  and  there  make 
the  affidavit  required  of  him  by  law  in 
support  of  his  claim.  Where,  from 
physical  disability,  distance,  or  other  good 
cause,  the  witnesses  of  said  party  cannot 
attend  in  person  at  the  district  land  office, 
their  testimony  in  support  of  the  claim 
may  be  taken  where  they  reside  before  an 
officer  authorized  by  law  to  administer 
oaths.  Their  testimony  must  state  satis- 
factorily the  reason  of  inability  to  attend 
the  district  office;  and  the  credibility  and 
responsibility  of  witnesses  must  be  certi- 
fied by  the  officiating  magistrate,  whose 
official  character  must  be  certified  under 
seal.  Where  a  homestead  settler  dies 
before  the  consummation  of  his  claim,  the 
heirs  may  continue  the  settlement  and 
cultivation,  and  obtain  a  title  upon 
requisite  proof  at  the  proper  time.  Where 
both  parents  die,  leaving  infant  heirs,  the 
homestead  may  be  sold  for  cash  for  the 
benefit  of  such  heirs,  and  the  purchaser 
will  receive  title  from  the  United  States. 

The  sale  of  a  homestead  claim  by  the 
settler  to  another  party  before  com- 
pletion of  title  is  not  recognized  by  the 
General  Land  Office,  and  not  only  vests 
no  title  or  equities  in  the  purchaser,  but 
is  prima  facie  evidence  of  abandonment, 
and  gives  cause  for  the  cancellation  of 
the  claim.  To  the  government  only  may 
a  claim  be  relinquished ;  and  in  such  case 
the  duplicate  receipt  of  the  settler  should 
be  surrendered  with  the  relinquishment 
indorsed  thereon;  or  if  the  duplicate 
has  been  lost,  that  fact  should  be  stated 
in  the  relinquishment,  duly  signed  and 
acknowledged. 

When  application  is  made  for  cancel- 
lation of  a  homestead  entry  on  the 
ground  of  abandonment,  the  party  must 


486 


LAW— EVERY  MAN  HIS  OWN  LAWYER. 


file  his  affidavit  with  the  local  land  officers, 
setting  forth  the  facts  upon  which  his 
allegations  are  founded,  describing  the 
tracts  and  giving  the  name  of  the  settler. 
Upon  this  the  officers  will  set  apart  a  day 
for  hearing,  giving  all  the  parties  in  in- 
terest due  notice  of  the  time  and  place  of 
trial. 

The  expenses  incident  to  such  con- 
test must  be  defrayed  by  the  contestant, 
and  no  entry  of  the  land  can  be  made 
until  the  local  officers  have  received 
notice  from  the  General  Land  Office  of 
the  cancellation  of  the  entry  covering 
the  same.  As  the  law  allows  but  one 
homestead  privilege,  a  settler  relinquish- 
ing or-  abandoning  his  claim,  cannot 
thereafter  make  a  second  entry.  Where 
an  individual  has  made  settlement  on  a 
surveyed  tract  and  filed  his  pre-emption 
declaration  therefor,  he  may  change  his 
filing  into  a  homestead,  yet  such  a  change 
is  inadmissible  where  an  adverse  right 
has  intervened,  but  in  such  cases  the 
settler  has  the  privilege  of  perfecting  his 
title  under  the  pre-emption  laws.  If  the 
homestead  settler  does  not  wish  to 
remain  five  years  on  his  tract,  the  law 
permits  him  to  pay  for  it  with  cash  war- 
rants, upon  making  proof  of  settlement 
and  cultivation  from  the  date  of  entry  to 
time  of  payment.  There  is  another  class 
of  homesteads,  designated  as  "adjoining 
farm  homesteads."  In  these  cases  the 
law  allows  an  applicant,  owning  and 
residing  on  an  original  farm,  to  enter 
other  land  lying  contiguous  thereto, 
which  shall  not,  with  such  farm,  exceed 
in  the  agregate  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres.  Thus,  for  example,  a  party  own- 
ing or  occupying  eighty  acres  may  enter 
eighty  additional  graded  at  $x  25,  or 
forty  acres  at  $2  50.  Or  suppose  the 
applicant  to  own  forty  acres,  then  he  may 
enter  one  hundred  and  twenty  acres 
graded  at  $1  25,  or  forty  at  $1  25  and 
forty  at  $2  50,  if  both  classes  of  land 
should  be  found  contiguous  to  his  original 
farm.  In  entries  of  "  adjoining  farms " 
the  settler  must  describe,  in  his  affidavit, 
the  tract  he  owns  and  is  settled  upon  as  his 
original  farm.  Actual  residence  on  the 
tract  entered  as  an  adjoining  farm  is  not 
required,  but  bona  fide  improvement  and 
cultivation  of  it  must  be  shown  for  the 
period  required  by  the  statute. 

Lands  obtained  under  the  homestead 


laws  are  exempted  from  liability  for  debts 
contracted  prior  to  the  issuing  of  patents. 
therefor. 

Pre-emptors,  in  all  organized  districts 
where  surveys  have  been  made,  can  pay 
for  their  tracts  either  in  cash  or  with 
warrants,  except  as  to  double  minimum 
or  $2  50  lands,  within  the  lateral  limits  of 
railroad  grants,  it  being  required  for  the 
double  minimum  tracts  that  the  warrant 
shall  be  taken  as  half  the  consideration, 
and  the  residue  be  paid  in  money. 

Homestead  Entry  Fees. — For  home- 
stead entries  on  surveyed  lands  in 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Minnesota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Dakota, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkan- 
sas, and  Florida,  the  total  commisions 
and  fees  to  be  paid  on  minimum  lands 
are  as  follows  :  On  160  acres,  $18;  on 
80  acres,  $9;  on  40  acres,  $7;  on  double 
minimum  lands,  80  acres,  $18;  40  acres, 
$9.  On  surveyed  lands  in  California, 
Nevada,  Oregon,  Colorado,  New  Mexico, 
Washington,  Arizona,  Idaho,  and  Monta- 
na, the  commissions  and  fees  are  as 
follows:  On  minimum  lands,  160  acres, 
$22;  80  acres  $11;  40  acres,  $8;  on 
double  minimum  lands,  80  acres,  $22  ;  40 
acres,  $11.  By  the  act  of  the  21st  June, 
1866,  the  public  lands  of  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Florida, 
are  subject  to  disposal  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  homstead  laws  only. 

SOLDIERS'  and  SAILORS'  HOME- 
STEADS.— Any  loyal  person  in  the  naval 
or  military  service  of  the  United  States 
may  acquire  a  homestead  by  reason  of 
his  family  occupying  land  and  making 
the  application  in  his  stead.  All  officers, 
soldiers,  and  sailors  who  have  served  in 
the  army  or  navy  for  ninety  days  and 
remained  loyal,  may  enter  one  hundred 
and  sixty,  instead  of  eighty  acres  of  dou- 
ble minimum  lands. 

By  act  of  Congress,  persons  taking 
government  lands  by  homestead  will  be 
allowed  to  deduct  from  the  time  required 
to  occupy  the  land,  the  term  of  service 
in  the  army  or  navy  during  the  rebellion 
— provided,  however,  that  no  patent  shall 
be  given  until  the  land  has  been  occupied 
one  year  after  his  improvements,  as  afore- 
said. 

The  following  amendment  was  passed 
by  Congress,  in  1873  : 

Whereas,  By  act  of  Congress,  entitled 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       487 


"  An  act  to  enable  honorably  discharged 
soldiers  and  sailors,  their  widows  and  or- 
phan children,  to  acquire  homesteads  on 
the  public  lands  of  the  United  States," 
approved  April  4,  1872,  and  by  the 
amendment  thereto,  approved  June  8, 
1872,  it  is  provided  that  said  soldiers  and 
sailors,  their  widows  and  orphan  children, 
shall  have  the  right  to  enter  homesteads 
of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  each,  up- 
on what  are  called  and  known  as  "  dou- 
ble minimum  "  lands,  or  lands  within  the 
limits  of  railroad  land  grants ;  and 

Whereas,  Many  soldiers  and  sailors 
had,  prior  to  the  passage  of  said  act  and 
the  amendments  thereto,  entered  home- 
steads within  said  limits,  not  exceeding 
eighty  acres  each,  and  are  unable,  under 
the  terms  of  said  act  and  amendment, 
and  the  rulings  of  the  General  Land 
Office,  to  avail  themselves  of  the  general 
advantages  of  entering  one  hundred  and 
sixty  acres  of  said  "double  minimum" 
land;  and 

Whereas,  Such  discrimination  against 
the  pioneer  soldiers  and  sailors  is  unjust ; 
therefore, 

Be  it  Enacted,  etc.,  That  section  two  of 
the  act  entitled  "  An  act  to  amend  an  act 
relating  to  soldiers'  and  sailors'  home- 
steads," approved  June  8,  1872,  be 
amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows :  That 
any  person  entitled  under  the  provisions 
of  the  foregoing  sections  to  enter  a  home- 
stead, who  may  have  heretofore  entered 


under  the  homestead  laws  a  quantity  of 
land  less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres,  shall  be  permitted  to  enter  so  much 
land  as  when  added  to  the  quantity  pre- 
viously entered,  shall  not  exceed  one 
hundred  and  sixty  acres. 

LAW,  Business.  —  Ignorance  of  the 
law  excuses  no  one.  It  is  a  fraud  to 
conceal  a  fraud.  The  law  compels  no 
one  to  do  impossibilities.  An  agreement 
without  consideration  is  void.  Signatures 
made  with  a  lead  pencil  are  good  in  law. 
A  receipt  for  money  paid  is  not  legally 
conclusive.  The  acts  of  one  partner 
bind  all  the  others.  Contracts  made  on 
Sunday  cannot  be  enforced.  A  contract 
made  with  a  minor  is  void.  A  contract 
made  with  a  lunatic  is  void.  Principals 
are  responsible  for  the  acts  of  their  agents. 
Agents  are  responsible  to  their  principals 
for  errors.  Each  individual  in  a  partner- 
ship is  responsible  for  the  whole  amount 
of  the  debts  of  the  firm.  A  note  given 
by  a  minor  is  void.  Notes  bear  interest 
only  when  so  stated.  It  is  legally  neces- 
sary to  say  on  a  note  "for  value  received." 
A  note  drawn  on  Sunday  is  void.  A  note 
obtained  by  fraud,  or  from  a  person  in  a. 
state  of  intoxication,  cannot  be  collected. 
If  a  note  be  lost  or  stolen,  it  does  not 
release  the  maker;  he  must  pay  it.  An 
endorser  of  a  note  is  exempt  from  liability 
if  not  served  with  notice  of  its  dishonor 
within  twenty-four  hours  of  its  non-pay- 
ment. 


Farm,  Orchard,  Dairy  and  Garden. 


APPLE  ORCHARD.  — The  following 
directions,  if  carefully  attended  to,  will 
insure  complete  success  in  growing  an 
apple  orchard. 

The  number  of  trees  or  acres  embraced 
in  our  plan  for  the  apple  orchard  is  not 
a  matter  of  so  much  importance  as  the 
particular  manner  of  preparation  of  the 
soil,  and  the  planting  and  cultivating  of 
the  trees  thereafter. 

Observation  demonstrates  clearly  the 
fact  that  there  is  not  one  first-class  apple 
■orchard  in  the  country.  The  result  is 
that  universal  disappointment  prevails 
among  those  who  have  engaged  in  grow- 
ing the  king  of  all  fruit. 

For  illustration,  our  orchard  shall  con- 
tain from  ten  to  one  hundred  acres,  as 
circumstances  shall  determine.  The  se- 
lection of  the  location  will  exert  more  or 
less  influence  on  the  successful  results 
when  profit  is  a  primary  consideration, 
therefore  we  recommend  the  highest 
ground  in  the  particular  locality,  or  the 
TDank  of  the  Missouri  or  Mississippi  rivers. 
The  immediate  border  of  any  consider- 
able lake  will  do  equally  as  well. 

The  land  must  be  broke  not  less  than 
twenty-four  inches  deep,  which  can  be 
done  with  a  plow  and  sub-soil  plow  at  a 
moderate  expense.  When  the  sub-soil  is 
not  sufficiently  porous,  the  entire  plat  for 
our  orchard  must  be  completely  under- 
drained  with  tile.  The  drains  must  be 
so  close  to  each  other  that  the  most  com- 
plete and  thorough  drainage  will  be  in- 
sured. 

We  recommend  only  the  very  best  trees, 
three  years  old,  from  the  bud  or  graft. 
Plant  thirty-five  feet  apart,  after  the  ground 
has  been  put  in  the  most  complete  culti- 
vation ;  set  the  trees  as  near  the  surface 
as  the  circumstances  will  admit.  If  neces- 
sary, stake  each  tree  to  hold  it  in  an  up- 
right position.  The  uniform  formation  of 
the  head  should  be  carefully  observed,  in 
order  to  give  symmetry  and  convenience 


to  the  orchard.  We  recommend  that  the 
lower  limbs  should  not  be  nearer  than  six 
feet  from  the  ground.  The  lower  branches 
of  the  tree  should  be  above  the  team  with 
which  we  cultivate  the  orchard. 

If  you  plant  only  the  most  sound  and 
healthy  trees,  and  the  ground  is  prepared 
as  we  have  suggested,  there  will  not  be 
one  failure  to  live. 

The  trees  must  be  washed  with  strong 
soap  suds,  soft  soap  or  weak  alkali,  from 
the  ground  to  the  limbs,  commencing  with 
the  first  of  May,  and  the  washing  to  be 
repeated  three  or  four  times,  at  intervals 
of  one  month  apart.  The  washing  and 
scrubbing  process  must  be  continued  year 
after  year,  or  as  long  as  it  exerts  a  healthy 
influence  on  the  tree.    , 

The  trees  must  be  wrapped  with  straw, 
commencing  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  up  into  the  first  limbs.  The  wrap- 
ping must  be  done  in  November,  and  the 
straw  can  be  removed  after  the  hard  frosts 
are  past  in  the  spring. 

We  now  come  to  pruning,  which  must 
be  done  sparingly — in  fact,  exercise  care 
in  pruning;  as  understood  by  many  or- 
chardists,  we  positively  prohibit  it.  Trim 
only  enough  to  admit  the  light  of  the  sun 
and  a  free  circulation  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  ground  can  be  cultivated  in  corn, 
potatoes  or  vines  for  the  first  five  years 
after  the  trees  are  planted,  without  disad- 
vantage. If  in  corn,  we  recommend,  in- 
deed insist,  that  it  shall  be  hogged  off. 
The  fertility  of  the  soil  must  be  maintained 
and  kept  up  equal  to  its  virgin  condition. 
After  the  trees  have  attained  a  size  when 
it  will  be  no  longer  profitable  to  cultivate 
in  corn,  then  red  clover  must  take  its 
place.  The  clover  will  make  pasturage 
for  hogs,  whose  presence  are  wanted  in 
the  orchard,  to  assist  in  destroying  the 
curculio  and  other  enemies  of  the  insect 
tribe  which  prey  on  the  apple  tree  and  its 
fruit. 

The   orchard   should  be   grounds  fre- 


(488) 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      489 


quented  by  all  the  poultry  that  can  be 
maintained  to  advantage  on  the  farm. 
Our  plan  contemplates  a  warfare  on  all 
the  insects  that  are  the  destroyer  of  the 
apple  tree  and  its  fruit. 

The  tree  must  be  well  mulched  every 
fall  with  tree  leaves  and  sand.  If  tree 
leaves  cannot  be  had  then  use  straw. 
The  mulching  can  be  forked  into  the 
.ground  in  the  spring.  The  sand  will  add 
much  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  keep- 
ing the  ground  in  a  pliable  condition  and 
admit  the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 
Lime  is  essential  to  the  perfect  growth 
and  development  of  the  tree.  The  fruit 
will  be  much  improved  by  the  presence 
of  lime.  The  amount  of  lime  to  be  used 
will  only  be  limited  in  proportion  to  the 
benefits  derived.  The  last  and  not  least 
in  the  list  of  our  instructions  which  we 
insist  must  be  followed  to  the  letter,  is 
the  planting  of  a  border  of  trees  on  the 
four  sides  of  the  orchard  for  a  protection 
against  the  winds  in  both  winter  and 
summer.  The  first  line  of  defense  shall 
be  a  red  cedar  hedge.  Outside  of  the 
hedge  there  must  be  a  border  of  trees 
four  rods  wide.  The  Norway  Spruce 
and  White  Pine  can  be  grown  success- 
fully, and  to  great  profit.  The  border  of 
trees  will  afford  fine  protection  both  sum- 
mer and  winter  for  numerous  insectivor- 
ous birds,  who  will  aid  in  the  destruction 
of  the  insects  referred  to.  The  ground 
must  be  prepared  as  for  the  apple  orchard, 
which  will  insure  an  immense  growth.  If 
all  our  instructions  are  followed,  we  shall 
have  apples  enough  the  fifth  year  to  pay 
expenses.  From  this  time  the  increase 
will  be  rapid.  By  the  time  our  trees  are 
planted  ten  years,  there  will  be  twenty 
bushels  to  the  tree.  Twelve  years  planted, 
and  we  will  have  thirty-five  bushels  to 
the  tree.  In  addition  to  large  crops  the 
quality  of  the  apples  will  be  superior  to 
any  grown  on  the  imperfect  management 
of  orchards  throughout  the  country.  Our 
plan  of  an  orchard  contemplates  a  con- 
siderable outlay  at  the  commencement. 
A  careful  examinatiou  will  demonstrate 
that  no  better  investment  can  be  made. 
The  plan  above  can  be  limited  to  any 
number  of  acres.  No  weeds  or  grass 
must  be  permitted  to  grow  in  the  orchard 
except  red  clover. 

APPLE  TREES,  Old,  to  Renovate.— 
Take  fresh    made  lime    from  the  kiln, 


slake  it  well  with  water  and  well-dress  the 
tree  with  a  brush,  and  the  insects  and 
moss  will  be  completely  destroyed,  the 
outer  rind  fall  off,  and  a  new,  smooth, 
clear,  healthy  one  formed,  and  the  trees 
assume  a  most  healthy  appearance  and 
produce  the  finest  fruit. 

APPLE  TEEES,  Treatment  of.— The 
limbs  of  apple  trees  are  recommended  by 
some  to  be  brushed  all  over  in  the  midst 
of  summer;  but  it  is  difficult  to  brush  the 
branches  of  trees  when  the  fruit  is  upon 
them.  Instead  of  brushing  the  trees  in 
summer,  as  soon  as  the  leaves  have  fallen 
every  tree  should  be  carefully  and  freely 
pruned ;  this  will  open  a  passage  to  the 
sun  and  air,  and  will  contribute  to  health 
in  the  future  season.  In  addition  to  this, 
says  a  correspondent  of  the  Monthly 
Magazine  for  1820,  I  should  recommend 
brushing  off  the  moss  and  cutting  out  the 
cankered  parts  at  any  season  that  it  is 
convenient,  and  I  further  recommend  the 
tree  to  be  anointed  some  feet  from  the 
ground  with  a  composition  of  sulphur  and 
goose  oil,  and,  unless  the  orchard  is 
plowed,  which  is  very  much  the  case  in 
Shropshire  and  Herefordshire,  the  soil 
should  be  opened  at  the  roots. 

APPLE  TEEES,  Blight,  to  Preserve 
from. — Washing  the  branches  with  quick- 
lime will  preserve  the  trees  from  blight 
and  insure  a  crop ;  those  which  escaped 
washing  will  suffer  from  the  blight,  whilst 
the  others  produce  a  good  crop. 

APPLE  TREES,  Disease,  to  Cure  in.— 
Brush  off  the  white  down,  clear  off  the 
red  stain  underneath  it,  and  anoint  the 
places  infected  with  a  liquid  mixture  of 
train  oil  and  Scotch  snuff. 

Another  Method. — Orchards  are  oc- 
casionally much  injured  by  an  insect 
appearing  like  a  white  efflorescence ; 
when  bruised  between  the  fingers  it 
emits  a  blood-red  fluid.  Mix  a  quantity 
of  cow-dung  with  human  urine  to  the 
consistence  of  paint,  and  let  the  infected 
trees  be  anointed  with  it  about  the  begin- 
ning of  March. 

APPLE  TREES,  Canker  in,  to  Cure 
the. — The  only  means  of  preventing  the 
canker  worm,  which  destroys  the  young 
fruit  and  endangers  the  life  of  the  tree, 
when  discovered,  and  which  in  many 
instances  has  proved  to  be  effectual,  was 
encircling  the  tree,  about  knee  high,  with 


49° 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


a  streak  of  tar,  early  in  the  spring,  and 
occasionally  adding  a  fresh  coat. 

In  Other  Trees. — Cut  off  to  the  quick, 
and  apply  a  piece  of  sound  bark  from 
any  other  tree,  and  bind  it  on  with  a 
flannel  roller.  Cut  off  the  canker,  and  a 
new  shoot  will  grow  strong,  but  in  a  year 
or  two  you  will  find  it  cankered. 

APPLE-TREE  SUCKERS.— Many  oth- 
erwise good  orchards  are  allowed  to  be- 
come defaced,  as  well  as  seriously  in- 
jured, by  allowing  a  profusion  of  suckers 
to  grow  at  the  base  of  the  trunks.  At- 
tempts are  sometimes  made  to  get  rid  of 
them  by  cutting  them  off  down  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  leaving  con- 
siderable portions  below  in  the  form  of 
short  stumps.  These  sprout  again,  and 
they  soon  become  quite  as  bad  as  ever. 
A  better  way  is  to  wait  until  they  are  in 
leaf,  at  which  time  they  are  loosened 
more  readily,  and  taking  each  separately 
in  the  hands,  place  a  thick  boot  upon  it 
near  the  tree,  and  they  are  quickly  sepa- 
rated. If  done  at  that  time  they  will  not 
be  likely  to  sprout  again. 

ARTICHOKE,  Jerusalem.  —  Boussin- 
gault  says,  in  his  "  Rural  Economy : " 
There  are  few  plants  more  hardy  and  so 
little  nice  about  soil  as  the  Jerusalem  ar- 
tichoke ;  it  succeeds  everywhere,  with  the 
single  condition  that  the  soil  be  not  wet. 
The  tubers  are  planted  exactly  as  pota- 
toes, and  nearly  at  the  same  time;  but 
this  is  a  process  that  is  performed  but 
rarely,  inasmuch  as  the  cultivation  of  the 
helianthus  is  incessant,  being  carried  on 
for  years  in  the  same  place,  and  after 
harvest,  in  spite  of  every  disposition  to 
take  up  all  the  tubers,  enough  constantly 
escape  detection  to  stock  the  land  for  the 
following  year,  so  that  the  surface  ap- 
pears literally  covered  with  the  young 
plants  on  the  return  of  spring,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  thin  them  by  hoeing.  The 
impossibility  of  taking  away  the  whole  of 
the  tubers,  and  their  power  of  resisting 
the  hardest  frosts  of  winter,  is  an  obstacle 
almost  insurmountable  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  plant,  as  one  element  of  a 
regular  rotation.  Experience  more  and 
more  confirms  the  propriety  of  setting 
aside  a  patch  of  land  for  the  growth  of 
this  productive  and  very  valuable  root. 
Of  all  the  various  plants  that  engage  the 
husbandman,  the  Jerusalem  artichoke  is 
that  which    produces  the  most  at  the 


least  expense  of  manure  and  manual  la- 
bor. He  then  directs  the  reader's  atten- 
tion to  an  example  where  the  artichoke 
had  been  produced  for  thirty- three  suc- 
cessive years  with  success,  while  they  had 
received  no  care  or  manure  for  a  long 
time.  Those  who  wish  to  try  it  must 
plant  it  as  early  as  the  condition  of  the 
soil  will  allow.  The  land  after  plowing  is 
marked  out  with  furrows  three  feet  apart, 
and  the  small  tubers  are  dropped  about 
eighteen  inches  apart,  and  covered  three 
inches  deep.  Go  over  the  field  in  a 
week  or  two  with  a  light  harrow  to  kill 
weeds,  and  cultivate  between  the  rows 
until  the  plants  get  large  enough  to  ren- 
der it  unnecessary.  It  grows  very  readily 
in  dry  soil.  Those  who  make  trial  of  it 
should  take  care  that  the  plant  does  not 
become  established  as  a  weed. 

ASPARAGUS,  Culture  of.— Sow  the 
se?d  early  in  spring,  one  inch  deep,  and 
three  or  four  inches  apart,  in  rows  one 
foot  apart.  When  two  years  old  they 
may  be  transplanted  into  permanent  beds, 
the  plants  placed  a  foot  apart  in  each  di- 
rection, and  at  least  four  inches  beneath 
the  surface. 

To  make  it  "  giant,"  be  particular  to 
select  for  the  bed  warm,  rich  soil.  Trench 
it  at  least  eighteen  inches  deep,  working 
in  six  inches  or  more  depth  of  well-rotted 
manure.  Every  fall  cover  the  bed  with 
manure,  and  in  spring  dig  it  in  lightly,. 
care  being  taken  not  to  disturb  the  roots. 

AROMATIC,  Pot  and  Sweet  Herbs, 
Culture  of. — The  generality  of  aromatic,, 
pot  and  sweet  herbs  may  be  raised  from 
seed  sown  early  in  spring.  As  only  a 
small  quantity  of  these  are  necessary  for 
family  use,  they  may  occupy  a  corner  by 
themselves.  They  thrive  best  in  a  mel- 
low, free  soil;  and  care  should  be 
exercised  to  harvest  them  at  the 
proper  time.  The  greater  part  of  the 
following  named  herbs  are  perennial,  and 
will  multiply  from  the  seed  they  drop,  or 
from  parting  from  the  roots.  The  offsets,, 
roots,  or  young  plants  thus  raised  should 
be  planted  at  suitable  distances  from  each 
other.  The  beds  should  be  kept  free 
from  weeds ;  and,  as  the  herbs  come  into 
flower,  cut  them  on  a  dry  day  and  spread 
them  in  a  shady  place  to  dry  for  use. 
The  best  method  for  preserving  them  is 
to  rub  them  through  a  sieve  when  thor- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       49* 


oughly  dry,  and  pack  them  in  tin  boxes. 
Put  them  in  a  dry  place. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most 
useful:  Angelica,  anise,  balm  (lemon), 
basil  (sweet),  burnett,  cardoon,  coriander, 
corn  salad,  comelina,  dandelion,  dill, 
French  sorel,  pennyroyal,  pot  marigold, 
rosemary,  sage,  saffron,  summer  savory. 

ANNOTTO,  Choice  of.— Annotto  should 
be  chosen  of  a  good  flame  color,  brighter 
in  the  middle  than  on  the  outside.  It 
should  feel  soft  and  smooth,  and  have  a 
good  consistence.  It  should  possess  a 
strong  smell. 

ANTS  in  GREENHOUSES,  To  Destroy. 
— Place  some  arsenic,  mixed  with  sugar 
and  water,  in  a  saucer,  which  cover  with 
a  slate,  leaving  room  for  the  insects  to 
pass  between  the  slate  and  the  saucer. 
A  stone  ought  to  be  set  on  the  slate  to 
prevent  any  other  creature  but  the  ants 
from  getting  access  to  the  poison.  Lime 
water,  poured  into  the  nests,  will  also  de- 
stroy them. 

BARLEY,  To  Cultivate.— Our  climate 
is  not  as  favorable  for  barley  as  for  oats 
and  wheat.  We  cannot  obtain  a  good 
crop  unless  the  soil  is  dry,  clean  and  rich. 
It  seldom  does  well  on  a  recently  inverted 
sod.  Its  best  place  in  the  rotation  is 
after  a  highly  manured  and  thoroughly 
cultivated  corn  crop.  The  best  crops 
are  obtained  on  a  rather  heavy  calcareous 
loam,  provided  it  has  been  thoroughly 
pulverized  during  the  preceding  summer 
and  autumn.  But  as  this  is  seldom  the 
case,  the  soils  that  usually  give  the  best 
medium  crops  are  those  of  a  lighter  and 
warmer  character — or  sandy  loams. 

Barley  should  either  be  sown  very 
early,  or  rather  late — say  the  moment  the 
ground  is  fit  to  work  in  the  spring,  or  not 
until  after  the  heavy  spring  rains  are 
over.  Much  depends  on  the  season.  If 
there  has  been  heavy  rains  soon  after  the 
barley  is  sown,  and  then  before  the 
plants  cover  the  ground,  dry  weather  sets 
in,  the  surface  of  the  soil  becomes  baked, 
and  the  crop  suffers.  An  early  sown 
crop  would  suffer  less,  because  it  would 
have  got  a  good  start  before  the  drouth 
set  in.  A  crop  sown  immediately  after 
the  spring  rains,  as  soon  as  the  land  is  in 
condition  to  work,  commences  to  grow 
rapidly  at  the  very  first,  and  often  does 
better  than  a  crop  that  is  sown  two  weeks 
earlier — but  not  as  well  as  a  crop  sown  a 


month  earlier.  If  the  soil  is  rich  and  has 
been  plowed  the  fall  previous,  sow  as. 
early  as  it  will  work  without  clogging. 

When  barley  is  grown  to  sell,  the  six- 
rowed,  or  what  is  usually  the  four-rowed 
(though  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  four- 
rowed  barley,)  is  the  most  profitable — be- 
cause it  brings  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  a 
bushel  more  than  the  two-rowed.  But 
when  barley  is  grown  to  feed  out  on  the 
farm,  the  two-rowed  is  altogether  the 
best— especially  on  strong,  rich  land.  It 
weighs  a  great  deal  more  per  bushel,  and 
if  the  soil  is  rich  enough,  it  will  yield 
more  per  acre.  It  has  another  advantage 
— that  of  being  later  than  the  four-rowed, 
which  ripens  at  the  same  time  as  wheat, 
and  we  have  wheat  and  barley  harvest  on 
us  at  once.  With  the  two-rowed,  we  can 
get  through  with  the  wheat  by  the  time 
the  barley  is  ready. 

It  is  usual  to  sow  from  two  to  two  and 
a  half  bushels  per  acre.  If  the  land  is. 
very  rich  and  it  is  sown  early  and  drilled 
in,  less  seed  is  required.  The  yield  varies 
more  than  that  of  any  other  crop,  de- 
pending somewhat  on  the  season,  but 
much  more  on  the  condition  and  previous 
culture  of  the  soil. 

BARLEY,  To  Harvest.— When  the 
straw  is  long  enough,  the  best  way  to 
harvest  barley  is  to  bind  it  up  the  same 
as  wheat.  It  requires  to  be  cut  just  at 
the  right  time.  If  cut  too  early,  the 
grain  shrivels  up,  and  if  it  is  allowed  to> 
stand  a  few  days  too  long,  it  "crinkles 
down,"  and  the  heads  drop  off  in  reaping 
and  are  lost.  We  know  of  no  better  test 
than  to  squeeze  the  grain  between  the 
thumb  and  finger,  and  if  ihere  is  the  least 
appearance  of  milk,  the  crop  should  be 
allowed  to  stand  longer.  The  real  diffi- 
culty, however,  is  in  the  uneven  ripe- 
ness of  the  crop.  Some  portions  will  be 
dead  ripe,  while  others  are  still  green, 
and  it  requires  considerable  experience 
and  a  sound  judgment  to  decide  whether 
we  shall  lose  most  by  cutting  before  it  is 
all  ripe,  or  by  letting  a  portion  of  it  get 
so  ripe  that  there  is  danger  of  the  head* 
falling  off.  Much  depends  on  the  weath- 
er. In  this,  as  in  many  other  farming 
operations,  we  must  calculate  our  chances 
— and  not  be  discouraged  if  we  sometimes 
miss  the  mark.  When  barley  is  clean 
and  the  weather  favorable,  there  is  per- 
haps no  better — certainly  no  cheaper — 


492 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


way  of  curing  it  than  to  allow  it  to  re- 
main in  the  gavels  as  thrown  from  the 
platform  of  the  reaper.  They  may  be 
turned  or  stirred  to  facilitate  the  drying, 
but  otherwise  may  remain  as  left  by  the 
reaper  until  ready  to  draw  in.  By  mov- 
ing one  or  two  swaths  to  make  room  for 
the  team,  two  men  with  barley  forks  can 
pick  up  the  gavels  oi  three  or  four  swaths 
■on  each  side  of  the  wagon,  and  place 
them  on  the  load.  In  this  way  scarcely 
any  of  the  barley  will  be  scattered  on  the 
land. 

But  if  there  are  weeds  or  grass  in  the 
barley,  or  the  weather  is  threatening,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  turn  the  gavels,  and 
towards  night  put  them  into  small  cocks, 
which  will  have  to  be  turned  or  opened 
the  next  day  and  recocked  in  the  evening 
again,  if  not  sufficiently  cured  to  draw  in. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  barley  is 
very  frequently  stained  in  the  stack  or 
the  mow,  from  being  drawn  in  too  soon, 
or  with  the  dew  on  it.  Barley  should  be 
either  thrashed  as  drawn  from  the  field, 
or  not  until  it  has  done  "  sweating "  in 
the  stack  or  mow.  If  the  former,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  watch  the  grain  in  the 
bin  and  turn  it  occasionally,  or  it  will 
heat  and  become  discolored.  The  rakings 
should  be  kept  separate,  as  the  grain  is 
frequently  stained,  and  if  mixed  with  the 
rest  may  reduce  the  price  of  the  whole 
several  cents*  per  bushel. 

BEANS,  to  Cultivate.— These  grow  best 
in  warm,  rich,  mellow  soil.  The  bush 
beans  are  planted  in  drills,  about  two 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  drills  may 
be  from  one  foot  to  eighteen  inches  apart. 
When  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches 
high,  the  earth  should  be  drawn  up  to  the 
stems,  and  just  before  they  begin  to  blos- 
som they  should  be  again  earthed  up  with 
loose,  mellow  soil.  They  require  to  be 
frequently  hoed  while  growing,  that  the 
ground  may  be  loose  and  free  from  all 
weeds. 

Pole  or  running  beans  are  planted  in 
hills,  two  or  three  feet  apart,  five  or  six 
beans  to  the  hill,  and  covered  about  a 
couple  of  inches  deep.  It  is  of  no  use  to 
plant  until  the  soil  has  become  warm. 
These  beans  need  the  support  of  a  pole 
■or  rod,  thrust  deep  enough  into  the 
ground  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the  vines, 
usually  about  eighteen  inches,  and  stand- 
ing eight  or  nine  feet  high.  Three  healthy 


plants  will  be  enough  to  grow  in  each 
hiU. 

BEANS,  LIMA. — The  principal  point 
in  the  successful  culture  of  the  Lima  bean 
is  to  get  the  seed  well  started.  The  best 
way  of  doing  this  is  to  plant  in  a  hill  of 
light  earth,  made  so  by  sifting  the  soil,  if 
it  can  be  had  in  no  other  way.  A  shovel- 
ful of  well-rotted  manure  should  go  into 
each  hill.  Then  mix  sand  and  muck,  and 
after  placing  each  seed  bean  with  the 
germ  downward  in  the  hill,  sift  the  cover- 
ing over  it  through  a  willow  sieve.  Corn- 
planting  time  is  the  right  time  to  plant 
Lima  beans.  The  after-cultivation  is  the 
same  as  for  the  common  pole  bean. 

BEAN,  CASTOR-OIL.— The  best  land 
for  the  growth  of  the  castor-oil  bean  is  a 
light,  sandy,  loam  soil,  with  a  substratum 
of  clay.  First,  break  up  the  ground  well, 
as  for  corn,  and  then  lay  off  the  rows  six 
feet  apart.  Between  every  seventh  row 
leave  an  interval  of  six  feet,  to  admit  the 
passage  of  a  horse  and  slide  when  the 
beans  are  being  gathered,  as  hereafter 
explained.  Before  planting,  put  the  seed 
in  very  warm  (not  boiling)  water,  and  let 
them  soak  all  night.  Drop  six  or  seven 
seed  in  each  hill,  the  hills  six  feet  apart 
each  way.  Thin  out  to  two  plants  after 
the  plants  have  got  too  large  for  the  cut- 
worm, which  is  sometimes  quite  destruc- 
tive. At  this  stage,  if  the  plants  are  vigor- 
ous and  healthy,  reduce  to  one  plant, 
leaving  two  only  where  the  plants  look 
delicate.  Keep  the  crop  clean,  first  with 
the  plow,  then  with  the  cultivator,  and 
now  and  then  drawing  a  little  dirt  around 
with  the  hoe.  When  the  plants  are  some 
two  feet  high  no  more  work  need  be  done, 
unless,  after  a  long  spell  of  rain,  you  may 
loosen  the  earth  with  your  cultivator. 
After  the  ripening  of  the  beans,  which 
will  be  in  July  or  August,  take  your  horse, 
and  slide  along  the  rows  left  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  with  a  pair  of  shears  clip  off  the 
pod-bearing  spikes  as  soon  as  the  pods 
begin  to  turn  of  a  brown  or  chocolate 
color.  They  must  be  promptly  cut,  at 
this  stage,  or  the  beans  will  pop  from  the 
pod  and  be  lost. 

Have  ready  a  shed  with  a  plank  floor, 
or  a  piece  of  ground,  well  cleaned,  beaten 
and  rolled  like  an  old-time  threshing 
floor,  twenty  or  thirty  feet  square,  well 
exposed  to  the  sun,  on  which  throw  your 
spikes,  and  turn  them  over  occasionally 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       493 


until  all  the  beans  drop  out.  Then  scrape 
away  the  husks,  gather  the  beans,  and  go 
into  the  field  for  a  new  supply,  as  they 
will  continue  to  bear  and  mature  until 
frost.  Do  not  allow  the  beans,  when  dry- 
ing, to  get  wet.  Hence  an  open  shed  is 
best.  It  you  have  no  shed,  when  the 
weather  is  threatening,  rake  into  a  heap, 
and  cover  with  a  tarpaulin  or  boards. 
They  should  be  well  fanned  and  win- 
nowed of  chaff  before  being  sacked  for 
market.  From  15  to  25  bushels  per  acre 
is  the  average  yield. 

BLACKBERRY. —  For  the  cultivated 
blackberry  the  soil  should  be  rich,  dry 
and  mellow.  Barn-yard  manure  and 
bone-dust  are  its  best  fertilizers ;  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  mix  them  with  half-rotten 
straw,  or  some  such  thing.  They  should 
be  planted  three  feet  apart  in  the  rows, 
and  the  rows  should  be  six  feet  asunder. 

BLIGHT  IN  FRUIT  TREES,  to  Cure. 
—A  smothering  straw  fire  should  be  made 
early  in  October,  in  calm  weather,  under 
each  tree,  and  kept  up  during  an  hour  or 
more.  This  done,  scrape  the  moss  and 
other  impurities  from  the  trunk,  and  from 
every  obscure  hole  and  corner;  set  your 
ladders  to  the  branches,  carefully  cleaning 
them  in  the  same  way,  taking  from  the 
remaining  leaves  every  web  or  nidus  of 
insects.  If  need  be,  wash  the  trunk  and 
all  the  larger  wood,  with  a  solution  of 
lime  and  dung.  Last  of  all,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  destroy  the  insects  and  eggs 
which  may  be  dropped  upon  the  ground, 
and  it  may  be  useful  to  loosen  the  soil  in 
the  circumference.  In  the  spring  or  early 
blighting  season,  apply  your  ladders,  make 
a  careful  survey  of  every  branch,  and  act 
accordingly ;  repeat  this  monthly,  picking 
off  all  blights  by  hand,  and  using  the 
water-engine,  where  ablution  may  be  ne- 
cessary. To  those  who  have  fruit,  or  the 
market  profit  thereof,  every  orchard  or 
garden,  little  or  great,  will  repay  such 
trouble  and  expense. 

BUTTER,  Hints  on  Making.— A  lady 
who  thinks  that  much  that  is  written  about 
butter-making  is  by  "  men,"  and  not  by 
experienced  butter  -  makers,  gives  a  few 
hints.  For  the  improvement  of  winter 
butter,  she  very  sensibly  begins  with  the 
cow,  and  advises  feeding  on  Indian  meal. 
She  says :  "  My  rule  in  winter  is  to  let  the 
milk  stand  on  a  table  in  a  cellar  for  24 


hours ;  set  it  on  the  stove  until  the  cream 
wrinkles  (do  not  let  it  get  too  hot),  then 
let  it  stand  another  24  hours,  and  skim. 
Use  a  skimming-ladle  with  holes,  in  order 
to  have  as  little  milk  as  possible  with  the 
cream.  Stir  the  cream  every  day ;  and 
the  day  before  churning  put  the  pot  near 
the  stove,  to  allow  the  cream  to  warm  and 
get  sour.  Some  have  the  mistaken  idea 
that  cream  should  not  get  sour,  but  it 
makes  butter,  better  and  more  of  it.  Stir 
the  cream  well,  as  much  depends  upon 
that.  If  a  clear,  yellow  skin  forms  on  the- 
cream  it  will  make  the  butter  strong ;  it  is 
as  bad  as  mold,  or  worse.  In  summer 
throw  a  handful  of  salt  into  your  cream-pot 
when  you  first  set  it ;  it  will  keep  the 
cream  sweet  longer.  Be  sure  to  ventilate 
the  cellar  or  milk-room.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  churn  sweet  and  sour  cream  together, 
as  it  makes  the  butter  streaked.  Do  not 
work  the  butter  too  long ;  it  will  become  - 
oily;  but  have  a  fine  cloth,  squeezed  out 
of  cold  water,  to  take  up  the  buttermilk 
with." 

CABBAGE  PLAITCS,  Caterpillar  in.— 
A  butterfly  has  lately  made  its  appearance 
in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  and 
Long  Island  which  is  new  to  the  gardens, 
there,  the  caterpillar  of  which  has  already 
done  very  great  damage.  As  a  remedy, 
salt  has  been  found  more  effectual  than 
either  tobacco,  cresylic  acid,  soap  or 
guano;  and  that  by  laying  pieces  of 
board  between  the  rows  of  cabbages, 
supporting  them  about  two  inches  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  worms: 
will  resort  to  them  to  undergo  their 
transformations  and  can  then  be  easily 
destroyed.  The  saponaceous  compounds 
of  cresylic  acid  are  also  recommended; 
but  Mr.  P.  T.  Quinn,  of  New  Jersey, 
gives  the  following  as  his  experience  in 
combating  this  insect.  On  his  return 
from  California  last  summer  he  found  his 
cabbages  infested  with  worms,  which 
threatened  total  destruction.  After  try- 
ing various  remedies,  he  found  this  re- 
cipe to  be  the  best:  20  parts  of  super- 
phosphate made  with  slush  acid,  1  part 
of  carbolic  powder,  and  three  parts  of 
air-slacked  lime,  mixed  well  together,  and 
thoroughly  dusted  into  each  head  four 
times  at  intervals  of  four  days.  The  re- 
sult was  the  saving  of  seventy-five  thou- 
sand cabbages  and  a  loss  of  only  five  per 
cent. 


494 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


3X7TTEE  MAKING.— Why  is  it  that 
when  superior  butter  brings  twice  the 
price  of  poor,  there  is  so  much  that  is 
■decidedly  unfit  to  eat  ?  The  art  of  mak- 
ing a  good  article  has  long  been  known, 
in  all  civilized  countries,  by  thousands  of 
people,  still  there  is  probably  in  no  coun- 
try a  supply  of  the  best  for  a  tenth  of  the 
population.  Some  one  recently  asked  in 
the  New  York  Farmers'  Club,  why  plain 
directions  for  making  good  butter  could 
not  be  published  with  a  prospect  for  their 
general  adoption.  A  veteran  member  re- 
plied, with  something  of  human  philoso- 
phy in  the  remark,  that  human  nature  was 
so  perverse  that  few  would  follow  any  but 
the  peculiar  method  early  taught  and  long 
practiced.  In  many  a  city  market  a  buyer 
of  good  taste  may  test  the  stock  of  a  dozen 
stalls  before  finding  one  that  offers  a  satis- 
factory sample ;  yet  while  the  buyer  hon- 
estly and  properly  says,  "  it  is  naught," 
the  seller,  perhaps,  with  equal  honesty, 
declares  it  is  "  all  right,"  either  because  it 
was  made  in  his  own  family,  or  suits  his 
own  taste,  perverted  with  a  thousand 
samples  of  poor  or  medium  quality.  So 
many  a  dairy -woman,  proud  of  her 
achievements,  sends  her  produce  to  mar- 
ket with  first-rate  expectations,  and  re- 
ceives in  return  a  third-rate  price.  Yet, 
while  it  may  naturally  differ,  a  really  good 
roll  or  tub  of  solid,  fragrant,  sweet,  golden 
Gutter  will  always  find  an  appreciating 
purchaser,  and  obtain  a  good  price. 

How  can  there  be  general  improve- 
ment, approximation  to  perfection  in 
quality,  and  avoidance  of  soap-grease, 
bearing  the  misnomer,  "cooking  butter  ?" 

Hoping  to  lead  to  a  practical  solution 
of  this  problem,  while  despairing  of  offer- 
ing anything  actually  new  on  the  subject, 
we  propose  to  give  a  few  of  the  methods 
by  which  the  most  noted  and  acceptable 
butter  of  the  country  is  made.  It  will  be 
seen  that  methods  vary,  and  that  the  but- 
ter is  made  in  many  different  ways,  and 
yet  it  will  be  observed  that  there  are  cer- 
tain principles  which  rule  in  all,  and  that 
there  is  really  less  difference  than  appears ; 
and  these  very  differences  prove  the  pos- 
sibility of  general  improvement  and  com- 
parative uniformity  by  attention  to  essen- 
tials. 

To  find  the  first  of  these  essentials,  it  is 
necessary  to  go  back  to  the  pasture,  and 
secure  sweet   and   nutritious    grasses,  as 


milk  and  butter  of  the  finest  quality  can 
not  be  produced  upon  weeds,  sour  grasses, 
or  distilled  slops.  Then  the  cows,  se- 
lected for  hereditary  excellence,  as  elab- 
orators  of  superior  milk,  should  be  gently 
treated,  carefully  and  rapidly  milked  by 
the  same  person  at  regular  intervals.  The 
milk  and  cream  must  be  kept  at  an  even 
and  comparatively  low  temperature,  in  a 
perfectly  clean  place,  free  from  odors  of 
every  description;  and  the  utensils  and 
vessels  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean, 
scalded  thoroughly  after  use  to  prevent 
the  development  of  cryptogamic  germs ; 
if  in  winter,  milk  and  cream  must  not  re- 
main at  so  low  a  temperature,  or  be  kept 
so  long  as  to  become  bitter.  Then  the 
butter,  after  churning,  must  be  kept  at  a 
reduced  temperature,  worked  thoroughly 
without  much  pressure,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  exhaust  the  buttermilk  or  added 
water,  but  not  so  as  to  break  down  the 
grain  of  the  butter  and  render  it  greasy. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  a  very  good 
article  has  been  made  by  working  with 
the  hands,  it  is  an  uncleanly  practice,  not 
so  well  adapted  to  rapid  and  complete 
expulsion  of  buttermilk  as  approved  me- 
chanical appliances. 

A  study  of  the  peculiarities  of  the 
modes  of  making  the  most  popular 
brands  of  butter,  will  reveal  how  fully 
the  best  practice  agrees  in  the  above  es- 
sentials. We  first  describe  the  method 
adopted  in  making  the 

Butter,  New  York  Factory. — In  the 
New  York  butter  factories,  the  milk-rooms 
are  constructed  with  a  view  to  thorough 
ventilation,  and  are  provided  with  water 
tanks  sunk  in  the  earth,  and  arranged  for 
a  depth  of  eighteen  inches  of  water. 
There  should  be  a  constant  flow  of  water 
through  the  vats  to  secure  a  uniform  tem- 
perature, which  should  not  be  below  480, 
nor  higher  than  560.  As  soon  as  the 
milk  is  delivered  it  is  set  in  tin  pails  eight 
inches  in  diameter  and  twenty  inches  deep, 
the  milk  standing  at  a  depth  of  seventeen 
inches  in  the  pail.  Milk  cooled  in  this 
way  throws  up  its  cream  rapidly,  and  the 
uniform  temperature  of  the  cream  has  a 
favorable  effect  on  the  churning.  Good 
milk  thus  treated  will  keep  sweet  for 
thirty-six  hours,  even  in  the  hottest 
weather,  and  as  much  cream  may  be  ob- 
tained as  from  milk  in  shallow  pans. 
The  cream  will  nearly  all  rise  in  twenty- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      495 


four  hours,  and  should  be  taken  off  be- 
fore the  milk  sours.  The  butter  makers 
of  Orange  County  prefer  the  old-fashioned 
dash  churn,  and  add  cold  water  in  sum- 
mer and  warm  in  winter,  at  the  rate  of 
.sixteen  to  thirty  quarts  of  water  to  fifty 
quarts  of  cream.  Thus  the  temperate  of 
the  cream  in  summer,  when  the  churning 
is  commenced,  is  brought  to  about  6o°, 
and  in  winter  to  about  6$Q.  It  is  pre- 
ferred that  forty-five  to  sixty  minutes  be 
employed  churning.  The  butter,  after 
being  taken  from  the  churn,  is  thoroughly 
washed  in  cold  spring  water,  and  after 
salting  and  working  is  allowed  to  stand 
a  certain  length  of  time,  for  instance, 
from  morning  till  evening,  when  it  is 
carefully  packed  in  strong  hooped  and 
perfectly  tight  oak  tubs,  and  strong  brine 
is  poured  in  to  fill  intervening  spaces. 

BUTTER,  The  Philadelphia.  —  The 
description  of  the  manufacture  of  the 
famous  and  costly  "Philadelphia  print" 
was  given  in  detail  in  the  Report  of  1867. 
Great  care,  uniformity  and  system  charac- 
terize all  its  processes.  The  milking  is 
done  quietly  and  rapidly,  the  same  milk- 
maid always  attending  to  the  same  cows. 
The  spring-house  is  usually  of  stone,  on  a 
.side-hill,  the  floor  covered  with  running 
water,  and  therefore  always  cool  and  free 
from  odors.  Deep  tin  pans,  painted  on 
the  outside,  with  bails  for  handling,  are 
filled  to  the  depth  of  three  inches,  placed 
on  an  oak  floor,  and  surrounded  with 
cool,  clear  water  of  a  temperature  of  58°. 
The  cream  is  taken  off  in  twenty-four 
hours,  kept  in  deep  vessels  holding 
twelve  gallons,  and  stirred  whenever  a 
new  skimming  is  added.  A  barrel  churn 
is  used,  the  churning  lasting  an  hour, 
when  a  little  cold  milk  is  added  to  cause 
the  butter  to  gather.  The  buttermilk 
drawn  off,  ice-cold  water  is  twice  added, 
.a  few  turns  given  to  the  churn  each  time, 
.and  the  last  water  is  scarcely  colored 
with  milk.  A  gentle  rocking  motion  of 
the  churn  soon  collects  the  butter,  which 
is  left  two  hours  to  drain  off  the  remain- 
ing water  through  a  small  hole  made  for 
the  purpose.  The  butter  is  worked  by  a 
corrugated  wooden  roller,  revolving  on  a 
;shaft  supported  over  the  center  of  the 
table,  which  also  revolves  under  the 
roller.  Bevelled  blocks  at  each  end  of 
the  roller  force  the  butter  from  the  ends 
toward   the  center,  so  that   the  rolls  are 


broken  each  time  in  fresh  places.  The 
roller  does  not  quite  touch  the  table,  and 
there  is  no  crushing  of  the  particles,  but 
a  separation  of  the  mass  with  a  slight 
pressure  which  permits  water  and  butter- 
milk to  flow  away.  A  cloth  which  has 
been  wrung  dry  in  cold  spring  water  is 
repeatedly  pressed  upon  the  butter  until 
not  a  particle  of  moisture  is  seen  upon  it 
as  it  comes  from  the  roller,  and  the  butter 
begins  to  adhere  to  the  cloth.  This  is 
called  "wiping"  the  butter.  An  ounce  of 
salt  to  three  pounds  of  butter  is  then 
thoroughly  worked  in  by  the  aid  of  the 
same  machine.  Thus  the  processes  are  all 
conducted  without  any  manipulation  of 
the  butter  but  the  human  hand.  It  is 
finally  weighed  out  and  put  up  in  pound 
prints.  One  hundred  pounds  are  churned 
in  one  hour  and  prepared  for  the  market 
in  another,  and  deposited  in  tin  trays  and 
set  in  water  to  harden.  The  next  morn- 
ing it  is  wrapped  in  damp  cloths,  each 
pound  by  itself,  put  in  a  tin  case  upon 
wooden  shelves,  with  two  compartments 
of  pounded  ice  to  keep  it  cool,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  thoroughly  made  cedar  tub, 
it  is  sent  to  market  and  sold  (often)  at  a 
dollar  a  pound. 

BUTTEE,  Vermont.— The  Green  Moun- 
tains have  been  famous  for  good  butter, 
and  the  best  dairymen  of  that  region 
keep  their  milk  in  cool,  well-ventilated 
cellars  in  summer,  and  in  a  sweet,  clean 
milk-room  at  other  seasons.  The  tempera- 
ture desired  is  about  6o°,  and  when  it  is 
reduced  to  500  they  scald  the  milk,  and 
thus  prevent  bitterness,  labor  in  churning, 
and  loss  of  color.  The  milk  is  strained 
as  soon  as  it  is  drawn,  and  skimmed  be- 
fore it  becomes  thick,  generally  in  twenty- 
four  hours  when  the  temperature  is  up  to 
6o°,  but  much  longer  in  proportion  as  it 
is  colder.  Many  prefer  to  stir  the  cream 
every  twelve  hours,  and  sprinkle  over  the 
top  with  fine  salt.  When  the  butter  has 
"  come,"  the  buttermilk  is  drawn  off  and 
cold  water  or  ice  water  turned  in,  and 
the  butter  thoroughly  worked  till  rid  of 
buttermilk  j  and  if  it  is  then  "crumbly  or 
spongy"  the  water  is  worked  out  by 
hand,  very  carefully,  to  prevent  injuring 
the  grain  and  rendering  it  greasy.  David 
Goodall,  in  the  St.  Johnsbury  limes,  thus 
describes  the  mode  of  packing : 

While  the  butter  is  warm,  and  as  soon 
as  salted,  put  it  into  the  tub  and  pound 


496 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


it  down  solid ;  and,  if  it  does  not  fill  the 
tub,  cover  it  with  a  cloth,  and  put  on  it  a 
pint  of  brine.  Fill  the  tub  within  one 
inch  of  the  top;  cut  a  cloth  one  inch 
larger  than  the  butter  and  spread  it  on 
the  top  of  it;  than  cut  another  cloth, 
one  inch  larger  than  the  last,  and  fit  it  on 
the  top,  spreading  evenly  and  turning  up 
each  edge  on  the  inside  of  the  staves ; 
but  it  must  not  hang  over,  as  it  would 
draw  brine  out.  Cut  a  bar  of  sweet  wood, 
two  inches  by  half  an  inch,  and  fit  it  on 
the  butter;  bore  through  the  stave  into 
each  end  of  the  bar,  and  put  in  a  wooden 
pin  tight  to  keep  the  bar  in  place ;  fill  the 
tub  with  fine  salt,  and  fill  again  with 
brine,  and  keep  it  full.  Some  put  in  one- 
fourth  inch  of  fine  salt  at  the  bottom  of 
the  tub  and  cover  with  a  cloth.  I  think 
the  cloth  without  the  salt  sufficient. 

BUTTER,  New  York. — A  correspondent 
of  the  New  York  Farmers'  Club,  writing 
from  Adrian,  Michigan,  makes  the  follow- 
ing suggestions : 

Set  your  milk  where  the  wind  will  not 
blow  on  it,  for  the  wind  dries  the  cream, 
and  dried  cream  will  not  make  butter. 
In  warm  weather  keep  your  cream  still, 
for  if  you  want  your  cream  to  be  sour, 
stir  it  often.  Very  sour  cream  will  not 
produce  a  good  quality  of  butter.  In 
cool  or  cold  weather,  don  t  think  that  you 
must  let  your  milk  set  until  it  is  sour  be- 
fore you  take  off  the  cream.  Forty-eight 
hours  is  sufficient  length  of  time  for  milk 
to  produce  all  the  cream  it  is  capable  of 
producing.  In  a  right  temperature  it  will 
rise  in  a  less  time.  Much  poor  butter  is 
the  result  of  bad  management  of  the 
cream.  It  is  a  good  plan  in  warm  weath- 
er to  save  strippings,  about  a  quart,  night 
and  morning,  from  each  cow,  and  churn 
every  day.  Churn  your  cream  as  cool  as 
possible  in  warm  weather.  Much  butter 
is  spoiled  by  churning  the  cream  too 
warm.  If  your  butter  comes  rather  warm, 
put  in  twice  the  salt  you  usually  do,  work 
your  butter  just  enough  to  mix  the  salt 
well  through  it,  and  set  it  away  in  a  cool 
place  for  twenty-four  hours,  then  take  it 
up  and  work  it  over.  Much  of  this  salt 
will  dissolve  and  work  out.  Thoroughly 
cleanse  your  butter  with  salt.  Use  no 
cold  water  about  your  butter,  for  you 
cannot  cleanse  butter  or  any  other  lump 
of  grease  with  water.  Some  women  talk 
as  though  butter  was  not  fit  to  eat  unless 


it  is  first  washed  with  cold  water.  If 
butter  is  not  fit  to  eat  without  being 
washed  with  water,  it  is  not  by  being 
washed.  Water  always  damages  butter. 
Butter  that  is  washed  with  water  is  not 
fit  to  pack,  for  it  will  not  keep.  When 
the  brine  which  oozes  from  your  butter,. 
as  you  work  it,  is  clear,  that  is,  clear  from 
milk,  it  is  worked  enough;  don't  give  it 
another  stroke,  except  to  get  it  into  shape. 
Pack  your  butter  in  perfectly  clean  ves- 
sels, and  keep  it  well  covered  with 
strong  brine.  When  you  use  your  butter, 
set  it  on  the  table  just  as  you  cut  it  out  of 
the  tub,  for  it  is  injured  if"  worked  after  it 
has  been  packed.  If  all  butter  was  made. 
after  this  plan  we  would  see  but  little  that 
is  poor. 

At  one  of  the  meetings  of  the  club  of 
Union  County  (New  York)  Agricultural 
Society,  Mr.  H.  W.  Garret,  whose  dairy 
product  is  represented  as  of  excellent 
quality,  gave  in  substance  the  following 
directions :  Everything  pertaining  to  the 
entire  work  of  butter  making  should  be 
kept  scrupulously  clean.  Forty  hours  is 
the  average  period  of  time  for  a  pan  of 
milk  to  remain  prior  to  skimming.  It  is 
necessary  for  the  milk  to  sour  before  the 
entire  cream  can  be  obtained.  If  the 
atmosphere  is  such  that  the  cream  be- 
comes rancid,  immediately  skim.  Skim- 
ming at  the  proper  time  is  absolutely 
necessary.  The  milk  room  should  be 
kept  at  6iQ.  Twice  a  day  stir  the  cream 
in  the  jars;  let  those  jars  stand  in  the 
coldest  place  in  summer.  When  churning 
is  necessary,  let  the  cream  be  at  62  °. 
Use  a  dash  churn,  which  is  superior  to 
any  other.  When  the  globules  are  about 
breaking,  reduce  the  temperature  to  6o°. 
Do  not  wash  the  butter.  Work  it  as 
little  as  possible;  too  much  working 
makes  it  salvy,  and  washing  destroys  the 
flavor. 

BUTTER,  Western  Mode. — Western 
butter  has  not  heretofore  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation.  It  is  possible  that  rank  grasses 
and  noxious  plants  may  have  been  an 
element  of  this  disrepute;  impure  water 
in  some  places  may  have  had  an  influ- 
ence; but  the  main  cause  has  been  a 
lack  either  of  care  or  skill  in  the  butter 
maker.  It  is  rapidly  improving,  and 
while  it  commands  a  price  less  than  that 
paid  for  New  York  butter,  a  considerable 
quantity  is  forwarded  to  the  Eastern  sea- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       497 


board,  and  some  of  it  is  of  really  superior 
character.  It  is  probable  that  individual 
dairies  may  be  found  which  produce  an 
article  unsurpassed  by  the  best  Orange 
County  or  Philadelphia  products;  yet 
these  must  be  few  compared  with  the 
aggregate  number  of  Western  dairies. 
The  intelligence,  skill,  and  care  evinced 
by  many  butter  makers  of  the  prairies 
will  prove  a  leaven  that  may  be  expected 
to  work  wonders  in  the  general  improve- 
ment of  the  butter  of  that  great  section. 
The  following  directions  for  butter  mak- 
ing, by  Mrs.  M.  A.  Deane,  of  Farina, 
Illinois,  recently  received  a  prize  from  the 
Messrs.  Blanchard,  churn  makers,  at 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  as  a  model 
exposition  of  the  subject  and  of  general 
application : 

Management  of  the  Milk. — The  advant- 
age gained  during  the  hot  season  by  the 
rapid  and  complete  cooling  of  milk  as 
soon  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  can  hardly 
be  over-estimated,  as  recent  experiments 
show  that  the  milk  thus  cooled  will  keep 
sweet  much  longer  and  yield  its  cream 
more  readily  and  more  abundantly ;  and 
as  all  experience  has  proved  that  the 
quantity  of"  butter  made  depends  greatly 
upon  keeping  the  milk  in  such  a  state  as 
to  secure  all  the  cream,  a  saving  of  labor 
is  effected  by  this  process,  as  the  milk, 
when  cooled  to  the  required  temperature 
(6o°),  may  be  set  in  deeper  vessels,  thus 
diminishing  greatly  the  number  of  vessels 
required,  and,  consequently,  the  labor  of 
cleansing  them. 

In  a  large  dairy  the  washing  and  scald- 
ing of  the  shallow  pans  so  much  in  use 
is  always  a  laborious  and  tedious  process. 
There  are  many  methods,  more  or  less 
simple,  tor  cooling  milk.  Patents  have 
been  granted  for  various  plans,  and  many 
enterprising  dairymen  are  testing  ingeni- 
ous devices  of  their  own  with  excellent 
success.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  pro- 
cure a  cooler,  the  milk  may  be  cooled  by 
setting  some  large  pails  into  a  trough  or 
box  partly  filled  with  very  cold  water, 
and  pouring  the  milk  into  these  pails  as 
fast  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  cows,  allow- 
ing it  to  stand  until  of  the  required  tem- 
perature— if  necessary,  renewing  the 
water. 

The  pails  used  in  milking  should  be  of 
tin,  never  of  wood.  It  is  very  difficult, 
almost    impossible,   to   cleanse   wooden 

32 


pails  so  perfectly  that  they  will  not  impart 
some  degree  of  acidity  to  the  milk, 
though  it  may  be  an  insensible  degree. 
Owing  to  this  fact,  some  factories  make 
it  an  absolute  requisition  that  only  tin 
pails  shall  be  used  by  those  who  furnisb, 
them  with  milk. 

The  Dairy  Room. — Much  of  the  success 
of  butter  making  depends  upon  the  fitness- 
of  the  place  or  room  where  the  dairy  is 
kept,  and  upon  its  condition  as  to  clean- 
liness and  freedom  from  taints  and  odors 
of  every  description.  If  a  cellar  is  used, 
it  should  be  a  dry  one,  and  perfectly 
clean  to  the  remotest  corners,  having  no 
hidden  remnants  of  decayed  vegetables 
or  fruit,  or  anything  which  could  possibly 
offend  the  most  delicate  olfactories.  If  a 
room  in  the  dwelling-house  is  used,  or  a 
milk-house  built  separately,  which  is  per- 
haps better,  it  should  not  be  situated  near 
a  hog-pen,  stable,  or  anything  ot  the 
kind,  nor  should  anything  likely  to  impart 
its  odor  to  the  milk,  as  smoked  ham, 
codfish,  onions,  or  even  potatoes,  be 
allowed  a  place  in  the  room.  Nothing 
will  receive  a  taint  more  easily  than  milk 
or  cream ;  and  all  bad  odors  absorbed  by 
the  milk  are  certain  to  be  concentrated  in 
the  butter,  they  not  having  the  accommo- 
dating disposition  to  run  off  with  the 
buttermilk.  We  have  known  butter  to 
be  spoiled  in  consequence  of  the  milk 
standing  in  the  room  with  a  smoky 
furnace,  and  it  is  sometimes  sensibly 
affected  by  the  smoke  of  burnt  grease  and 
other  unpleasant  smells  from  the  cook 
room.  So  if  a  milk-room  communicates 
with  a  kitchen  the  door  should  be  kept 
closed. 

Temperature. — The  milk,  whether  in  a 
cellar  or  in  a  room  above  ground,  should 
be  kept  cool  in  the  summer,  never  being 
allowed  to  reach    a  temperature   above" 
6o°,  though  it  may  fall  below  that  without: 
detriment.     Milk  should    be    set    upon, 
racks,  rather  than  shelves,  so  that  the  air' 
may  circulate  freely  under  it  as  well  as; 
over  and  around  it.     Racks  are  made  in 
various  ways  j  the  most  convenient  that 
we  know  of  is   constructed  as   follows: 
Take  a   6   by  6  pine  post,  of  a  length 
suited  to  the  height  of  the  room,  place  it 
upright  upon  a  pivot  so  that  it  will  re- 
volve, and  nail  slats  of  half-inch  stuff  to 
each  side  of  the  post,  at  such  intervals  as 
will  give  room  for  the  pans  or  other 


49s 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


vessels  used.  Two  such  slats,  nailed  to 
opposite  sides  of  the  post,  will  support 
two  pans  of  milk,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
post.  The  rotary  arrangement  enables 
one  to  stand  in  the  same  place  to  skim  a 
whole  rack-full  of  milk.  If  pans  are 
used,  the  seamless  ones  are  best,  but 
deeper  ones,  either  of  tin  or  earthenware, 
are  perhaps  preferable,  provided  the  milk 
is  cooled  before  being  set. 

Washing  the  Utensils. — The  greatest 
care  is  requisite  in  cleansing  these  vessels, 
of  whatever  material  or  form,  as  also  of 
all  the  other  utensils  employed  in  butter 
making.  This  is  a  matter  of  much  greater 
importance  than  many  suppose,  as  the 
smallest  neglect  in  regard  to  it  is  sure  to 
tell  upon  the  cream  and  butter.  The 
pans  and  pails  should  be  washed  thor- 
oughly, in  two  waters,  each  time  being 
made  as  clean  as  possible  with  the  water 
used;  they  should  then  be  scalded  thor- 
oughly with  boiling  water.  It  is  not 
sufficient  that  the  water  should  be  tolera- 
bly hot — that  it  should  steam  in  the 
kettle,  or  anything  of  the  sort;  it  must 
"  dance  as  well  as  sing."  The  churn, 
butter-bowl,  and  ladle,  or  butter-worker, 
if  one  is  used,  should  be  washed  and 
.scalded  with  equal  care,  and  all  should 
.be  carefully  wiped  and  dried,  unless  some 
arrangement  is  made  for  drying  in  the 
sun,  which  will  do  very  well  for  tin  and 
earthenware,  and  save  the  labor  of 
wiping.  In  summer  it  will  be  necessary 
to  see  that  all  utensils  are  cooled  perfectly 
before  using  them. 

Skimming. — The  milk  should  be  skim- 
med as  soon  as  all  the  cream  has  risen, 
and  before  the  milk  has  thickened.  The 
i  exact  time  required  for  the  cream  to  rise 
will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  tempera- 
ture; but  a  little  experience  will  enable 
-one  to  tell.  At  the  time  the  cream  should 
"(be  removed  it  will  have  a  bright,  healthy 
appearance,  a  rich,  yellow,  uniform  color, 
and  such  an  adherency  of  particles  as 
will  enable  one,  sometimes,  to  remove  the 
entire  cream  at  one  dip  of  the  skimmer. 
If  allowed  to  stand  too  long  without 
skimming,  both  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  cream  will  be  seriously  affected. 
The  surface  will  become  discolored, 
blotched,  and  knobby,  while  underneath, 
the  cream  is  rapidly  yielding  to  the  cor- 
rosive tendency  of  the  acid  in  the  milk. 
'The  thickest  cream  may  be  as  surely 


destroyed  by  standing  on  the  milk  as 
would  be  the  firmest  fabric  in  a  bath  of 
sulphuric  acid.  When  thus  destroyed, 
the  cream  is  replaced  by  a  thin,  watery 
substance,  having  no  resemblance  to 
cream  or  milk.  These  facts,  which  may 
be  easily  verified,  show  how  essential  it  is 
that  the  cream  should  be  taken  off  before 
the  milk  has  acquired  any  great  degree 
of  acidity.  Yet  in  order  to  make  the 
largest  quantity  of  butter  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  remove  the  cream  too  soon. 
Many  neat,  thrifty  housewives  make  a 
practice  of  "  skimming  up  "  all  the  milk 
at  stated  intervals,  so  as  to  be  through 
with  the  job.  This  is,  of  course,  very 
pleasant,  but  it  involves  considerable  loss, 
as  they  do  not  get  the  full  cream  from 
the  newest  milk.  The  milk  should  all  be. 
skimmed  at  the  same  age,  provided  it 
has  had  the  same  conditions  as  regards 
femperature,  etc.  It  follows,  then,  that 
some  milk  should  be  skimmed  every 
night  and  morning. 

Winter  Treatment. — It  will  be  found 
that  in  winter  milk  and  cream  require 
somewhat  different  management.  The 
effort  must  now  be  to  keep  the  milk  warm 
enough  rather  than  to  keep  it  cool ;  and 
a  failure  in  this  respect  will  very  materi- 
ally affect  the  quality  of  the  butter.  It 
the  milk  is  very  much  too  cold,  it  will 
have  to  stand  so  long  for  the  cream  to 
rise  that  it  will  become  bitter  often  long 
before  it  becomes  sour,  and  the  quality  of 
bitterness  will  be  still  more  apparent  in 
the  butter.  To  prevent  this,  the  milk 
should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  6o° 
if  possible;  if  not,  the  milk  may  be 
scalded  as  soon  as  strained,  and  the 
cream  will  then  have  a  fair  start  before 
the  milk  has  parted  with  this  extra  heat, 
unless  the  place  where  it  is  kept  is  very 
cold.  If  scalding  is  not  found  sufficient, 
two  or  three  spoonfuls  of  sour  milk 
(which  has  soured  quickly  and  is  not 
bitter)  may  be  added  to  each  pan  of  milk 
when  it  is  set  away.  This  will  help  to 
sour  the  milk  and  cause  the  cream  to  rise 
quicker,  thus  making  it  less  liable  to 
become  bitter.  It  may  also  help  to  pre- 
vent bitterness  to  salt  the  cows  often, 
and  see  that  they  do  not  eat  decayed 
vegetables  or  any  substances  which  may 
impart  a  bad  taste  to  the  milk. 

The  cream  should  be  kept  at  about  the 
same  temperature  (6o°),  and  should  be 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       499 


well  stirred  as  often  as  new  is  added.  It 
should  not  be  kept  too  long  before  churn- 
ing, never  more  than  a  week — four  or 
five  days  is  better. 

Churning. — The  cream  should  be 
churned  at  a  temperature  of  620  or  63 °. 
A  great  deal  of  experience  may  enable 
one  to  guess  at  this  temperature  with 
tolerable  cleverness,  but  it  is  better  to  use 
a  thermometer  and  be  sure.  This  tem- 
perature will  be  increased  during  the 
process  of  churning  to  68°  or  thereabouts, 
when  the  butter  will  come.  If  it  should 
be  hard  and  granular,  refusing  to  come 
together  well,  throw  in  a  litde  warm 
water,  churning  all  the  while,  and  the 
butter  will  soon  be  gathered  and  ready  to 
take  up. 

Sweet  cream  should  never  be  mixed 
with  sour  cream  just  before  churning,  as 
sweet  cream  is  much  longer  coming,  and 
hence  likely  to  lose  itself  in  the  butter- 
milk. To  salt  the  cows  once  a  week  is 
generally  believed  to  facilitate  the  pro- 
cess of  churning.  In  case  they  have  not 
been  thus  salted,  some  put  a  little  salt 
into  the  cream  before  churning;  but  we 
think  that  in  most  instances  where  butter 
is  very  long  coming,  it  is  owing  to  the 
temperature  of  the  cream.  It  may  be  so 
cold  as  to  require  churning  all  day  to 
bring  the  butter;  a  tax  upon  one's  pa- 
tience and  strength,  if  performed  by  hand, 
equal  to  the  cost  of  a  dozen  thermome- 
ters. 

Coloring. — As  a  rule,  it  is  absolutely  es- 
sential in  the  winter  to  color  butter,  in 
order  to  make  it  marketable,  or  at  all  at- 
tractive as  an  article  of  table  use  at  home. 
There  may  be  a  possible  exception  to  this 
rule  in  cases  where  cows  are  fed  largely 
upon  yellow  corn  meal,  pumpkins,  carrots, 
etc.,  but  this  does  not  lessen  the  impor- 
tance of  the  rule.  Of  the  various  sub- 
tances  used  in  coloring  butter,  we  think 
that  carrots  (of  the  deep  yellow  variety) 
give  the  most  natural  color  and  the  most 
agreeable  flavor.  Annotto,  however,  is 
principally  used,  and  with  most  satisfac 
tory  results.  Some  of  the  most  celebrated 
butter  makers  in  the  country  color  their 
butter  with  pure  annotto,  giving  it  a  rich, 
deep  orange  color.  They  do  not  aim  to 
produce  the  color  which  is  natural  to  a 
summer  butter,  but  one  considerably 
richer;  coloring  it  both  summer  and 
winter.     If  carrots  are  used,  they  should 


be  grated,  the  juice  expressed  through  a 
thin  cloth,  and  put  into  the  cream  just 
before  churning.  A  small  quantity  of 
annotto,  dissolved  in  warm  water  or  milk, 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way,  and  with 
similar  results;  but  a  richer  tint  is  pro- 
duced with  annotto  by  coloring  the  butter 
directly.  To  prepare  the  annotto  for  this 
purpose,  steep  it  in  butter  for  some  hours 
over  a  slow  fire,  then  strain  through 
a  fine  cloth  into  a  jar  and  keep  in  a  cool 
place.  When  ready  to  work  the  butter, 
melt  a  small  quantity  of  this  mixture  and 
work  it  in  carefully.  A  small  proportion 
of  turmeric  is  sometimes  mixed  with  an- 
notto and  prepared  in  the  same  way. 
With  this  method  of  coloring  an  inexperi- 
enced hand  is  in  danger  of  working  the 
butter  too  much,  in  the  effort  to  produce 
the  same  shade  of  color  through  the  en- 
tire mass,  which  is,  indeed,  a  difficult 
attainment  for  a  novice.  Coloring  in  the 
cream  obviates  this  difficulty  entirely,  the 
butter  being  a  uniform  color  when  taken 
from  the  churn. 

Salting  and  Working.  —  While  salt  is 
not  to  be  undervalued  as  a  preserving 
agent,  it  must  be  remembered  that  too 
much  of  it  destroys  or  overpowers  the  fine 
flavor  and  delicate  aroma  of  the  best  but- 
ter. Be  careful  to  preserve  all  the  sweet- 
ness of  the  fresh  butter,  salting  just  enough 
to  remove  its  insipidity.  It  is  important 
to  use  the  best  salt.  "Ashton's  factory 
filled  "  has  great  fame,  and  is  extensively 
used.  But  any  one  can  test  the  purity  of 
salt,  and  perhaps  other  brands  of  Liver- 
pool salt  may  be  found  equal  to  Ashton's. 
Pure  salt  is  perfectly  white  and  destitute 
of  odor,  if  will  dissolve  in  cold  water 
without  leaving  any  sediment  or  throwing 
any  scum  to  the  surface,  and  the  brine 
will  be  as  clear  as  pure  water  and  entirely 
free  from  any  bitter  taste.  Prof.  Johnson 
says,  in  the  American  Agricultural  An- 
nualy  1868,  that  the  "  Onondaga  factory 
filled  must  take  rank  second  to  none, 
provided  the  ingenious  processes  of  Dr. 
Goessman,  which  were  employed  in 
Syracuse  a  few  years  since,  are  still  in 
use."  The  buttermilk  should  be  nearly 
all  worked  out  and  the  butter  well  washed 
before  salting.  Washing  may  abstract 
somewhat  from  the  flavor  of  the  butter, 
but  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  necessity  if  the 
butter  is  expected  to  keep  long,  as  it  com- 
pletely removes  the  cream  and  caseine  of 


5°o 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


the  buttermilk,  a  part  of  which  might 
otherwise  remain  in  the  butter.  Butter 
should  stand  but  a  short  time  after  salt- 
ing before  it  is  worked  enough  to  remove 
nearly  all  the  water,  when  it  may  be  re- 
salted,  if  necessary ;  there  should  be  suf- 
ficient salt  left  in  the  butter  at  this  time  to 
make  a  strong  brine  of  the  little  water 
that  remains.  It  may  then  stand  until  the 
next  day,  when  it  should  be  worked  and 
packed.  On  no  account  should  butter  be 
allowed  to  stand  long  before  working,  as 
it  is  apt  to  become  streaked,  often  so 
much  so  as  to  necessitate  working  over, 
in  order  to  restore  a  uniform  color.  Be- 
sides, if  neglected  too  long  at  this  period, 
a  tendency  to  rancidity  will  be  developed. 
We  realize  the  difficulty  of  giving  explicit 
directions  for  the  second  and  last  work- 
ing of  the  butter — its  final  preparation  for 
packing.  If  not  worked  enough,  every 
one  knows  that  the  butter  will  soon  spoil ; 
if  worked  too  much,  it  is  spoiled  already ; 
though  the  danger  of  its  being  overworked 
is  less.  A  great  deal  of  judgment  and 
discretion  and  somewhat  of  experience  are 
requisite  in  order  to  determine  when  it  is 
worked  just  enough ;  the  virtue  of  stop- 
ping in  this,  as  in  many  other  cases,  being 
second  only  to  that  of  doing.  There  are 
some  suggestions,  however,  which  may 
prove  valuable,  particularly  to  those 
having  little  experience,  ist.  The  butter 
should  not  be  too  warm  when  worked, 
nor  should  it  be  so  cold  as  to  make 
working  difficult.  Immerse  the  ladle  for 
a  few  minutes  in  boiling  water,  and  cool 
perfectly  in  cold  water ;  then,  if  the  but- 
ter in  the  bowl  is  warm  enough  to  admit 
of  putting  the  ladle  through  the  whole 
mass  without  difficulty,  and  dividing  it  up 
without  crumbling,  and  still  hard  enough 
to  cut  clean  and  smooth,  not  the  slightest 
particle  adhering  to  the  ladle,  then  it  is 
in  the  right  condition  to  work.  2d.  It 
should  be  worked  with  careful  and  gentle, 
yet  telling,  pressure,  and  not  by  a  series 
of  indiscriminate  stirrings  and  mashings 
and  grindings  against  the  sides  of  the 
bowl.  The  butter  is  composed  of  minute 
globules,  which  are  crushed  by  this  care- 
less handling,  thus  rendering  the  butter 
greasy  and  sticky,  whereas  it  should  re- 
tain its  clean,  solid  individuality  up  to  the 
time  of  packing,  always  working  clear 
from  the  bowl,  and  never  sticking  in  the 
least  to  the  ladle.     3d.  The  butter  should 


not  be  worked  until  it  is  perfectly  dry. 
When  ready  to  pack  it  should  have  a 
slight  moisture  about  it  —  a  sort  of  insen- 
sible remains  of  the  clear  brine  which  has 
been  working  off,  and  at  the  last,  enough,  soi 
that  when  a  trier  is  thrust  into  it  a  drop 
or  two  of  brine  will  ooze  out  around  it* 
and  the  trier  itself  be  slightly  wet,  as  if  by 
a  slight  dew.  Overworking  destroys  all 
the  beautiful  consistency  of  the  butter;, 
makes  it  dry  and  sticky ;  greasy  in  sum- 
mer, and  tallowy  in  winter;  gives  it  a  dull 
appearance,  and  a  tendency  to  become 
rancid.  Altogether  overworked  butter  is 
very  disagreeable,  if  not  positively  bad. 

Packing  and  Marketing. — Butter  should 
be  packed  solid,  leaving  no  interstices  of 
air,  and  should  completely  fill  the  firkin, 
tub,  or  pail,  as  the  case  may  be,  leaving  a 
flat  surface.  It  is  common  to  put  a  cloth 
over  the  top,  and  a  layer  of  salt  on  the 
cloth.  Some  think  it  better  to  wet  the 
salt,  making  a  brine.  The  cover  should 
then  fit  tightly,  leaving  no  room  for  air 
between  it  and  the  butter.  Some  butter,, 
also,  goes  into  market  in  the  form  of  rolls, 
some  pine-apples,  and  other  fancy  forms 
for  the  table,  etc.  Every  person  should 
be  guided  by  circumstances  in  his  choice 
of  styles  for  putting  up  butter,  always 
being  careful  to  give  it  a  neat  and  attract- 
ive appearance.  If  living  at  a  distance 
from  market,  and  the  dealers  at  his  mar- 
ket place  buy  for  New  York,  he  should 
pack  in  firkins  or  tubs,  so  that  the  butter 
can  be  safely  kept  through  the  season, 
and  the  whole  lot  disposed  of  at  once  in 
the  fall.  If  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
New  York,  fresh  tubs  or  pails  may  be  sent 
in  at  intervals  all  through  the  season,  or 
the  whole  kept  through,  as  he  chooses; 
or,  if  in  the  vicinity  of  any  city,  good 
chances  offer  in  the  way  of  supplying 
hotels,  restaurants,  etc.,  the  butter  should 
be  put  in  a  style  to  suit  the  customers. 
Some,  who  are  hundreds  of  miles  away, 
make  shipments  of  butter  to  New  York 
on  their  own  account,  instead  of  selling  to 
buyers  at  home,  in  which  case,  if  their  but- 
ter is  really  superior,  they  will  not  be  long 
in  making  a  reputation,  and  will  soon  be 
able  to  secure  a  high  price.  Some  few 
have  a  stamp  of  their  own,  and  labor  as- 
siduously to  establish  a  value  for  it,  as  a 
trade- mark.  It  is  said  that  the  best  but- 
ter-maker in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia 
(who  never  sells  for  less  than  a  dollar  per 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       501 


pound),  uses  a  stamp  inherited  from  his 
father,  and  that  "  not  a  pound  of  inferior 
Gutter  ever  went  to  market  with  that  stamp 
upon  it."  If  you  would  attain  to  a  goodly 
fame,  then,  as  a  butter-maker,  and  reap  a 
rich  reward  for  your  pains,  attend  care- 
fully to  the  minutest  details  in  making, 
and  never  sell  any  but  good  butter,  put 
up  in  neat  packages;  never  allow  your 
"  trade-mark  "  to  lose  its  value. 

BUTTER,  Winter.— There  is  much 
poor,  pale,  ill-flavored  butter  made  in  win- 
ter. There  is  also  some  produced  of  a 
.fair  average  quality,  only  coming  short  of 
the  fresh  butter  from  the  fragrant  grasses 
of  June.  The  difficulty  lies  partly  in  the 
winter  food,  and  partly  in  the  temperature 
•of  the  milk.  Willard  says  it  should  never 
be  colder  than  55°,  and  at  churning  the 
cream  should  be  brought  to  6oQ  or  620. 
If  allowed  to  go  above  65°  the  color  and 
flavor  are  injured.  It  is  liable  to  become 
bitter  before  the  cream  rises  if  the  tem- 
perature is  too  low ;  and  if  it  freezes  the 
cream  rises  at  once,  but  of  poor  quality, 
yielding  white  butter ;  if  kept  in  a  room 
heated  by  day  and  cold  at  night  it  will 
not  rise  well,  and  is  apt  to  be  bitter  and 
acid.  It  is  not  easy  to  secure  a  tempera- 
ture sufficiently  uniform.  Some  scald  the 
milk  when  first  drawn  from  the  cow.  A 
■common  English  mode  is  to  let  it  stand 
twelve  hours,  and  then  place  the  vessel 
containing  it  in  a  larger  one,  filled  with 
boiling  water,  letting  it  stand  twelve 
hours  longer.  Before  churning,  the  cream- 
pot  is  placed  before  the  fire,  and  its  con- 
tents stirred  occasionally  to  secure  equal 
warmth,  until  a  temperature  of  550  is  at- 
tained. 

The  Philadelphia  dairymen  find  no  dif- 
ficulty in  making  good  butter  all  winter. 
One,  who  obtains  one  dollar  per  pound, 
keeps  the  temperature  of  his  milk-pantry 
at  as  near  550  as  practicable.  Butter 
comes  harder  as  cows  advance  in  gesta- 
tion, and  he  likes  to  have  fall  cows  so  as 
to  mix  their  milk  with  that  of  cows  com- 
ing in  in  the  spring.  He  finds  clover  hay, 
cut  and  moistened,  sprinkled  with  meal 
.and  wheat  shorts,  the  best  food  for  mak- 
ing choree  butter.  As  the  food  given 
makes  a  great  difference  in  the  flavor  of 
the  butter,  it  is  important  that  no  weeds 
be  mixed  with  the  hay.  He  thinks  clover 
inferior  to  timothy  or  any  other  grass,  and 
he  does  not  feed  cabbages  or  turnips  on 


account  of  the  flavor.  Cows  differ  greatly 
in  their  qualities  as  butter-makers,  and  in 
selecting  he  finds  it  necessary  to  reject 
many  animals  that  would  be  valuable  in  a 
milk  or  cheese  dairy. 

BUTTER,  Working  ol— The  universal 
testimony  of  good  butter-makers  estab- 
lishes the  fact  that  the  least  working  of 
butter  consistent  with  the  expulsion  of 
buttermilk,  and  the  thorough  incorpora- 
tion of  salt,  are  the  requisites  for  superior 
quality.  It  is  notorious  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  market  supply  is  over- 
worked, the  grain  injured,  leaving  the 
mass  greasy  rather  than  granular.  Butter 
of  the  finest  possible  quality  is  often  re- 
duced to  an  inferior  grade  by  excessive 
manipulation.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
butter-workers ;  one  much  in  use  in  the 
best  Orange  county  dairies,  is  described 
by  Mr.  Willard  as  a  slab  four  feet  long 
and  twenty-five  inches  wide  at  the  broad- 
est part,  tapering  down  to  four  or  five 
inches  at  the  lower  end,  where  an  open- 
ing allows  the  escape  of  the  buttermilk, 
and  a  slat  into  which  a  long  wooden  lever 
fits  loosely  allows  its  free  movement  over 
the  entire  surface  of  the  slab.  It  has  bev- 
eled sides,  the  lever  is  either  square  or 
eight-sided,  the  butter  is  placed  upon  the 
slab  and  worked  by  pressing  the  lever 
down  upon  the  successive  portions  of  it 
till  the  whole  is  worked.  It  is  not  pa- 
tented and  may  be  easily  made,  the  size 
varied  to  suit  the  convenience  of  different 
dairies.  It  is  rinsed  with  cold  water  until 
the  water  runs  off  clear.  It  is  then  churn- 
ed to  gather  it  together,  the  water  pressed 
out  when  it  is  salted.  The  next  day  it  is 
worked  over  and  packed  like  other  but- 
ter.   

BUTTER,  Rancid,  to  Restore.— To  im- 
prove manufactured  butter  work  it  thor- 
oughly with  fresh  cold  milk,  and  then  to 
wash  it  in  clear  water ;  and  it  is  said  that 
even  old  and  rancid  butter  may  be  ren- 
dered palatable  by  washing  it  in  water  to 
which  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime  have  been  added. 

BUTTER,  Improved  Coloring  for.— An 
improved  coloring  matter  for  butter — 
carotine — has  been  successfully  employed 
by  Dr.  Quesneville  as  a  substitute  for 
annotto,  to  which  it  is  in  every  respect 
superior,  although  somewhat  more  ex- 
pensive. This  carotine  is  the  representa- 
tive in  carrot  of  alizarine  in  madder,  and 


502 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


is  obtained  by  slicing,  drying,  and  grind- 
ing the  roots  to  a  powder,  exhausting  the 
powder  with  sulphide  of  carbon,  and  hav- 
ing removed  the  solvent,  rapidly  crystal- 
lizing out  of  the  carotine  from  the  ex- 
tract. 

BUTTER,  to  Preserve  Fresh.— Melt  it 
in  a  well-glazed  earthen  pan,  set  in  a 
water-bath  at  a  heat  not  exceeding  1800 
Fahrenheit,  and  keep  it  heated,  skimming 
it  from  time  to  time,  until  it  becomes 
quite  transparent ;  then  pour  off  the  clean 
portion  into  another  vessel,  and  cool  it  as 
quickly  as  possible,  by  placing  the  vessel 
in  very  cold  water  or  ice.  This  is  the 
method  employed  by  the  Tartars  who 
supply  the  Constantinople  market.  In 
this  state  it  may  be  preserved  perfectly 
fresh  for  six  or  nine  months,  if  kept  in  a 
close  vessel  and  a  cool  place. 

CABBAGE     AND     CAULIFLOWER, 

Culture  of. — The  cabbage  can  be  culti- 
vated by  the  most  simple  and  easy  means. 
It  grows  in  most  soils,  and  produces  its 
beneficial  heads  nine  months  in  the  year. 
The  ground  must  be  rich,  or  made  so  by 
a  good  coat  of  manure,  as  they  have 
strong,  tapering  roots.  Digging  or  plow- 
ing deep  is  very  essential.  For  early  use, 
sow  in  hot-beds  in  February  or  March ; 
and  for  winter,  the  seeds  may  be  sown 
in  open  ground  in  May  or  June.  When 
five  or  six  inches  high,  transplant  to  from 
twelve  to  thirty  inches  apart.  Almost  any 
manure,  except  hog  manure,  will  answer 
for  cabbages,  as  barn  manure,  rotten  kelp, 
well  diluted  liquid  manure,  night  soil, 
guano,  phosphates,  wood  ashes,  fish,  salt, 
glue-waste,  hen  manure,  ail  properly  com- 
posted, or  slaughter-house  offal,  and  the 
richer  they  are  in  ammonia  the  better. 

In  New  England  the  largest  cultivators 
for  market,  drop  the  seed  directly  where 
the  plants  are  to  stand,  instead  of  the  old 
mode  of  transplanting  from  a  hot-bed. 
Time  is  thus  saved,  risks  incidental  to 
transplanting  are  avoided,  and  all  the 
plants  in  the  field  start  alike.  Half  a 
dozen  seeds  are  scattered  in  each  hill,  so 
that  the  cut-worm  has  to  depredate  se- 
verely before  he  really  injures  the  field. 
As  the  plants  grow,  the  feeble  ones  can 
be  thinned  out,  and  where  the  seeds  in  an 
adjoining  hill  have  failed  to  vegetate,  the 
deficiency  can  be  supplied  by  the  super- 
fluous healthy  plants.    Four  to  six  ounces 


of  seed  thus  placed  in  hills  are  sufficient 
for  an  acre. 
CABBAGE  PLANTS,  To  Preserve  from 

the  Fly. — Make  the  seed-bed  on  a  plat- 
form or  scaffold  raised  on  posts  about 
five  feet  from  the  ground.  The  jumps  of 
the  insect  are  limited  to  a  certain  height, 
and  the  plants  are  thus  placed  beyond 
their  reach. 

CABBAGE  PLANTS,  Enemies  of,  to 
Destroy. — Sprinkling  wood  ashes  and  air- 
slaked  lime  upon  the  young  plants,  while 
the  leaves  are  damp  with  rain  or  dew,  is 
an  efficacious  remedy  for  destroying  the 
voracious  fly,  beetle  and  flea  that  attack 
them  as  soon  as  they  have  broken  through 
the  soil,  as  well  as  for  most  other  insects. 
Until  the  plants  have  a  stump  as  large  as 
a  pipe-stem  they  are  subject  to  the  rav- 
ages of  the  cut-worm,  for  which  there 
seems  to  be  no  better  remedy  than 
sprinkling  liberally  wood  ashes  or  air- 
slaked  lime  close  about  the  stems  of  the 
plants.  As  this  pest  disappears  about 
the  middle  of  June,  cabbages  that  are 
planted  late  suffer  but  little  from  it. 

CABBAGE  PLANTS,  Clubfoot  in.— 
Bainbridge  Bishop,  of  New  Russia,  New 
York,  states  that  he  has  found,  by  long 
experience,  that  clubfoot  in  cabbage  can 
be  remedied  by  boiling  leaves  and  twigs 
of  the  scarlet-berried  alderberry  to  a 
strong  decoction,  and  pouring  a  gill,  cold, 
on  the  center  of  the  plant  One  appli- 
cation is  generally  sufficient.  On  heavy 
soil  it  may  be  necessary  to  loosen  the 
earth  about  the  stem  of  each  plant.  As 
a  preventive,  water  the  plants  once  or 
twice  with  the  decoction  after  setting  out. 
The  application  has  also  a  good  manurial 
effect. 

CARROTS,  To  Cultivate.— Select  a  good, 
rich  clover  sod,  deep  loamy  soil,  or 
even  gravelly,  well  drained;  spread  on 
evenly  fifteen  to  twenty  ox-cart  loads  of 
good  manure  to  the  acre.  In  the  spring, 
after  the  ground  is  well  settled  and  dry, 
with  settled  warm  weather,  plow  the 
ground  thoroughly,  eight  inches  deep, 
or  more,  depending  upon  its  previous 
management.  In  plowing,  it  ought  not 
to  be  plowed  more  than  an  inch  deeper 
than  before,  unless  the  deeper  soil  has 
been  ameliorated  and  is  richer  than  the 
upper  soil.  A  soil  having  a  close,  stiff 
subsoil,  unless  thoroughly  subsoiled,  will 
grow  poor  crops  of  roots  generally.     After 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       503; 


plowing,  harrow  so  as  to  make  the  soil 
perfectly  fine,  and  even  this  is  essential 
to  the  ready  drilling  and  germinating  of 
the  seed;  now  drill  in  the  seed,  putting 
the  drills  two  feet  apart.  The  seed 
should  be  fresh  and  of  the  previous  year's 
growth.  It  is  best  to  commence  the  cul- 
ture as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  distin- 
guished. Have  a  cultivator  of  light 
frame,  with  eight  teeth,  similar  to  the 
coulter  of  a  plow,  only  narrower,  and 
about  ten  inches  long,  and  a  shovel  for 
the  front.  With  this  and  a  horse  go 
through,  cutting  the  soil  deep  close  to 
the  rows  without  covering  the  plants; 
this  will  save  the  greatest  part  of  the 
work  usually  done  with  the  hoe,  and  do 
it  much  better.  When  the  carrots  are 
well  growing  and  about  the  size  of  the 
small  end  of  a  clay  pipe  stem,  take  a 
narrow  hoe  and  cut  them  into  hills, 
thinning  them  to  four  or  five  inches  apart. 
The  after  culture  is  performed  with  the 
cultivator,  going  through  once  in  about 
two  weeks.  If  any  weeds  come  in  the 
rows,  pull  them  out  by  hand — but  it  is 
not  probable  that  weeds  will  trouble  if 
the  soil  be  selected  as  above,  and  well 
prepared  before  planting,  and  the  culture 
as  directed.  To  harvest,  it  is  best  to 
take  a  sharp  hoe  with  a  short  handle 
and  clip  off  the  tops  close  to  the  crown, 
gather  them,  and  then  plow  around  the 
plat  a  deep  furrow,  as  close  to  the  roots 
as  you  can  go ;  now  take  them  by  hand 
and  draw  them  out,  and  throw  four  or 
more  of  the  rows  into  one.  Carrots 
should  be  taken  out  when  the  ground  is 
dry,  and  lie  a  few  hours  to  dry,  and  then 
be  hauled  to  the  root  cellar  to  be  stored, 
and  if  in  tight  bins  and  covered  with 
sand  they  will  keep  better.  They  should 
be  left  in  the  ground  to  ripen  as  long 
as  safe  without  freezing,  as  they  im- 
prove till  freezing  weather,  and  keep 
fresher  than  if  gathered  before  fully  ma- 
tured; be  careful  not  to  let  them  re- 
main too  long  to  get  frosted,  for  a  light 
freeze  injures  the  carrot  more  than  other 
roots. 

CAULIFLOWER,  Culture  of.  —  See 
Cabbage. 

CELERY,  Culture  of— The  seed  should 
be  sown  in  hot  beds  in  March,  or  in 
the  open  ground  the  last  of  April  or 
the  first  of  May ;  but  when  sown  in  the 
open  ground   it   vegetates   very   slowly, 


often  remaining  in  the  ground  several 
weeks  before  it  comes  up.  A  bushel  or 
two  of  stable  manure  put  in  a  hole  in 
the  ground,  against  a  wall  or  any  fence 
facing  south,  and  covered  with  a  rich 
fine  mould  three  or  four  inches  deep, 
will  bring  the  seed  up  much  sooner. 
Sufficient  plants  for  any  family  may  be 
started  in  a  large  flower-pot  or  two, 
placed  in  a  sitting-room,  giving  them 
plenty  of  air  and  moisture.  As  soon  as" 
the  young  plants  are  about  three  inches 
high,  prepare  a  small  bed  in  the  open 
ground,  and  make  it  rich  and  the  earth 
fine.  Here  set  out  the  plants  for  a  tem- 
porary growth,  placing  them  four  inches 
apart.  This  should  be  done  carefully; 
and  they  should  be  gently  watered  once, 
and  protected  for  a  day  or  two  against 
the  sun.  Make  the  trenches  a  foot  or 
fifteen  inches  deep  and  a  foot  wider 
and  not  less  than  five  feet  apart.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  put  some  good,, 
rich,  but  well-digested,  compost  manure ; 
for  if  too  fresh  the  celery  will  be  rank 
and  pipy,  or  hollow,  and  will  not  keep- 
nearly  as  long  or  well.  Dig  this  manure 
in  well,  making  the  earth  fine  and  light; 
then  take  up  the  plants  from  the  tempo- 
rary bed,  and  set  them  out  carefully  in 
the  bottom  of  the  trenches,  six  or  eight 
inches  aoart. 

CELLARS,  To  Keep  from  Freezing. — 
The  following  experiment  was  tried  by 
a  gentleman  with  the  cellar  of  an  out- 
house, in  which  on  several  occasions; 
vegetables  have  frozen,  though  the  cel- 
lar was  fortified  against  frost  by  a  pro- 
cess known  to  farmers  as  "  banking." 
The  walls  and  the  ceiling  were  pasted 
over  with  four  or  five  thicknesses  of 
newspapers,  a  curtain  made  of  the  same 
material  being  also  pasted  over  the  win- 
dow at  the  top  of  the  cellar.  The  pa- 
pers were  pasted  to  the  bare  joist  over 
head,  leaving  an  air  space  between  thenx 
and  the  floor.  The  result  was  that  no 
frost  entered  the  cellar,  though  the  cellar 
was  left  unbanked.  We  do  not  counsel 
the  special  use  of  old  newspapers  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  just  as  well,  or  better,  to 
use  coarse  brown  paper.  Whatever  paper 
is  employed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  sweep 
down  the  walls  thoroughly,  and  to  use  a 
very  strong  size  to  hold  the  paper  to  the 
stones.  It  is  not  necessary  to  press  the 
paper  down  into  all  the  depressions  of 


506 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


els  of  dry  white  sand  upon  the  roof  of  the 
stack  before  the  thatch  is  put  on.  The 
sand  is  no  detriment  to  the  corn,  and 
stacks  thus  dressed  have  remained  with- 
out injury.  So  very  effective  is  the 
remedy,  that  nests  of  dead  young  mice 
have  been  found  where  the  sand  has  been 
used,  but  not  a  live  mouse  could  be  seen. 

GOBS',  Broom. — Broom  corn  should  be 
planted  at  the  same  time  Indian  corn  is 
planted.  It  requires  a  richer  soil  than 
Indian  corn  —  at  least  Indian  corn  will 
produce  a  better  crop  on  a  less  fertile  soil 
than  is  required  for  broom  corn  in  conse- 
quence of  its  growing  faster,  and  feeling 
the  effects  of  fertilizers  more  perceptibly. 
Bottom  lands  on  the  banks  of  rivers  that 
are  annually  overflowed  in  early  spring 
are  particularly  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
broom  corn.  It  is  sowed  in  drills,  about 
three  feet  apart,  and  the  corn  thinned  out 
to  stand  from  four  to  six  inches  apart. 
Any  good  upland  soil  that  consists  of  a 
rich  mould,  easily  tilled,  will  produce  an 
excellent  crop  of  broom  corn,  with  the  aid 
of  barn-yard  manure  or  other  fertilizers. 
It  requires  careful  cultivation,  by  running 
the  cultivator  between  the  rows  as  soon 
as  the  corn  is  well  up ;  and  then  the  rows 
require  hand-weeding  and  thinning  out  to 
the  proper  distances.  Boys  and  girls  can 
do  this  work  better  than  men  can,  and  at 
one-third  the  expense  that  it  would  cost 
to  employ  men  to  do  it.  No  weeds 
should  be  permitted  to  grow,  as  the  value 
of  the  crop  depends  on  the  cleanness  of 
cultivation. 

The  seed  is  valuable  for  fowls,  and  for 
every  kind  of  live  stock  when  ground, 
and  some  cultivators  think  that  the  seed 
alone  is  worth  the  cost  of  cultivation. 

COTTON,  Cultivation  of.  — To  raise 
a  bale  of  five  hundred  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  per  acre,  on  common  cotton  land, 
requires  at  least  500  bushels  of  good 
compost  manure  per  acre,  or  its  equiva- 
lent in  superphosphate  or  guano,  and 
very  careful  of  cultivation. 

The  planter's  first  care,  after  having 
provided  the  food  for  his  cotton,  is  to 
bring  his  rows  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a 
horizontal.  The  manure  is  spread  uni- 
formly over  the  field,  and,  with  a  good 
plow,  the  rows  are  bedded  out  deep  and 
thoroughly,  intimately  incorporating  the 
fertilizer  with  the  soil,  and  at  the  same 
time  securing  perfect  pulverization.     The 


rows  are  laid  four  feet  apart,  and  the  seed 
planted  thirty  inches  apart  in  the  row, 
giving  4,368  plants  to  the  acre.  A  good 
stand  being  secured,  the  after  culture 
consists  of  light  plowing,  and  almost  con- 
stant shallow  stirring,  hoeing  and  care. 

Botation  of  Crops — A  good  rotation 
where  cotton  is  the  leading  crop,  is  first 
year,  cotton;  second  year,  corn;  third 
year  wheat,  rye  or  oats;  fourth  year 
grass — applying  the  fertilizer  mainly  to 
the  cotton. 

COTTON,  Planting.  —  A  planter  near 
Columbus,  Mississippi,  experimenting  on 
one  acre,  set  his  cotton  plants  three  and 
a  half  feet  apart  each  way,  thinning  to 
two  stalks  in  the  hill,  and  cultivating  in 
the  same  manner  as  with  corn.  The 
yield  was  more  than  double  that  grown 
in  the  old  way,  and  in  respect  to  the  ma- 
turing of  the  bolls,  advantage  was  found 
in  the  readier  access  of  the  sun. 

CTICUMBEB,  Culture  of.— In  the  open 
air  is  of  the  simplest  character.  Merely 
dig  out  a  hole  about  a  foot  wide  and  deep  ; 
fill  it  with  rich  sandy  soil ;  raise  it  above 
the  surface  about  six  inches.  The 
hills  should  be  six  feet  apart  each 
way.  If  the  weather  be  warm,  they 
will  grow  in  a  few  days.  *If  the 
nights  are  cold,  protect  them.  There  is 
frequently  a  little  bug  which  preys  upon 
the  tender  leaves ;  if  so,  soot  and  wood 
ashes,  sprinkled  over  them  while  wet  with 
the  dew,  will  retard  the  progress  of  the 
depredator.  To  have  young  fruit  in 
February  and  March  is  rather  a  nice 
operation;  but  any  one  who  can  com- 
mand a  few  loads  of  warm  horse  manure 
can  have  them  from  April  to  October. 
That  the  amateur  cultivator  may  have 
the  articles  either  for  family  use  or  for 
sale,  a  few  hints  may  be  in  place  on 
forcing  cucumbers.  Prepare  a  frame, 
following  the  instructions  laid  down  in 
another  part  of  this  work  for  hot-beds. 
After  the  beds  are  in  order,  put  in  a  good 
quantity  of  good,  light,  rich  loam — none 
better  than  the  surface  of  the  woods.  In 
two  or  three  days  the  earth  will  be 
sufficiently  warm  for  sowing  the  seeds.  If 
the  plants  are  to  be  removed  into  other 
frames,  sow  them  in  pots;  if  not  to  be 
removed,  sow  them  in  a  hill  made  in  the 
center  of  the  bed  by  placing  a  barrowful 
of  soil  in  it.  Cover  the  sash  at  night 
with  straw  mats,  or   any  similar  protec- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       507 


tion,  and  surround  the  bed  with  litter  or 
boards  to  protect  it  from  the  piercing 
winds.  The  seeds  vegetate  quickly,  and 
soon  grow  into  strong  plants.  During 
their  growth,  admit  air  every  day  at  the 
back  of  the  frame,  giving  as  much  light 
as  possible  to  the  young  plants. 

CRANBERRY,  Culture  of.— In  prepar- 
ing a  plantation  the  surface  must  first  be 
cleared  of  the  wood,  timber,  or  brush ; 
then  it  must  be  "turfed" — that  is,  the  sur- 
face-soil and  roots  must  be  taken  off  with 
a  hoe  made  for  that  purpose.  The  next 
step  is  to  ditch  it,  by  clearing  out  the  main 
water-course  and  digging  side  drains  run- 
ning into  it — generally  in  deep  bottom- 
lands, about  one  and  a  half  or  two  rods 
apart,  but  the  distance  should  be  varied 
in  accordance  to  the  nature  of  the  ground. 
The  floats  removed  in  turfing  are  used  for 
leveling  up  low  places  where  needed,  so 
that  the  surface  may  be  slightly  rounded 
between  the  side  drains;  they  are  also 
used  for  building  the  dam,  which  is  con- 
structed with  two  walls  of  floats  filled  in 
with  sand,  a  ditch  having  first  been  cut 
between  them  to  the  sand  beneath ;  the 
solid  filling  makes  it  water-tight. 

After  turfing  and  ditching,  muck  bot- 
toms must  be  sanded  from  the  depth  of 
from  four  to  six  inches  with  pure  sand, 
without  mixture  of  clay  or  loam,  and  it 
should  be  taken  from  a  sufficient  depth 
below  the  surface  to  avoid  seeds.  The 
silex  imparted  to  the  vine  from  the  sand 
stiffens  it,  materially  promotes  its  pro- 
ductiveness, and  tends  also  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  weeds.  Many  experiments 
have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  proper 
depths  to  which  the  sand  should  be  ap- 
plied ;  where  little  or  none  is  used  the 
vines  grow  long  and  slender,  and  do  not 
fruit  so  well  as  when  sanded.  While 
some  have  thought  two  inches  sufficient, 
others  have  tried  a  thickness  of  twelve  or 
more,  and  with  good  results — though 
with  this  amount  the  vines  make  a  slower 
growth,  on  account  of  the  length  of 
time  for  the  rootlets  to  reach  the  peat 
beneath,  from  which  they  draw 
their  support.  Most  cultivators  have 
concluded  that  from  four  to  six  inches, 
and  resanding  every  few  years  with  a 
layer  of  from  one  to  two  inches,  is  prefera- 
ble to  using  a  much  larger  quantity  at  first. 

After  sanding,  the  vines  are  set  in  rows 
about  twenty  inches  apart,  and    but  a 


moderate  quantity  of  vine  should  be  used 
for  each  hill.  This  is  the  usual  method, 
though  the  distance  is  often  varied  each 
way.  A  gentleman,  one  of  the  original 
cultivators,  from  recent  experiments  has 
concluded  that  the  vines  should  not  be 
set  over  a  foot  apart,  and  that  the  addi- 
tional cost  of  the  vines,  etc.,  will  be  more 
than  paid  for  by  earlier  and  larger 
crops,  as  well  as  by  the  matting  of 
the  vines,  in  much  less  than  the 
usual  time,  which  keeps  down  the 
other  vegetation,  and  saves  labor  and 
expense  in  cleaning.  Another  has  suc- 
cessfully adopted  the  method  of  layering 
the  vines,  or  placing  them  in  furrows  in 
the  sand,  with  which  they  are  entirely 
covered  to  the  depth  of  about  one  and  a 
half  inches.  Vines  grow  finely  by  this 
method,  but  great  care  must  be  taken,  to 
keep  them  moist.  Wild  vines  have 
generally  been  preferred  to  cultivated  ones 
for  setting,  from  the  fact  that  they  appear 
to  grow  more  vigorously  at  first,  especially 
if  the  season  is  a  very  dry  one. 

Savanna-land  can  be  plowed,  and  does 
not  need  sanding ;  this  is  a  great  saving 
of  expense,  but  as  large  crops  cannot  be 
expected  as  from  bottom-lands.  Where 
possible  on  land  of  this  kind,  the  turf 
not  needed  for  the  dam  should  be  plowed 
or  dug  under  the  sand,  as  it  is  often  the 
richest  part  of  the  soil,  and  is  well  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

Plantations  should  be  well  flowed  from 
December  until  May.  The  water  fertil- 
izes the  vines,  protects  them  from  frost, 
and  is  the  only  reliable  remedy  known 
for  the  vine-worm,  which  is  one  of  our 
worst  enemies.  It  is  thought  that  the 
water  where  held  on  the  vines  until  the 
10th  or  15th  of  May,  destroys  the  eggs 
deposited  on  the  leaves  the  previous  year; 
hence  the  advantage  not  only  of  late 
but  of  thorough  flowing,  as  the  portions- 
not  flowed  often  constitute  a  hatching- 
ground  for  the  worms,  from  which  they 
spread  to  the  adjoining  grounds,  though 
it  has  been  noticed  that  they  apparently 
prefer  not  to  go  much  beyond  the 
water-line  if  they  can  find  sufficient  vines 
that  have  not  been  flowed. 

GOOSEBERRY  BUSHES,  Mildew  on.— 
A  weak  solution  of  saleratus,  pretty 
strongly  tinctured  with  alum,  sprinkled 
over  gooseberry  bushes,  is  sure  to  prevent 
mildew. 


:5°3 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


GARDEN    SPIDERS,    To    Destroy.— 

Various  kinds  of  fruits  and  plants,  both 
in  the  garden  and  the  hot-house  are 
frequently  infested  with  insects,  such  as 
aphides,  earwigs,  red  spiders  and  other 
pests.  The  vine,  the  peach,  the  melon, 
the  cherry,  the  currant,  and  some  hum- 
bler plants,  afford  them  appropriate 
places  of  abode,  to  the  discomfort  of  the 
gardener  and  the  detriment  of  his  fruit. 
Several  modes  of  expelling  these  pests 
have  been  devised.  One  of  the  most 
successful  is  the  frequent  washing  of  the 
plants  and  fruit  trees  by  means  of  the 
watering-pot  and  rose.  This  itself  will 
vastly  diminish  the  numbers,  and  at 
length  destroy  them.  Lime-water,  how- 
ever, will  be  found  much  superior  to  the 
common  water  for  the  purpose,  care  being 
taken  that  the  fluid  shall  reach  the  lower 
sides  of  the  leaves,  and  those  parts  of 
twigs  and  branches  in  which  the  insects 
take  refuge.  Six  o'clock  in  the  morning 
is  an  excellent  time  to  perform  the  work. 
And  when  the  leaves  and  fruit  have  been 
thoroughly  washed  care  should  be  taken 
to  completely  shade  the  plants  in  the 
hot-house  or  forcing-house  with  matting, 
to  prevent  injury  to  them  from  the  heat 
of  the  sun  while  they  are  in  a  wet,  cool 
state.  The  washing  may  be  repeated 
about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

GARLIC. — The  common  garlic  is  pro- 
pagated usually  by  the  offsets  known 
technically  as  "  cloves  " — that  is  the  old 
bulbs  are  pulled  apart,  and  the  small 
•divisions  planted  in  spring.  They  are 
usually  set  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart, 
and  the  sets  four  to  six  inches  in  the  rows; 
plant  with  a  dibble,  or  by  thrusting  them 
into  the  soil  with  the  forefinger  and 
thumb.  Give  them  the  same  culture  as 
•onions,  gathering  in  autumn,  and  tie  in 
bundles,  the  tops  being  left  on  for  this 
purpose.  The  young  bulbs  will  throw  up 
long  stalks,  and  it  not  checked  are  very 
likely  to  run  to  seed,  which  must  be  pre- 
vented by  breaking  down  the  stems,  or 
tying  them  in  a  knot,  which  is  the  prac- 
tice of  European  gardeners.  Garlics  are 
mainly  used  by  foreigners,  especially  the 
Germans,  and  by  our  people  for  medical 
purposes. 

GRAFTING  WAX.— i.  Take  i  lb.  of 
tallow,  3  lbs.  of  beeswax,  and  4  lbs.  of 
resin ;  put  in*<)  a  kettle  and  melt  slowly 
until  ail  the  ingredients  are  combined. 


If  to  be  used  in  the  open  air  in  cool 
weather,  add  a  ^  to  j^  lb.  more  tallow. 
Melt  the  resin  first,  and  be  sure  it  is  well 
melted  before  adding  the  wax  and  tallow. 
If  this  be  not  done,  the  grafting  wax  will 
be  full  of  lumps.  When  melted  pour 
it  into  cold  water,  and  work  it  by  hand 
into  rolls  of  convenient  size.  In  cold 
weather,  soften  the  wax  by  putting  it  into 
warm  water  before  using.  When  the 
scions  are  set — say  as  many  as  20  or  30, 
or  few  as  is  wished — have  the  mixture  ready 
and  apply  it  warm,  with  a  small  wooden 
paddle.  See  that  every  part  is  covered 
and  the  air  completely  excluded.  It 
requires  no  bandage. 
.  GRAFTING  WAX,  Liquid.  —  Mr. 
L'Homme-Lefort  invented,  not  many 
years  ago,  a  grafting  composition,  which, 
when  generally  known,  will  no  doubt 
supersede  all  others  now  in  use,  either  for 
grafting  purposes  or  for  covering  the 
wounds  of  trees.  It  is  very  cheap,  very 
easily  prepared,  and  keeps  corked  up  in 
a  bottle  with  a  tolerable  wide  mouth,  at 
least  six  months  unaltered.  It  is  laid  on 
in  as  thin  a  coat  as  possible,  by  means  of 
a  flat  piece  of  wood.  Within  a  few  days 
it  will  be  as  hard  as  a  stone.  In  addition 
to  all  the  advantages  indicated  above,  it 
is  not  in  the  least  affected  by  the  severe 
cold  of  our  winters;  it  never  softens  or 
cracks  when  exposed  to  atmospheric  ac- 
tion or  changes.  There  is  no  better  pre- 
paration for  covering  the  wounds  of  trees. 
As  long  as  the  inventor  kept  it  a  secret  it 
sold  at  a  very  high  price,  and  even  now 
it  is  generally  unknown.  The  recipe  is  as 
follows :  Melt  1  lb.  of  common  resin  over 
a  gentle  fire.  Add  to  it  1  oz.  of  beef 
tallow,  and  stir  it  well.  Take  it  from  the 
fire,  let  it  cool  down  a  little,  and  then 
mix  with  it  a  tablespoonful  of  spirits  of 
turpentine,  and  after  that  about  7  oz.  of 
very  strong  alcohol  (95  per  cent.)  to  be 
had  at  any  druggist's  store.  The  alcohol 
cools  it  down  so  rapidly  that  it  will  be 
necessary  to  put  it  once  more  on  the  fire, 
stirring  it  constantly.  Still  the  utmost 
care  must  be  exercised  to  prevent  the 
alcohol  from  getting  inflamed.  To  avoid 
it,  the  best  way  is  to  remove  the  vessel 
from  the  fire,  when  the  lumps  that  may 
have  been  formed  commence  melting 
again.  This  must  be  continued  till  the 
whole  is  a  homogeneous  mass  similar  to 
honey. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       509, 


CUTTINGS,  to  Choose.  —  The  choice  of 
cuttings  should  be  made  from  the  side 
shoots  of  trees  and  plants,  and,  when  pos- 
sible, from  such  as  incline  toward  the 
ground,  observing  to  leave  a  little  wood 
of  a  former  year  or  season's  growth  at- 
tached to  them,  as  such  are  found  to  take 
root  more  readily  than  when  they  are 
wholly  composed  of  new  wood.  The 
time  to  take  cuttings  is  as  soon  as  the  sap 
gets  into  full  motion.  Before  setting  them 
they  should  be  cut  across,  just  below  an 
eye  or  joint,  with  as  smooth  a  section  as 
possible,  observing  not  to  injure  the  bud. 
The  superfluous  leaves  may  be  removed, 
but  a  sufficient  number  should  be  left  on 
for  the  purposes  of  vegetation.  The  com- 
mon practice  of  removing  all  or  nearly  all 
the  leaves  of  cuttings  is  injudicious.  In 
some  cases  leaves  alone  will  strike  root. 
When  cuttings  are  set  in  pots  they  should 
be  placed  so  as  to  reach  to  the  bottom 
and  touch  the  sides  throughout  their  whole 
length,  when  they  will  seldom  fail  to  be- 
come rooted  plants.  In  the  case  of  tubu- 
lar stalked  plants,  it  is  said  to  be  advan- 
tageous to  insert  both  ends  into  the  soil, 
each  of  which  will  take  root,  and  may 
then  be  divided,  when  two  plants  will  be 
produced  instead  of  one.  An  equable 
temperature,  a  moist  atmosphere,  a  shady 
situation,  and  a  moderate  supply  of  water, 
are  the  principal  requisites  to  induce 
speedy  rooting.  Excess  of  any  of  these  is 
prejudicial.  When  the  size  of  the  cuttings 
admit,  it  is  better  to  place  them  under  a 
hand  or  bell-glass,  which  will  preserve  a 
constant  degree  of  heat,  and  prevent  evap- 
oration from  the  surface  of  the  leaves, 
which  is  the  most  common  cause  of  their 
dying,  especially  in  hot,  dry  weather. 

CUTTINGS,  to  Manage.  —  No  cutting 
requires  to  be  planted  deep,  though  the 
larger  ought  to  be  inserted  deeper  than 
such  as  are  small.  In  the  case  of  ever- 
greens, the  leaves  should  be  kept  from 
touching  the  soil,  otherwise  they  will  damp 
or  rot  off;  and  in  the  case  of  tubular 
stalked  plants,  which  are  in  general  not 
very  easily  struck,  owing  to  the  water 
lodging  in  the  tube,  and  rotting  the  cut- 
ting, both  ends  may  be  advantageously 
inserted  in  the  soil,  and,  besides  a  greater 
certainty  of  success,  two  plants  will  be 
produced.  Too  much  light,  air,  water, 
heat,  or  cold,  are  alike  injurious.  To 
guard  against  these   extremes  in  tender 


sorts,  the  means  hitherto  devised  is  that  of 
inclosing  an  atmosphere  over  the  cuttings, 
by  means  of  a  hand  or  bell  glass,  accord- 
ing to  their  delicacy.  This  preserves  a 
uniform  stillness  and  moisture  of  atmos- 
phere. Immersing  the  pot  in  earth  has  a 
tendency  to  preserve  a  steady,  uniform 
degree  of  moisture  at  the  roots;  and 
shading  or  planting  the  cuttings,  if  in  the 
open  air  in  a  shady  situation,  prevents  the 
bad  effects  of  excess  of  light.  The  only 
method  of  regulating  the  heat  is  by  double 
or  single  coverings  of  glass  or  mats,  or 
both.  A  hand-glass  placed  over  a  bell- 
glass  will  preserve,  in  a  shady  situation,  a 
very  constant  degree  of  heat. 

What  the  degree  of  heat  ought  to  be  is 
decided  by  the  degree  of  heat  requisite  for 
the  mother  plant.  Most  species  of  the 
erica,  dahlia  and  geranium  strike  better 
when  supplied  with  rather  more  heat  than 
is  requsite  for  the  growth  of  these  plants 
in  green-houses.  The  myrtle  tribe  and 
camelias  require  rather  less;  and  in  gen- 
eral a  lesser  portion  of  heat,  and  of  every- 
thing else  proper  for  plants,  in  their  rooted 
and  growing  state,  is  the  safest. 

CUTTINGS,  to  Protect. —  A  method 
practiced  in  Florida  to  strike  cuttings  in 
well-drained  lands,  and  to  preserve  young 
seedlings  from  insects,  is  as  follows :  A 
square  hole  is  dug  in  the  earth  from  three 
to  five  inches  in  depth,  with  almost  per- 
pendicular sides,  the  ground  at  the  bottom 
well  stirred  up,  or  the  bottom  earth  taken 
out  and  good  earth  put  in.  The  cuttings, 
or  seeds  are  then  planted,  the  hole  is  cov- 
ered with  a  single  piece  of  glass,  and  loose 
earth  is  scraped  around  the  edges  of  the 
glass  to  render  it  insect-proof.  It  then 
forms  a  miniature  hot-bed  and  shelter 
until  the  young  plants  are  old  enough  to 
resist  the  attacks  of  insect  enemies,  when 
the  glass  can  be  removed  and  the  earth 
drawn  around  the  roots.  In  wet,  cold 
situations  the  holes  could  be  made  on  the 
summit  of  little  mounds. 

DRAINING. — A  cheap  mode  of  drain- 
ing is,  instead  of  digging  the  ditch  alto- 
gether with  a  spade,  to  use  the  plow,, 
taking  land  15  or  20  feet  wide,  and  leav- 
ing the  dead  furrow  where  the  drain  is  to 
be.  By  plowing  several  times  the  dead 
furrow  may  be  sunk  nearly  two  feet,  and 
from  the  bottom  of  this  trench,  the  width 
and  depth  of  the  space,  may  be  thrown 
out,  and  a  drain  made  of  3  fence  boards 


5™ 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDE  N. 


(4  inches  wide  will  be  sufficient)  in  the 
shape  of  the  letter  V,  may  then  be  put 
into  this  branch,  and  the  plowing  re- 
versed till  the  ground  is  made  level.  This 
method  has  a  double  advantage — 1.  It  is 
a  cheaper  method  than  to  dig  the  full 
depth  by  hand,  and  the  wood  is  cheaper 
than  tile.  2.  By  turning  up  and  thus 
loosening  the  subsoil  to  that  depth  on  each 
side  of  the  drain,  the  water  would  find  its 
way  into  the  drain  more  readily  than  if 
only  a  narrow  ditch  had  been  dug  from 
the  surface  down,  leaving  the  sides  un- 
moved and  almost  impervious  to  water. 

DOCKS,  to  Eradicate.  —  Cut  them  off 
close  to  the  ground  when  the  tops  are 
fully  out,  but  the  seed  not  fully  formed, 
and  they  are  done  for.  The  stalk  dies  in 
the  ground;  but  you  must  cut  them  so 
close  to  the  ground  that  you  leave  no 
leaves  on  the  stalk,  else  they  will  not  die. 
The  end  of  June  is  generally  about  the 
best  time  to  cut  them ;  but  it  depends  on 
the  season.  In  the  pasture-fields  they  are 
soon  cut  with  a  scythe.  In  wheat  and 
meadows  they  have  to  be  cut  with  a  knife. 

FGG-PLANT,  Culture.  — Sow  in  hot- 
bed very  early  in  the  spring ;  transplant 
when  two  inches  high,  into  a  second  hot- 
bed ;  if  that  is  not  done,  thin  to  four  inches 
apart.  Do  not  plant  out  till  the  weather 
becomes  settled  and  warm.  Keep  the 
plants  watered  for  a  few  days  if  hot  when 
put  out.  Where  hot-beds  are  not  con- 
venient, a  few  plants  can  be  started  in 
flower-pots  or  boxes,  and  when  planted 
out  must  have  a  deep,  rich  soil,  and  full 
exposure  to  the  sun. 

ELM  TREES,  Ulcers,  U  Cure  in.— The 
remedy  consists  in  boring  every  tree  at- 
tacked by  the  disease,  at  the  ulcer  itself; 
and  in  applying  a  tube  to  the  hole  occa- 
sioned by  the  borer,  penetrating  about 
nine  lines  in  depth.  The  sound  trees, 
which  are  also  bored,  afford  no  liquor, 
whereas  those  that  are  ulcerated  afford  it  in 
great  abundance,  increasing  particularly 
in  fine  weather,  and  when  the  wound  is 
exposed  to  the  south.  Stormy  weather 
and  great  winds  stop  the  effusion.  In  this 
manner  the  ulcers  dry  and  heal  in  forty- 
eight  hours. 

FIGS,  Drying.— The  editor  of  the  Rural 
Alabamiati,  who  has  had  some  experience 
in  the  drying  of  figs,  says  that  there  is  no 
more  difficulty  in  putting  a  first-rate  article 
of  dried  figs   into  the  market  from  the 


Gulf  States  than  from  Smyrna.  The  tli.- 
ficulty  has  been  that  the  right  varieties 
have  not  been  cultivated.  The  common 
large  yellow  fig  of  the  South  is  not  well 
adapted  for  drying,  being  too  juicy,  too 
hollow,  and  too  open  at  the  eye,  and  it  is 
very  liable  to  injury  from  damp  or  rainy 
weather  at  the  time  of  its  maturity.  He 
recommends  the  Brunswick,  Large  White, 
Genoa,  Smyrna  and  Figue  d'Or  varieties 
for  drying. 

FIG,  Culture.  —  On  warm,  dry,  rich, 
sandy  soils  here  the  fig  grows  with  as  much 
freedom  as  in  the  Gulf  States,  and  on  ac- 
count of  our  exemption  from  late  spring 
frosts,  the  first  crop  is  more  certain  than 
in  Georgia  or  Tennessee.  One  is  aston- 
ished to  see  their  luxuriant  foliage,  which 
is  remarkably  free  from  curled  or  yellow 
leaves,  a  fact  doubtless  due  to  the  uni- 
formity of  heat,  light  and  moisture  of  our 
climate.  One  peculiarity  of  the  fig  is  that 
its  fruit-buds  start  simultaneously  with  the 
leaf-buds,  which  can  be  readily  distin- 
guished the  fall  previous.  The  buds  be- 
gin growth  here  the  forepart  of  May,  and 
by  the  middle  of  June  the  new  shoots  are 
about  one  foot  in  length,  and  the  young 
figs  the  size  of  hickory  nuts.  Then  they 
commence  swelling  very  rapidly,  and  in  a 
few  days  are  the  size  of  small  green  pears; 
in  two  or  three  days  more,  or  about  the 
first  of  July  they  become  yellow,  when 
they  are  ripe  and  ready  for  picking.  In 
some  countries  they  are  used  as  daily  food, 
eaten  in  milk,  and  are  very  wholesome 
and  nutritious.  They  can  be  canned  or 
dried,  but  are  too  good  for  that  purpose 
until  more  abundant.  The  second  crop 
begins  to  grow  as  soon  as  the  first  is  re- 
moved, and  usually  gets  ripe  the  fore 
part  of  September.  It  is  not  always  nec- 
essary to  give  them  protection  in  the 
winter,  but  for  the  purpose  of  dividing 
them,  and  to  guard  against  extreme  win- 
ters, it  is  advisable  to  heel  them  in,  which 
can  be  done  at  any  time  after  the  frosts 
of  autumn  remove  the  leaves  before  severe 
winter  approaches.  The  process  is  very 
simple ;  dig  one  plant  and  lay  it  on  its 
side  in  the  hole,  then  dig  the  next,  throw- 
ing the  dirt  on  the  first,  and  so  on  until 
they  are  all  covered.  Reverse  the  process 
in  the  spring,  at  which  time  you  can  di- 
vide and  prune  into  shape,  using  the  cut- 
tings for  new  plants,  which  strike  root 
readily,  and  often  bear  fruit  the  first  sea- 


>». 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      511 


son.  In  setting  out  the  plants,  give  them 
room  according  to  their  size.  Taking 
them  up  or  dividing  them  does  not  pre- 
vent them  from  fruiting  if  the  roots  are 
not  badly  bruised  nor  dried  by  exposure 
to  the  weather.  Where  one  has  but  few 
plants,  open  boxes  or  barrels  can  be  set 
over  them,  filling  in  with  straw  or  dirt. 
The  simple  process  of  protecting  the 
plants  in  winter  should  not  deter  any 
from  growing  and  enjoying  such  delicious 
fruit. 

FRUIT  TREES,  to  Protect  from  Rab- 
bits.— To  protect  fruit  trees  in  the  win- 
ter from  rabbits,  it  is  recommended  to 
make  a  strong  decoction  of  tobacco, 
simmer  it  down  in  lard  to  the  consistency 
of  thin  paint,  add  a  little  soft  soap,  stir 
well,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Apply  with 
a  little  brush  or  swab  from  the  root  of 
the  tree  upwards  until  above  the  reach  ot 
the  rabbits.  This  dose  would  seem 
calculated  to  spoil  the  appetite  of  the 
hungry  depredators  of  whatever  kind. 
"See,  also,  "  Apple  Trees,  to  Keep  Rab- 
bits from  Barking." 

HEMP,  Culture  of.— Hemp  is  a  plant 
of  very  great  importance ;  its  tough, 
■durable  and  elastic  fibres  being  better 
■suited  for  making  cordage  and  canvas  for 
shipping  than  any  other  substance  yet 
known.  The  quantity  required  to  supply 
the  navy  and  commercial  marine  of  the 
United  States  alone  is  immense. 

This  country  is  well  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  hemp,  which  is  a  very  profit- 
able crop,  well  rewarding  the  careful  and 
judicious  cultivator;  yet  the  supply  is  far 
short  of  the  demand  for  home  consump- 
tion, a  great  quantity  having  to  be 
annually  imported. 

The  soil  most  suitable,  ana  always  to 
be  preferred,  are  those  of  a  deep,  black, 
vegetable  kind,  and  which,  from  the  loca- 
tion, are  slightly  inclined  to  moisture; 
such  soils  are  easily  found,  particularly  in 
the  western  country.  Mellow,  rich,  clayey 
soils  do  very  well,  and  none  answer  any 
better  than  old  meadow  land.  Hemp 
may  be  raised  on  the  same  ground  for 
successive  years  without  degenerating, 
and  without  exhausting  the  soil,  espe- 
cially if  the  shives  are  returned  to  the 
the  land  in  the  form  of  manure. 

Hemp  may  either  precede  or  follow  a 
crop  of  grain,  as  its  tendency  is  to 
smother  and  choke  all  other  plants;  in 


fact,  nothing  else  so  well  cleans  and  pre- 
pares the  ground  for  other  crops,  especially 
for  small  grain  or  grasses.  It  eradicates 
all  weeds,  and  when  it  is  taken  off,  leaves 
the  field  clean,  smooth  and  even. 

The  ground  intended  for  hemp  should 
be  plowed  in  time  to  receive  the  influence 
of  frosts,  and  after  a  crop  of  grain ;  be- 
sides a  deep  plowing  before  winter,  it 
should  be  plowed  at  least  twice  in  the 
spring,  so  as  to  reduce  the  soil  to  a  fine 
tilth,  as  it  is  all  important  that  it  be 
thoroughly  pulverized.  To  insure  a  good 
crop  the  seed  must  'be  fresh,  which  may 
be  known  by  its  being  heavy  and  of  a 
bright  color. 

When  hemp  is  intended  to  be  culti- 
vated for  seed  for  the  crops  of  the  next 
year,  it  is  to  be  raised  in  a  place  distant 
from  that  in  which  it  is  raised  for  the  fibre 
only,  and  sowed  in  drills  about  four  feet 
apart.  In  the  blooming  season  the  male 
plants  should  be  mostly  pulled  up  and 
thrown  away,  and  the  female  plants 
thinned  out,  leaving  the  stalks  seven  or 
eight  inches  apart.  The  male  and  female 
plants  are  easily  known  apart,  as  only  the 
male  plants  blossom,  and,  when  agitated, 
throw  off  farina — a  yellow  dust — which 
falls  and  colors  the  ground,  or  any  other 
objects  with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 
A  few  of  the  male  plants  should  be  left 
scattered  through  the  drills,  until  the 
farina  is  completely  discharged.  Between 
the  drills  a  plow  should  be  run  sufficiently 
often  to  keep  the  ground  from  weeds, 
and  between  the  stalks  in  each  drill  the 
hoe  is  to  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  plants  are  generally  cut  after  the 
first  smart  frost,  between  the  middle  of 
September  and  the  middle  of  October, 
and  carried  to  the  barn,  where  the  seed  is 
easily  detached  by  the  common  flail;  the 
stalks  which  bear  the  seed,  being  too  large, 
coarse,  and  harsh  to  produce  good  fibre, 
are  usually  thrown  away,  but  they  might 
be  profitably  made  into  charcoal  for  the 
use  of  powder-mills. 

After  the  seed  is  threshed  out,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  spread  it  thinly  on  the  floor,  to 
cure  properly  and  prevent  rotting,  before 
being  finally  put  away  for  use  the  next 
spring.  The  seed  should  be  sown,  the 
weather  permitting,  in  April,  or  early  in 
May ;  when  the  plant  first  shoots  up  it  is 
very  tender,  and  liable  to  be  injured  by 
frost,  if  sown  too  early. 


512 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


When  hemp  is  raised  for  the  fibre,  the 
seed  is  to  be  sown  broadcast,  a  bushel 
and  a  half  to  two  bushels  and  a  half  to 
the  acre,  according  to  the  strength  and 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  care  with 
which  it  has  been  prepared,  as  well  as  to 
the  season.  When  the  seed  is  sown,  it  is 
to  be  plowed  or  harrowed  in;  and  roll- 
ing the  ground  afterward  will  prove 
beneficial. 

The  labors  of  the  cultivator  are  then 
suspended  until  the, plants  are  ripe  and  in 
a  state  to  be  gathered. 

If  the  season  be  favorable  for  a  few 
weeks,  until  the  plants  are  six  or  eight 
inches  high,  they  will  then  shade  the 
ground  and  a  good  crop  may  be 
expected. 

Hemp  is  generally  ripe  and  fit  to  be 
gathered  about  the  middle  of  August, 
varying  according  to  the  time  of  sowing; 
and  by  sowing  at  different  periods,  in 
order  that  the  crop  may  not  all  ripen  at 
the  same  time,  a  press  of  labor  in  har- 
vesting may  be  avoided. 

The  maturity  of  a  plant  is  determined 
by  the  shedding  of  the  farina,  already 
noticed,  and  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant 
turning  yellowish;  it  is  then  generally 
supposed  to  be  ripe,  but  it  is  safer  to  wait 
a  few  days  longer.  A  little  observation 
will  enable  any  one  to  judge  when  it  is 
fully  ripe ;  it  is  a  very  accomodating  crop, 
for,  if  gathered  a  little  too  soon,  the  fibre 
will  not  be  materially  injured,  and  it  will 
wait  the  leisure  of  the  farmer  a  week  or 
two  after  it  is  entirely  ripe. 

The  plants  are  gathered  by  two  modes, 
namely,  pulling  them  up  by  the  roots  or 
cutting  them  off  about  two  inches  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground — the  closer  to 
the  ground  the  better.  Cutting  is  gener- 
ally preferred,  which  is  performed  with  a 
knife  (often  made  out  of  an  old  scythe) 
or  with  a  good  reaping  machine. 

Whether  pulled  or  cut,  the  plants  are 
to  be  carefully  and  evenly  laid  on  the 
ground  to  cure,  which,  in  dry  weather, 
will  take  two  or  three  days ;  a  light  rain 
falling  on  them  while  lying  down  is  rather 
beneficial,  as  it  will  then  be  more  easy  to 
remove  the  leaves,  which  should  be  done 
before  the  shocks  are  formed.  When 
cured,  the  plants  should  be  tied  in  small 
bundles,  for  convenience  in  handling,  and 


set  up  in  shocks,  the  roots  or  butt  ends 
resting  on  the  ground,  and  the  tops  united 
or  tied  by  a  band  made  of  the  plants. 
As  soon  as  convenient,  the  shock  may  be- 
collected  together  and  formed  into  stacks, 
and  by  remaining  in  the  stacks  a  suffi- 
cient time  before  being  exposed  to  be- 
rotted,  the  plants  go  through  a  sweat, 
which  very  much  improves  the  appear- 
ance and  quality  of  the  fibre. 

HYACDJTH  CULTURE.  — The  hya- 
cinth requires  a  light  but  rich  soil,  sandy 
loam,  well  dressed,  and  mixed  with  thor- 
oughly rotted  manure,  but  if  the  soil  is 
not  sandy,  add  a  third  of  silver  sand. 
The  soil  for  a  hyacinth  bed  must  be 
deeply  dug,  well  mixed  and  turned  over. 
Plant  the  bulbs  eight  inches  apart,  and 
four  inches  under  the  soil. 

To  Grow  Hyacinths  in  Pots. — Select 
the  bulbs,  and  plant  each  one  separately 
in  a  four-inch  pot,  well  drained  with  pot- 
sherds, and  filled  within  an  inch  of  the 
top  with  the  same  soil  recommended  for 
the  beds.  If  the  plants  are  to  remain  out- 
doors until  rooted,  place  them  in  a  dry 
level  place,  and  cover  them  about  six 
inches  deep  with  straw,  decayed  leaves,, 
or  cocoanut  fibre,  putting  a  piece  of  bas& 
mat  over  to  keep  off  rain ;  they  will  not 
require  watering.  In  ten  weeks  they  will 
have  made  sufficient  roots,  and  may  be 
brought  into  the  house  and  watched  care- 
fully. If  brought  into  the  house  directly 
they  are  potted,  keep  them  in  a  dark,, 
moist  atmosphere  for  about  ten  weeks, 
then  gradually  expose  them  to  the  light,, 
and  give  them  water  frequently. 

To  Grow  Hyacinths  in  Glasses. — Single 
flowering  hyacinths  are  the  best  for  this 
purpose.  Fill  the  glasses  with  soft  water 
(rain  water  is  the  best)  so  as  nearly  to> 
touch  the  bulb.  Exclude  the  light  totally 
from  them  for  five  weeks,  by  which  time 
the  glass  ought  to  be  full  of  roots ;  they 
may  then  be  placed  where  they  will  have 
plenty  of  light  and  an  equable  tempera- 
ture. Do  not  change  the  water  while 
they  are  in  the  dark,  but  when  exposed  to 
the  light  pour  out  half  the  water  in  each 
glass  once  a  week,  and  fill  it  up  with 
fresh  water,  which  should  have  been  kept 
for  some  time  in  the  same  room,  that  the 
temperature  may  be  the  same.  A  very 
little  guano,  mixed  with  the  water  strength-  " 
ens  the  plant. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       513 


FRUIT  CULTURE.— The  first  question 
may  be  answered  very  readily,  for  most 
of  those  who  have  no  fruits,  it  is  simply 
because  they  do  not  try  to  have  them, 
and  this  is  the  very  natural  result  of  their 
ignorance  of  the  means  of  obtaining  an 
abundance  of  these  blessings  upon  almost 
every  farm  in  the  United  States. 

The  latter  question  may  be  answered 
by  enumerating  some  of  the  great  advan- 
tages of  fruit  growing.  These  are  prima- 
rily the  health  of  the  familes  of  the  pro- 
ducers, where  fruits  are  freely  consumed 
upon  the  table  at  all  seasons  of  the  year ; 
next,  the  pleasure  attendant  upon  their 
propagation,  their  culture,  and,  above  all, 
the  satisfaction  derived  from  the  harvest- 
ing and  consumption  of  these  products. 

It  is  a  well  established  axiom  in  the 
medical  profession,  that  the  regular  con- 
sumption of  fresh,  well  ripened  fruit,  if 
conducive  to  health,  and  it  is  also  a  fact 
that  the  farmers  of  our  country  are  not 
so  well  fed  as  they  should  be.  This  is 
nobody's  fault  but  their  own.  True,  they 
cannot  have  so  great  a  variety  of  meats 
as  those  who  reside  in  towns  and  villages, 
but  they  may  enjoy  the  greatest  profusion 
of  fresh  vegetables,  and  a  succession  of 
ripe  fruits  the  year  round,  if  they  will  but 
choose  to  take  the  trouble  to  plant  and 
cultivate  even  a  small  portion  of  then- 
land  as  a  garden  and  orchard. 

An  appeal  on  behalf  of  fruit  culture 
may  also  be  made  to  the  more  sordid 
motive  of  money  making.  No  crops  that 
are  produced  from  the  soil  yield  so  great 
profits.  The  productiveness  of  small 
pieces  of  land  appropriated  to  fruit  cul- 
ture is  truly  wonderful,  and  the  money 
results  in  some  cases  are  so  great  as  to  be 
worthy  of  the  fashionable  term  of  "fabu- 
lous." 

It  is  well  for  the  farmer  to  recollect 
that  some  of  our  fruit  crops  may  be*  con- 
sumed with  great  advantage  and  profit 
by  his  stock  animals.  Hogs,  sheep,  cat- 
tle, particularly  milch  cows,  and  even 
horses,  may  be  profitably  fed  upon  some 
varieties  of  fruit.  It  has  been  asserted 
by  a  recent  author,  that  "fruits  of  all 
kinds,  but  particularly  what  may  be 
called  the  large  fruits,  such  as  are 
green  in  our  orchards,  may  be  prof- 
itably cultivated  for  feeding  our  do- 
mestic animals.  Sweet  apples  have  been 
especially    recommended     for    fattening 

33 


swine,  and  when  fed  to  cows  they  in- 
crease the  flow  of  milk,  or  produce  fat, 
according  to  the  condition  of  these  ani- 
mals. .  .  .  Orchards  have  been 
planted  with  a  succession  of  sweet  apples 
that  will  sustain  swine  in  a  condition  of 
perfect  health,  growing  and  fattening  sim- 
ultaneously from  June  to  November;  and 
the  late  varieties  may  be  cheaply  pre- 
served for  feeding  stock  of  all  kinds  dur- 
ing the  winter.  The  farmer  may  also  be 
reminded  that  portions  of  many  farms 
can  be  appropriated  to  the  culture  of 
fruits,  which  are  not  adapted  to  crops 
that  require  cultivation  on  arable  land. 
It  has  even  been  asserted  that  a  given 
area  planted  with  fruit  trees  will  sustain 
more  stock,  or  fatten  more  pork  than  the 
same  space  devoted  to  grain  and  forage 
crops. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil  —  Disap- 
pointment from  Bad  Selections. — 
Having  assigned  a  portion  of  the  farm  to 
the  apple  orchard,  which  should  be  ele- 
vated, and  of  a  light  porous  soil,  the  ground 
should  be  well  prepared  by  thorough 
plowing,  if  this  be  practicable,  though  it 
is  found  that  fruit  trees  will  thrive  in  new- 
ly cleared  land,  if  set  among  the  stumps  \ 
they  have  been  planted  on  prairie  sod,  • 
and  there  are  many  fine  orchards  on 
rocky  tracts,  where  the  preparation  must 
be  done  exclusively  with  the  pick,  the 
spade  and  the  shovel.  It  may  be  the 
best  economy  for  the  owner  of  such  land 
to  appropriate  it  to  the  orchard,  because 
it  is  unfitted  for  tillage  crops.  Even  the 
holes  for  setting  the  trees  may  be  made 
with  the  plow,  by  simply  marking  out  the 
surface  at  the  proper  distances,  and  set- 
ting the  trees  at  the  inter-sections.  This 
is  done  after  the  whole  ground  has  been 
well  prepared  by  a  thorough  plowing,  and 
the  trees  are  easily  planted  in  the  mellow 
soil  in  which  they  will  thrive  admirably. 
On  low  and  flat  lands  that  have  no  good 
natural  drainage,  tile  should  be  used,  if 
accessible,  but  even  here  surface  drainage 
may  be  done  with  the  plow,  by  throwing 
the  furrows  together  where  the  rows  of 
trees  are  to  be  set,  what  the  farmers  call 
back-furrowing,  two  or  three  times,  so  as 
to  make  a  little  ridge  to  plant  them  on. 
This  will  also  make  open  furrows  between 
the  rows,  that  will  give  outlet  for  the  sur- 
plus rain  water,  or  at  least  lead  it  away 
from  immediate  contact  with  the  roots. 


5^4 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


Selection  of  Trees. — Varieties. — 
Young  trees  are  better  for  planting  than 
older  ones;  small  ones  are  more  easily- 
handled,  and  are  surer  to  grow  than 
larger  ones.  Two  years  trom  the  graft 
or  Dud  is  long  enough  for  the  apple  to 
remain  in  the  nursery.  This  is  true  of 
most  varieties,  but  there  are  exceptions  to 
this,  for  some  slow  growing  kinds  require 
a  longer  period  to  attain  sufficient  size. 
The  plants  should  be  stocky  and  branch- 
ed, and  they  should  be  taken  up  carefully, 
so  as  to  preserve  the  roots. 

Varieties  are  so  numerous,  and  tastes 
so  diverse,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
make  out  a  list  of  sorts  that  will  be 
acceptable  to  all,  and  besides  this,  it  is 
well  known  that  the  varieties  which  suc- 
ceed in  one  locality  may  fail  in  another. 
Every  planter  should  endeavor  to  ascer- 
tain what  sorts  have  been  tested  and 
approved  in  his  own  neighborhood. 
Hardy  and  productive  kinds,  of  second 
quality,  are  more  satisfactory  than  those 
fruits  of  greater  excellence,  which  have 
not  these  prime  qualities  of  the  tree.  It 
is  rare  that  we  find  all  excellence  united 
in  one  individual. 

For  the  family  orchard,  it  is  best  to 
have  a  succession  in  the  time  of  ripening. 
The  same  is  true  of  an  orchard  planted 
for  stock-feeding,  but  in  the  commercial 
orchard,  where  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  is 
to  be  produced  for  shipping,  it  is  found 
best  to  plant  only  a  few  varieties,  and 
these  should  be  productive,  hardy,  and  of 
.  such  a  character  as  to  bear  transportation 
.  and  to  command  a  ready  market,  less  re- 
gard being  had  to  the  superior  quality  as 
.table  fruits  than  in  the  amateur  and 
family  list. 

Apple  Family. — Planting. — After  the 
ground  has  been  prepared,  it  is  ready  to 
mark  off  with  the  plow  in  two  directions, 
so  that  the  intersections  of  the  furrows 
shall  come  at  the  stations  for  the  trees. 
This  is  the  best  way  to  dig  the  holes,  for 
the  furrows  may  be  made  quite  deep 
enough.  Indeed,  it  is  not  desirable  to 
set  the  trees  deeply ;  some  even  advocate 
planting  on  the  surface,  and  covering  the 
roots  with  a  little  mound  of  soil,  as  is 
done  when  the  trees  are  set  on  top  of  the 
sod  of  prairie  or  meadow.  The  distance 
between  the  trees  will  depend  upon  the 
habit  of  the  variety.  Some  will  require 
more  space  than  others,  but  close  plant- 


ing has  many  advocates,  who  advance 
some  cogent  reasons  for  crowding  the 
trees,  instead  of  the  wide  planting  of 
former  years.  A  few  of  these  may  be 
mentioned :  In  the  first  place,  it  is  now 
conceded  that  the  land  appropriated  to 
the  orchard  should  be  given  up  to  the  trees, 
and  not  be  used  for  other  crops,  therefore 
there  is  less  necessity  for  space  between 
them.  In  close  planting,  the  whole 
ground  is  shaded,  and  kept  from  the 
baking  influence  of  the  sun,  and  thus 
remains  more  loose  and  friable  than 
where  exposed.  The  crowding  of  the 
trees  also  protects  them,  in  a  great 
degree,  from  the  severity  of  the  cold  in 
winter,  and  from  the  injury  incident  to 
the  sudden  changes  of  our  climate ;  but 
in  exposed  situations,  this  close  planting 
especially  shelters  them  from  the  trying 
winds. 

The  planting  should  always  be  done 
with  the  greatest  care,  the  roots  should 
be  spread  out  in  their  natural  position, 
the  finest  soil  put  next  to  the  fibres,  and 
worked  in  among  them  with  the  fingers, 
so  as  to  be  in  immediate  contact  both 
below  and  above  them.  When  the  roots 
are  well  covered,  slight  pressure  may  be 
made  with  the  foot,  especially  toward  the 
end  of  the  roots ;  or,  if  the  ground  be 
dry,  a  few  quarts  of  water  may  be  poured 
upon  it  to  settle  the  soil,  and  this  should 
be  covered  with  more  dry  earth.  All 
that  portion  of  the  tree  which  was  under- 
ground in  the  nursery  must  be  covered, 
and,  in  fall  planting,  a  little  mound  should 
be  heaped  up  against  the  stem,  to  keep 
it  from  being  swayed  by  the  wind,  as 
well  as  to  turn  off  the  rains  from  the 
roots.  This  mound  may  be  removed  in 
the  spring. 

Cultivation  should  be  thoroughly  kept 
up  in  the  young  orchard  for  a  few  years, 
and,  at  first,  hard  crops,  such  as  corn  or 
potatoes,  may  be  allowed  among  the 
trees,  but  no  grain  or  grass,  nor  any 
weeds,  should  ever  be  permitted  among 
them.  This  cultivation  may  be  continued 
four  or  five  years,  until  the  trees  are  well 
established,  and  begin  to  cover  the 
ground  with  their  shade,  when  the  spaces 
between  them  will  be  so  occupied  by 
their  branches  as  no  longer  to  admit  the 
horse  and  plow.  The  land  may  now  be 
laid  down  to  clover,  not  for  a  hay  crop, 
but  simply  to   cover  the  surface   as  a 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       515 


mulch,  for  which  purpose  it  may  be 
mowed  and  left  on  the  ground. 

Training  and  Pruning. — These  topics 
should  be  considered  together,  since  both 
have  the  same  object — the  forming  of  the 
head.  The  tree  should  be  trimmed  early 
in  its  orchard  life,  so  as  to  produce  the 
desired  shape.  It  should  be  branched 
low,  from  two  to  four  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  main  limbs  should  be  well 
"balanced  and  well  separated,  while  the 
leader  must  also  be  preserved,  all  inter- 
fering branches  should  be  removed,  and 
those  which  are  too  strong  must  be 
shortened  in  during  the  summer.  All 
this  will  require  some  care  and  watchful- 
ness, but  will  need  the  removal  of  very 
little  wood,  if  it  be  done  in  time,  while 
the  tree  is  small,  and  this  is  the  best  time 
to  do  the  work  of  pruning;  midsummer 
is  the  best  season,  a  strong,  sharp  knife 
and  a  pruning  chisel  the  best  instru- 
ments. 

Pruning  old  orchards  is  quite  another 
affair,  and  if  they  have  been  long  neg- 
lected, the  trees  may  need  a  very  severe 
pruning  to  remove  crowded,  exhausted 
and  decaying  branches,  in  order  to  re- 
invigorate  the  organism  by  the  production 
of  new  wood  growth.  The  application 
of  the  saw  will  now  be  required,  and  the 
mild  weather  of  fall,  winter  or  early 
spring  should  be  selected  for  doing  the 
work.  All  large  wounds  must  be  pared 
smoothly  with  the  chisel,  and  covered 
with  some  mastich  fo  exclude  the  ele- 
ments. In  such  trees  it  is  sometimes 
better  to  thin  out  the  branches  and 
shorten  them  than  to  remove  the  larger 
limbs. 

Pears  are  delicious  fruits,  and  every 
farmer  should  plant  at  least  a  few  trees. 
The  crops  are  certain,  and  any  surplus 
may  readily  be  disposed  of.  The  old 
saw  about  planting  "  for  one's  heirs " 
must  give  way  before  the  advances  of 
pomology,  for  we  now  have  many  varie- 
ties in  cultivation  that  are  early-produc- 
tive, and  modem  horticulture  has  fur- 
nished us  with  means  of  forcing  early 
fruitage  upon  those  varieties  that  formerly 
tried  the  patience  of  the  orchardist  by 
their  long-continued  wood-growth,  before 
reaching  that  condition  of  maturity  that 
is  attended  by  abundant  crops. 

The  natural  season  for  the  maturing  of 
this  fruit  being  mid-autumn,  we  find  as  a 


result  of  cultivation  and  the  production  of 
new  varieties,  that  this  period  has  been 
considerably  extended  in  both  directions, 
so  that  the  pear  season  now  reaches  from 
July  to  March  or  even  longer.  A  very 
experienced  student  and  propagator  of 
this  fruit  has  suggested  that  in  thus  de- 
parting from  the  normal  season  of  ripen- 
ing, we  may  expect  to  find,  under  the  law 
of  compensation,  that  we  shall  lose  some 
desirable  qualities.  The  truth  of  this  is  a 
matter  of  common  observation  :  thus,  in 
quality,  most  early  pears  are  inferior  to 
those  of  a  later  period,  and  the  general 
inferiority  of  the  latest  or  winter  pears  is  a 
matter  of  common  remark;  there  are  ex- 
ceptions in  both  extremes,  but  autumn  is 
the  season  of  the  best  pears. 

Soil.  —  Any  good  loamy  land,  with  a 
predominance  of  clay,  will  produce  good 
pear  trees,  and  thorough  plowing  will  be 
a  sufficient  preparation  after  draining,  if 
the  subsoil  be  tenacious  and  wet.  The 
pear  strikes  its  roots  deeply  into  the  soil ; 
it  is  thus  able  to  seek  its  food,  and  it  is  a 
gross  feeder,  but  may  thrive  even  on  thin 
soils,  at  the  same  time  it  will  be  benefited 
by  suitable  manures.  Analysis  of  its  pro- 
ducts shows  that  it  needs  lime  and  phos- 
phoric acid;  therefore,  bones  may  be 
applied  with  advantage  to  lands  that  are 
deficient  in  these  elements.  Planting  and 
cultivation  of  the  pear  may  be  the  same 
as  that  advised  for  the  apple. 

Dwarf  pears  have  been  very  highly 
recommended,  and  largely  planted;  but 
the  majority  of  planters  now  prefer  to 
have  their  trees  on  tree-stocks.  These 
are  often  erroneously  called  standards  in 
contradistinction  to  those  being  dwarfed 
by  being  worked  on  quince  stocks.  The 
dwarfs  are  very  satisfactory  for  limited 
grounds,  and  should  have  high  culture 
and  good  care  in  trimming  and  training 
to  produce  their  best  results.  The  two 
styles  of  trees  should  not  be  planted  to- 
gether as  has  been  advised ;  they  require 
different  treatment. 

Training. — Pear  trees  will  bear  crowd- 
ing, as  most  of  them  are  of  an  upright 
habit ;  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  apart  is  wide 
enough  for  the  majority,  and  many  will 
succeed  much  closer.  The  trees  should 
not  be  grown  as  standards,  with  tall, 
naked  stems,  but  do  much  better  if 
trained  from  the  first  in  conical  form, 
when  they  are  generally  called  pyramids. 


Si« 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


This  object  is  attained  by  causing  them 
to  branch  low,  and  by  curbing  the  upper 
limbs,  at  both  the  summer  and  winter 
pruning,  thinning  them  out  and  shorten- 
ing them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep  the 
lower  branches  always  the  longest;  the 
result  will  be  the  desired  conical  tree, 
which  shall  have  all  of  its  twigs,  fruit  and 
foliage  well  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air. 

Culture  and  Pruning.  —  The  pear  or- 
chards may  be  treated  like  those  of  the 
apple,  excepting  that  the  general  habit  of 
the  former  is  pyramidal,  and  of  the  latter 
globular,  so  that  the  pruning  will  require 
some  modification,  though  conducted 
upon  the  same  principles.  While  young, 
the  ground  among  the  trees  should  be 
well  cultivated,  but  after  they  have  at- 
tained some  size,  after  six  or  eight  years, 
they  are  found  to  do  better  in  grass  than 
if  the  cultivation  be  continued.  These 
remarks  apply  to  the  pear  on  free-stalks, 
but  those  trees  that  are  dwarfed  upon  the 
quince,  or  by  severe  and  continued  root- 
pruning  will  reqiure  high  culture  and  even 
manure. 

Peaches  are  always  acceptable,  easily 
grown,  and  they  come  into  fruiting  at  an 
early  age,  generally  the  third  year.  Un- 
fortunately they  are  not  constant  bearers, 
as  the  flower  buds  are  often  injured  by 
the  severity  of  winter  or  by  spring  frosts. 
Peach  trees  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil, 
but  light  sandy  or  gravelly  lands  and  ele- 
vated situations  seem  best  adapted  to 
them.  The  trees  should  be  one  year  old 
from  the  bud,  cut  back  to  a  bare  stem 
about  two  feet  long  before  planting. 
They  should  be  set  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet  apart  in  the  orchard,  planted  in  the 
spring,  and  the  ground  must  be  cultivated 
continually  to  secure  the  best  results. 
Mounding  the  tree  has  been  advocated, 
but  it  is  an  expensive  operation,  the  merits 
of  which  have  not  yet  been  fully  demon- 
strated. There  is  a  great  variety  of  this 
fruit,  both  in  its  color,  flavor,  consistence, 
and  season.  There  are  clings  and  free- 
stones of  all  colors.  The  former  are  the 
best,  the  latter  are  most  popular.  The 
season  extends  from  the  first  of  August 
until  the  middle  of  October  in  this  lati- 
tude. Those  which  ripen  earlier  or  later 
are  of  less  value. 

Plums  are  so  sadly  affected  by  the  Cur- 
culio  that  few  of  us  know  how  excellent  a 
fruit  this  is.      Occasionally  the    rascals 


stand  back,  and  thus  we  get  a  crop ;  and 
some  cultivators  have  succeeded  in  coun- 
terworking the  enemy  so  as  to  preserve 
their  fruit.  Trees  planted  in  trodden 
places  near  houses  have  escaped  the  at- 
tacks of  these  insects,  and  have  borne 
crops  for  many  years,  so  that  farmers  are 
urged  to  continue  planting  plum  trees  in 
such  situations.  There  are  some  varie- 
ties, however,  which  appear  to  escape 
these  invaders,  among  them  the  little 
Damson,  which  is  well  worth  cultivating, 
as  it  makes  good  preserves. 

Cherries. — This  delicious  fruit  appears 
to  be  more  fastidious  as  to  soil  than  any 
other;  for  though  it  will  grow  almost 
anywhere,  it  does  not  stand  well  on  our 
rich  limestone  lands.  Those  soils  that 
are  natural  to  the  chesnut  appear  to  be 
the  most  suitable  for  cherries. 

There  are  some  very  hardy  varieties 
that  seem  to  do  equally  well  on  any  kind 
of  land ;  these  are  called  the  Dukes  and 
Morellos,  they  are  mostly  sour,  and  are. 
chiefly  valuable  for  cooking  cherries; 
may  be  planted  ten,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
apart,  according  to  their  class,  as  Morel- 
los, Dukes,  or  Hearts  and  Bigarreaus,  the 
last  being  the  largest.  The  trees  should 
not  be  too  old  when  planted,  two  or  three 
years  from  the  bud  or  graft  is  enough. 
They  should  be  headed  back,  so  as  to 
branch  low,  and  should  be  grown  as  pyr- 
amids. All  the  pruning  should  be  done 
while  they  are  young,  as  they  do  not 
readily  heal  over  the  stump  of  a  large 
limb.  These  trees  are  very  apt  to  split 
and  burst  their  bark,  especially  where  the 
stems  are  exposed  to  the  sun  by  trimming 
them  up  as  standards;  hence  the  impor- 
tance of  low  heads.  This  accident  is 
most  common  in  the  free  growing  kinds 
and  in  rich  soils. 

Quinces  have  been  too  much  overlooked 
by  our  farmers,  who  could  not  present 
their  families  with  a  more  acceptable 
offering  than  the  fruit  from  a  few  trees 
planted  in  some  low  spot  of  rich,  moist 
soil,  such  as  that  which  receives  the  slops 
and  drainage  from  the  dwelling  house. 

These  trees  are  rather  hardy,  and  will 
occupy  little  space,  as  they  never  grow 
large,  and  can  be  planted  eight  or  ten. 
feet  apart.  They  should  be  trained  to- 
one  stem,  branched  about  three  or  four 
feet  from  the  ground,,  and  kept  trimmed 
to  open  heads. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       517 


Grapes. — Every  farmer,  every  cottager, 
<very  householder  or  house  ruler,  should 
plant  a  few  grape  vines.  It  is  a  very 
simple  affair,  requiring  no  great  amount 
-of  skill  nor  labor  to  plant,  train  and  trim 
■a.  grape  vine,  and  its  productiveness  of 
fruits  that  every  body,  young  or  old,  can 
appreciate  is  proverbial.  Who  has  not 
heard  of  the  famous  grape  cure  ?  Who 
can  object  to  trying  it  ?  Certainly  not 
he  who  has  planted  and  trained  his  own 
vines. 

Almost  any  soil  that  has  been  deeply 
loosened  and  moderately  enriched  will 
•cause  the  grape  vine  to  grow  luxuriantly. 
It  may  be  set  in  out-of-the-way  places, 
trained  to  a  stake  or  a  trellis,  or  be  made 
to  climb  beside  the  walls  of  out-houses, 
and  cover  their  bare  sides  with  foliage 
and  fruit,  rendering  them  ornamental  in- 
stead of  ugly. 

Training  the  young  vines  in  an  upright 
direction  to  encourage  their  growth,  and 
at  the  same  time  concentrating  their  force 
into  one  or  two  shoots,  by  pinching  or 
rubbing  out  the  others,  is  a  very  simple 
affair,  and  light  labor.  Pruning  them 
when  dormant,  cutting  them  back  to  two 
or  three  eyes  in  the  fall  or  winter,  is  no 
great  mystery.  The  same  process  of 
training  two  strong  shoots  the  next  sea- 
son is  but  a  repetition  of  the  first  sum- 
mer's experience,  with  more  satisfactory 
results;  and  the  second  fall,  with  canes 
nearly  as  large  as  the  little  finger,  the 
pruning  is  less  severe,  because  we  now 
have  bearing  wood,  which  needs  to  be 
shortened-in  two  or  three  feet  in  a  strong 
vine,  These  canes  are  to  be  trained  hor- 
izontally, as  the  arms  of  the  vine,  in  which 
condition  they  may  be  left  for  years,  un- 
less they  need  renewal.  In  the  third, 
and  all  succeeding  years,  we  must  still 
train  the  shoots  upward,  taking  care  only 
to  remove  the  superabundance  of  the 
growths,  by  rubbing  out,  early  in  the  sea- 
son, and  leaving  one  shoot,  say  every 
nine  inches,  which  must  be  trained  up- 
ward. In  the  fall  of  this  year,  we  com- 
mence pruning  these  shoots  for  alternate 
production  of  fruit  and  wood,  by  cutting 
one  cane  about  two  feet  long,  and  re- 
ducing the  next,  the  weaker,  to  a  spur, 
with  only  two  eyes  or  buds.  In  this  way 
the  bearing  wood  of  the  vine  is  constantly 
renewed.  The  mystery  disappears  when 
we  recollect  that  all  the  fruit  of  a  grape 


vine  is  produced  upon  green  shoots  that 
grow  from  the  cane  of  last  year's  growth. 
By  renewing  these  shoots  annually  from 
below,  we  can  have  bearing  wood  to 
cover  the  trellis,  and  strong  new  shoots  to 
clothe  the  whole  with  abundant  foliage. 
Various  modifications  of  pruning  and 
training  have  been  suggested,  and  may  be 
practiced,  but  the  most  simple,  common 
and  successful  is  the  one  indicated  above. 
All  depend  upon  the  annual  reproduction 
of  new  wood  from  which  to  draw  our 
supplies  of  wood  from  year  to  year. 

FEUITS,  SMALL,  How  to  Cultivate— 
We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of 
the  small  fruits,  which,  however,  may 
constitute  a  very  large  share  of  the  food, 
comfort  and  luxury  of  a  well  regulated 
family,  either  in  the  country  or  city,  and 
which  will  contribute  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  healthiness  of  the  people,  by  sub- 
stituting their  grateful  acids  and  sweets 
for  the  calomel,  ipecac,  tartar,  soda  and 
potash,  in  various  forms,  that  are  so  freely 
drawn  from  the  druggists'  shelves,  either 
for  the  cure  or  production  of  disease,  ac- 
cording as  they  are  administered  by  the 
doctor  or  by  the  cooks. 

The  strawberry  comes  first  in  the  order 
of  the  season,  and,  indeed,  it  is  the  most 
universally  welcomed  and  relished  of  them 
all.  The  cultivation  of  this  fruit  is  so  sim- 
ple, and  the  returns  so  speedy  and  so 
grateful,  that  it  should  occupy  a  promi- 
nent place  in  every  farmer's  garden.  This 
fruit  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil,  but  a 
good  stiff  loam,  well  stirred,  is  probably 
the  best.  The  strawberry  plants  should 
be  well  rooted  runners,  or  offshoots  from 
an  older  plantation;  they  should  be  taken 
up  carefully,  so  as  to  have  good  roots.  If 
these  have  been  formed  in  small  flower- 
pots sunk  near  the  parent  bed,  so  much 
the  better,  as  the  fibres,  being  confined  by 
the  pot,  will  be  less  disturbed  in  trans- 
planting, or  the  ball  may  be  set  entire. 

Strawberries  may  be  grown  in  hills,  in 
rows,  or  in  beds.  The  latter  is  the  com- 
mon method,  and  the  beds  are  formed  by 
planting  two  or  more  rows  a  foot  or  fif- 
teen inches  apart,  setting  the  plants  twelve 
inches  one  from  another  in  the  rows.  In 
the  beds,  the  runners  are  allowed  to  grow^ 
and  to  increase  the  number  of  plants  in- 
definitely, so  that  they  are  often  injured 
by  being  crowded  too  closely  together, 
When  planted  in  hills,  they  are  set  eighteen 


$I« 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


inches  apart ;  the  space  between  them  is 
kept  perfectly  clean,  and  the  runners  are 
cut  as  soon  as  they  appear.  This  results 
in  the  greater  growth  of  the  original  plant, 
which  has  an  increased  number  of  crowns 
from  which  the  blossoms  and  fruit  proceed 
in  great  numbers.  This  method  enables 
the  producer  to  have  the  best  possible  re- 
sults in  the  size  and  appearance  of  his 
fruit,  but  it  is  attended  with  more  labor 
and  expense  than  the  bed  system.  Many 
cultivators  prefer  planting  in  rows,  when 
they  set  the  strawberries  about  a  foot 
apart,  and  place  the  rows  two  feet  or 
more  one  from  another,  according  as  they 
expect  to  use  plows  or  hoes  in  their  cul- 
ture. In  the  narrow  rows  the  runners 
may  be  cut  off,  and  the  fruit  will  be  al- 
most as  fine  as  that  grown  in  the  hills, 
but  in  the  wider  rows  the  runners  are 
generally  allowed  to  strike  root,  and 
spread  the  row  into  a  bed  in  the  course 
of  the  first  summer  after  planting. 

Spring  is  the  best  time  for  setting  out 
the  plants,  though  this  may  be  done  at 
any  time  during  the  growing  season. 
The  advantages  of  early  planting  are  the 
longer  period  allowed  for  the  stools  to 
grow  and  become  thoroughly  established 
in  the  soil.  The  plants  are  set  by  the 
line,  a  hollow  is  opened  with  the  trowel, 
in  this  the  roots  are  spread  out,  then  cov- 
ered with  mellow  earth  and  pressed  firmly 
with  the  fist  or  even  with  the  heel.  If 
watered  at  once,  a  little  fresh  earth  should 
be  thrown  in  to  prevent  the  cracking,  but 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  placing 
the  crown  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground — in  other  words,  the  roots  must 
be  planted  and  not  the  corm,  from  which 
the  crowns  arise.  Thorough  culture  should 
be  given  through  the  season. 

Mulching,  with  old,  rotten  manure,  ap- 
plied after  planting,  will  encourage  the 
growth  of  the  strawberries,  and  keep  the 
soil  moist.  Winter  mulching  with  clear 
straw,  leaves,  or  other  material,  should  be 
liberally  applied  after  the  ground  has  frozen, 
and  be  left  to  protect  the  buds  during  the 
winter,  and  to  be  removed  from  the 
crowns  of  the  plants  in  the  spring.  Be- 
ing left  between  the  rows,  the  straw  will 
make  a  good  summer  mulch,  and  keep 
the  fruit  clean.  In  hill  culture,  saw-dust 
and  old  tan  bark  have  been  recommended, 
and  still  another  material,  spent  hops  from 


the  brewery,  has  been  used  with  excellent 
effect. 

Strawberries  have  a  peculiarity  in  their 
blossoms,  from  which  they  have  been 
classified  as  Pistillate,  Staminates  and  Her- 
maphrodites. In  the  first  class,  the  stamens, 
are  so  defective  that  the  flowers  need  tha 
fertilizing  influence  of  other  kinds  which 
must  be  planted  near  them.  These  fur- 
nish many  of  our  favorite  varieties,  espe- 
cially those  which  are  largely  cultivated 
in  beds.  The  next  class  embraces  most 
of  those  sorts  which  produce  the  largest 
berries,  their  flowers  are  often  so  deficient 
in  the  pistils  that  a  large  per  centage  of 
them  fail  to  set  fruit.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  when  these  varieties  are  grown  in 
beds  and  allowed  to  multiply  their  run- 
ners. They  are,  however,  quite  product- 
ive when  cultivated  in  hills,  and  they  have 
formed  branching  crowns  from  which 
spring  numerous  trusses  of  flowers.  Be- 
side these  two  classes  there  is  another,  in 
which  the  two  sexes  are  so  evenly  com- 
bined that  almost  every  flower  is  followed 
by  perfect  fruit,  a  very  few  varieties  of  the 
strawberry,  either  cultivated  or  wild,  be- 
long to  this  group. 

Baspberries. — Next  to  the  strawberry, 
and  nearly  allied  to  it  in  its  botanical  re- 
lations, is  the  raspberry,  which  furnishes  a 
fruit  of  high  flavor  and  exquisite  fragrance. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  this  should  be  a  fav- 
orite with  all  fruit-growers,  since  it  is  easily 
produced,  hardy,  makes  quick  returns  is 
easily  gathered,  and  commands  a  ready 
sale  at  high  prices.  And  yet  it  is  equally 
surprising  that  so  few  farmers'  gardens  are 
stocked  with  the  raspberry. 

Every  soil  that  is  cultivable  will  pro- 
duce this  fruit,  but  a  good  loam  is  best 
adapted  to  it.  The  only  preparation  requi- 
site is  ordinary  plowing  of  the  land,  but 
deep  cultivation  and  manuring  are  well 
bestowed  upon  the  rasperry  patch,  and  it 
should  be  kept  clean  by  thorough  summer 
cultivation. 

The  raspberry  may  be  planted  in  the 
fall,  but  the  early  spring  is  generally  pre- 
ferred. They  may  be  set  about  three  feet 
apart,  in  rows  that  are  from  six  to  nine 
feet  wide,  or  planted  in  hills  five  by  five 
feet,  or  wider  for  some  of  the  larger  kinds. 
Planting  in  rows  is  usually  preferred,  but 
the  hills  allow  of  cultivation  in  both  di- 
rections, or  cross  plowing,  which  saves 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       519- 


hoeing,  and  also  permits  the  pickers  to  get 
among  the  plants  more  readily. 

Trimming  the  raspberry  was  formerly 
done  only  in  the  winter,  and  consisted  in 
shortening  the  canes,  and  removing  the 
old  dead  wood,  and  the  surplus  feeble 
shoots,  so  as  to  leave  from  two  to  four 
on  each  plant  or  hill.  This  was  done  at 
any  mild  time  between  October  and  Feb- 
ruary or  March.  Fall  pruning,  if  done 
too  early,  may  prove  very  injurious,  if  fol- 
lowed by  mild  growing  weather  that 
causes  the  buds  to  grow,  and  thus  de- 
stroys a  portion  or  the  next  year's  crop. 
Of  course,  it  is  understood  that  all  the 
varieties  and  species  of  this  genus,  Rubus, 
including  the  raspberry  and  blackberry, 
produce  shoots  one  year  that  become  the 
bearing  canes  of  the  next  summer,  and 
then  die ;  an  apparent  exception  exists  in 
the  autumnal  bearing  raspberries,  which 
produce  blossoms  and  fruits  upon  the 
shoots  the  season  of  their  growth. 

Summer  pruning  is  now  practiced  by 
all  good  cultivators.  This  is  a  very  simple 
operation,  and  consists  in  pinching  or  cut- 
ting off  the  shoots  as  soon  as  they  are  two 
feet  high,  which  causes  them  to  branch 
out  with  strong  laterals,  and  these  are  to 
be  cut  back,  according  to  their  strength, 
in  the  winter.  By  this  means  the  plants 
are  made  more  stocky  and  bushy ;  they 
resemble  little  trees,  and  are  able  to  bear 
enormous  crops.  At  the  same  time,  all 
redundant  branch  shoots  are  to  be  cut 
away.  This  method  also  obviates  the  ne- 
cessity for  any  kind  of  support,  such  as 
stakes  or  trellis,  since  the  sturdy  plants 
are  able  to  stand  alone. 

We  have  two  American  species  of  eat- 
able raspberries,  the  Strigosus,  or  red 
fruited,  and  the  Occidentalis,  or  thimble- 
berry,  the  black  caps.  Besides  these,  the 
European  species,  the  Idazus,  furnishes 
many  delicious  raspberries,  most  of  which 
are  tender  and  need  winter  protection. 

Blackberries.— The  blackberry,  though 
abounding  in  most  parts  of  the  country, 
is  entirely  deserving  of  care  and  cultiva- 
tion. In  the  garden  it  is  under  our  con- 
trol, and  may  be  allowed  to  reach  perfec- 
tion, by  hanging  until  perfectly  ripe,  which 
is  not  the  case  that  must  be  yielded  to 
the  "  eminent  domain"  of  any  vagabonds 
who  may  come  along  and  trespass  on  our 
farmers,  and  glean  the  fruit  from  our  ne- 
glected fields  and  fence-corners. 


Any  rich,  deep  soil,  well  plowed,  will 
suit  this  fruit.  The  plants  should  be  al- 
lowed plenty  of  room,  and  may  be  set 
every  four  feet,  in  rows  eight  or  ten  feet 
wide.  The  ground  should  be  well  culti- 
vated, or  deeply  mulched,  and  the  suckers 
must  be  kept  down,  by  cutting  them  with 
the  hoe  whenever  they  appear  between 
the  rows,  and  these  should  not  be  crowd- 
ed— one  stalk  to  every  two  feet  will  be 
sufficient.  This  being  only  another  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Rubus,  or  bramble.  The 
remarks  as  to  the  habit,  and  pruning  of 
the  raspberry  are  applicable  to  this  spe- 
cies, and  need  not  be  repeated,  except 
that  the  summer  pruning  should  be  prac- 
ticed a  little  higher,  say  from  three  to  four 
feet,  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  plants,, 
and  the  redundant  shoots  must  be  cut 
off. 

Currant,  the. — In  almost  every  log 
cabin  garden  we  used  to  find  this  health- 
giving  fruit,  which  offers  its  agreeable  acid 
in  the  heats  of  summer  as  an  antidote  or 
preventive  of  the  bilious  effects  of  our  tor- 
rid season.  And  yet  the  currant  is  a  sadly 
neglected  fruit,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  there  is  not  enough  for  home  con- 
sumption. 

This  being  a  northern  plant,  it  is  thank- 
ful for  a  partial  shade  or  protection  from: 
the  scorching  sunshine  (in  lat.  400  or  south- 
ward). For  this  object  it  is  well  to  plant 
the  bushes  on  the  north  side  of  a  fence  or 
building,  and  even  in  the  shade  of  young 
orchard  trees,  where  they  sometimes  suc- 
ceed very  well  for  a  long  period,  even 
after  the  apple  trees  have  occupied  and 
shaded  the  whole  surface. 

The  currant  delights  in  a  deep,  rich 
loam,  and  will  thrive  even  where  the  soil 
is  somewhat  moist.  The  bushes  should 
not  be  crowded,  as  they  require  about  four 
feet  space,  each  way. 

Trimming  is  to  be  done  in  the  fall  or 
winter,  as  the  buds  swell  very  early  in  the 
spring.  It  should  consist  in  shortening 
two  or  three  of  the  strongest  young  shoots, 
cutting  away  all  the  weaker  ones,  and  re- 
moving only  the  oldest  and  exhausted 
bearing  wood.  Unlike  the  raspberry,  cur- 
rants do  not  fruit  on  the  young  shoots, 
but  upon  little  spurs  that  appear  only  on 
branches  that  are  two  or  more  years  old. 

The  plantation  must  be  kept  clean,  and 
free  from  grass  and  weeds.  After  cultiva- 
tion in  the  spring,  it  is  a  very  good  plan. 


.52° 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


to  cover  the  soil  with  a  heavy  coating  of 
old  hay,  straw,  fodder,  leaves,  or  other 
suitable  mulching  material,  which  will  re- 
tain the  moisture,  and  preserve  the  fruit 
a  long  while  in  fine  condition. 

Gooseberries. — Fashion  has  wonderfully 
affected  the  production  of  this  fruit.  The 
fine,  large,  English  varieties  were  gener- 
ally so  badly  affected  with  a  mildew,  that 
their  culture  was  abandoned,  except  by  a 
few  fortunate  persons.  The  introduction 
of  the  Houghton,  and  American  red  va- 
rieties, worked  a  revolution— everybody 
planted  them,  and  everybody  purchased 
them  at  high  prices  for  several  years; 
when  lo!  the  cost  of  sugar  caused  a 
change,  and  the  demand  fell  off  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  plantations  were  rooted 
up,  and  there  was  no  longer  any  sale  for 
the  plants,  and  nurserymen  discontinued 
their  propagation.  Gooseberries  are  just 
as  valuable,  nevertheless,  to  the  farmer's 
family  as  ever  they  were,  and  their  culti- 
vation is  so  simple  that  they  may  and 
should  be  grown  in  every  household  gar- 
den, and  by  every  cottager. 

FRUIT,  Preparing  for  Market. —The 
truth  can  hardly  be  too  often  or  too 
strongly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of 
fruit-growers,  and  especially  on  those 
commencing  the  business,  that  on  nothing 
does  success  so  much  depend  in  market- 
ing fruit  as  in  having  it  in  good  order. 
Superior  fruits  always  sell  quickest,  and 
often  at  extravagant  prices.  Assorting 
and  grading  fruit,  putting  all  uniformly 
fine  together,  and  the  inferior  and  dam- 
aged by  themselves,  selling  each  class  on 
its  merits,  has  always  paid  us  well,  and  we 
have  reason  to  believe,  given  good  satis- 
faction to  the  customers.  Many  persons 
who  appreciate  first-class  fruit  will  pay 
more  for  that  only  which  is  choice  and 
neatly  arranged  than  the  producer  can  get 
for  both  superior  and  inferior  packed  and 
marketed  together.  Our  mode  is  to  have 
each  picker  carry  in  her  hand  two  quart 
baskets,  into  one  putting  the  large  straw- 
berries, and  into  the  other  the  smaller 
ones ;  and  a  moment's  care  in  arranging 
the  berries  on  top,  with  the  stems  down- 
ward, gives  a  luscious  beauty  to  this  un- 
surpassable fruit,  and  compensates  in 
quickness  of  sales.  We  think  square 
•quart  baskets  preferable  where  the  market 
is  several  hundred  miles  distant.     Rasp- 


berries and  blackberries,  having  no  stems 
or  hulls,  press  more  closely  together,  and 
therefore  do  better,  when  sent  long  distanc- 
es, if  put  into  square  pint  baskets.  The  ber- 
ries will  generally  keep  better  on  the  vines, 
or,  if  well  aired,  under  the  packing-shed, 
than  in  close  cellars  or  store-rooms  in  the 
city.  Everywhere  "  honesty  is  the  best 
policy,"  and  dealers  are  by  no  means  slow 
in  learning  to  discriminate  in  favor  of  the 
brands  of  honest  packers. 

GRUBS,    White,    Remedies    for.— An 

authority  says  :  A  good  coat  of  unrotted 
manure,  plowed  in  six  or  eight  inches 
deep,  is  almost  a  specific  against  white 
grubs  in  corn  or  potatoes.  We  suppose 
the  grubs  work  in  the  manure  and  leave 
the  corn  plants  alone.  Plowing  under 
clover,  immediately  before  planting,  often 
has  the  same  effect. 

HAY,  (Clover),  Management  of. — Clo- 
ver should  be  mowed  as  soon  as  it  is  well 
in  blossom.  There  is  no  necessity  to 
wait  for  a  brown  head;  there  will  be 
plenty  to  be  seen  before  the  crop  is  well 
down.  Cut  when  the  dew  is  off,  and 
allow  to  dry  until  the  afternoon,  when  it 
should  be  shaken  up  and  turned  before 
the  dew  falls.  If  a  tedder  is  employed, 
its  constant  use  will  fit  the  clover  to  be 
put  in  cocks  the  same  day.  If  turned 
by  hand,  it  may  lie  until  the  noon  of  next 
day,  when  it  may  be  put  in  cocks,  made 
as  high  and  narrow  as  possible;  they  will 
shed  rain  better  in  this  shape,  and,  if 
caps  are  to  be  used,  a  yard  square  will  be 
sufficiently  large  to  cover  them.  Caps 
are  to  be  strongly  recommended,  and  the 
above  size  is  sufficient,  as  the  top  only 
needs  protection.  Put  up,  and  thus  pro- 
tected, the  hay  may  stay  in  the  field  until 
it  is  all  made,  when  it  may  be  hauled 
together.  If  any  cock  should  be  damp 
inside,  spread  for  a  few  minutes ;  it  will 
dry  rapidly.  Clover  cured  in  the  cock  is 
much  more  valuable  than  that  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  wastes  less  in  hauling.  Put 
away  the  first  cut  hay  by  itself,  in  a  place 
convenient  for  use  in  the  spring.  Cows 
coming  in  early  in  the  spring  will  thrive 
well  on  this  hay;  the  milk  will  be  largely 
increased  in  quantity,  and  be  richer  in 
quality,  while  the  butter  will  come  easily,, 
be  free  from  white  curdy  specks,  and  in 
color  wiH  not  be  far  behind  that  made 
from  June  grass. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       52! 


FOOD,  Steaming  Cheaply. — A  farmer 
recommends,  from  personal  experience, 
the  following  economical  steaming  appa- 
ratus: A  large  box,  made  steam-tight, 
placed  within  a  larger  box,  with  some  non- 
conducting material,  such  as  saw-dust, 
packed  between,  at  least  twelve  inches 
thick.  The  food  to  be  cooked  being 
placed  in  the  steam-box,  hot  water  is  to 
be  turned  in  and  the  apparatus  covered 
tightly  with  woolen  covers  in  order  to 
confine  the  heat. 

FRUIT  TREES,  to  Destroy  Moss  on.— 
Every  second  year  fruit  trees  should  be 
well  scrubbed  with  a  scrubbing  brush 
dipped  in  strong  brine,  so  as  to  moisten 
every  part  of  the  bark  of  the  stem  and 
branches.  This  not  only  destroys  the 
moss,  but  insects  of  all  kinds,  and  is  bene- 
ficial to  all  trees,  whereas  applications  of 
lime  choke  up  the  respiratory  pores,  and 
sometimes  produce  canker. 

Carbolic  soap  and  lye  is  also  recom- 
mended. The  poorest  soft  wood  ashes 
will  answer  for  making  the  lye,  as  it  need 
not  be  strong ;  it  is  used  simply  to  dis- 
solve the  carbolic  soap ;  say  ^  pound  of 
soap  to  a  3  gallon  pail  of  boiling  lye.  It 
may  be  applied  to  old  trees  while  boiling 
hot;  use  a  swab  or  a  large  paint  brush; 
go  over  the  trunk  and  all  the  large 
branches.  It  will  kill  the  eggs  and  larvae 
of  insects  as  well  as  the  moss,  and  will 
greatly  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
trees. 

FRUIT  TREES,  to  Prevent  Ants  from 
Injuring — Make  aline  of  gas-tar  round 
the  stem  of  the  tree,  or  if  it  be  trained  on 
a  wall,  make  a  horizontal  line  near  the 
ground  on  the  wall,  and  one  around  the 
stem ;  this  will  prevent  ants  from  ascend- 
ing. 

FRUIT  TREES,  to  Preserve  from  In- 
sects and  Mice. — Apply,  early  in  the  fall, 
around  the  root  a  thick  layer  of  lime  and 
ashes.  It  would  be  well  to  sink  the  earth 
.around  the  tree  about  six  or  eight  inches ; 
throw  in  a  few  shovelsfull  of  the  lime  and 
ashes,  and  then  cover  up  with  earth, 
trampling  it  well  down. 

FRUIT  TREES,  Blight  on,  to  Cure.— 
If  the  winter  dressings  fail  and  the  pests 
appear  in  spring  so  as  to  endanger  the 
•crop,  procure  a  quantity  of  ammoniacal 
liquor  from  the  gas-works,  and  to  every 
pailful  of  the  liquor  add  six  of  water,  and 
ioil  as  soon  as  possible  in  a  large  copper. 


Apply  this  in  the  evening,  hot,  with  a 
syringe,  drenching  every  part  of  the  trees, 
and  letting  not  a  leaf  escape.  It  should 
be  used  be  as  hot  as  can  borne  by  placing 
the  hand  in  it,  and  thrown  with  as  much 
force  as  possible  into  all  the  crevices  in  the 
bark,  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and 
splashed  vigorously  against  the  wall  on 
which  espaliers  are  trained.  It  may  be 
used  also  for  roses  and  fruit  bushes,  with 
the  most  certain  benefit.  Two  days  after 
give  another  syringing  with  plain  warm 
water.  To  clean  the  copper  in  which  the 
mixture  is  prepared,  fill  it  with  water, 
throw  in  a  shovel  of  cinder  ashes  and  a 
pound  of  soda,  and  let  it  boil  for  half  an 
hour. 

FRUIT  TREES,  Blossom  in.— Surround 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  in  blossom  with  a 
wisp  of  straw  or  hemp.  The  end  of  this 
sink  by  means  of  a  stone  tied  to  it,  in  a 
vessel  of  spring  water  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  tree.  One  vessel  will  con- 
veniently serve  two  trees;  or  the  cord 
may  be  lengthened  so  as  to  surround 
several  before  the  end  is  plunged  into  the 
water.  It  is  necessary  that  the  vessel 
should  be  placed  in  an  open  situation  out 
of  the  reach  of  any  shade,  so  that  the 
frost  may  produce  all  its  effects  on  the 
water  by  means  of  the  cord  communi- 
cating with  it. 

FRUIT  TREES,  Coating  for  Amputated 
Branches  and  "Wounds  in. — Shellac,  dis- 
solved in  alcohol,  forms  an  excellent  coat- 
ing for  amputated  branches  and  for 
wounds  of  fruit  trees,  making  a  water- 
proof artificial  skin,  under  which  the 
wood  grows  until  the  wound  is  healed. 

FRUIT,  Time  to  Gather— It  is  well 
known  by  observing  horticulturists,  that 
winter-fruit  may  become  over-ripe  while 
yet  hanging  on  the  tree,  so  that  its  season 
is  advanced.  Such  was  the  case  during 
the  very  warm  and  late  fall  of  1875;  and 
the  following  winter  there  was  a  complaint 
all  through  the  country  that  fruit  could 
not  be  kept.  In  some  places  it  was  gone 
before  New  Year.  There  is  a  time  in  the 
life  of  fruit  when  it  is  growth  is  complete — 
when  it  will  receive  nothing  further  from 
the  tree.  It  is  then  tree-ripe.  Shortly  after 
begins  after-ripening,  a  chemical  change, 
whereby  the  starch,  abundant  in  the  un- 
ripe or  green  fruit  is  transformed  into  sugar. 
At  the  completion  of  this  saccharine 
change  the  fruit  is  in  the  best  condition 


522 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


for  use.  But  almost  immediately  putre- 
faction sets  in,  first  dissipating  the  volatile 
aroma  and  destroying  the  delicate  flavor, 
and  finally  converting  the  grateful  sugar 
into  an  unwholesome  acid  and  consuming 
the  very  tissues  of  the  fruit.  Though  a 
low  temperature  and  dry  atmosphere  may 
sometimes  retard  this  change,  yet  so  easy 
and  rapid  is  its  progress  that  efforts  to 
preserve  the  fruit  after  it  has  become  ripe 
for  use  are  of  little  avail.  But  the  pro- 
gress of  the  first  change,  the  after-ripen- 
ing, may  be  so  delayed  as  to  require  sev- 
eral months  for  its  accomplishment.  It 
is  done  by  taking  the  fruit  from  the  tree 
at  the  moment  of  its  maturity,  and  keep- 
ing it  in  a  low,  even  temperature,  in  a  dry, 
pure  atmosphere,  and  secluded  from  the 
light.  Fruit-houses  are  constructed  where 
these  conditions  are  secured  almost  in 
perfection ;  where  the  thermometer,  for 
instance,  does  not  rise  above  340  for 
months  together,  and  fruit  kept  in  them 
has  barely  ripened  for  the  late  spring 
market. 

Fruit  should  be  gathered  in  a  dry  day. 
Plums  readily  part  from  the  twigs  when 
ripe ;  they  should  not  be  much  handled, 
as  the  bloom  is  apt  to  be  rubbed  off. 
Apricots  may  be  accounted  ready  when 
the  side  next  the  sun  feels  a  little  soft 
upon  gentle  pressure  with  the  finger; 
they  adhere  firmly  to  the  tree,  and  would 
over-ripen  on  it  and  become  mealy. 
Peaches  and  nectarines,  if  moved  up- 
wards, and  allowed  to  come  down  with  a 
slight  jerk,  will  separate,  if  ready;  and 
they  may  be  received  into  a  tin  funnel 
lined  with  velvet,  so  as  to  avoid  touching 
with  the  fingers  or  bruising. 

A  certain  rule  for  judging  of  the  ripe- 
ness of  figs  is  to  notice  when  the  small 
end  of  the  fruit  becomes  of  the  same  color 
as  the  large  one. 

The  most  transparent  grapes  are  the 
most  ripe.  All  the  berries  in  a  bunch 
never  ripen  equally ;  it  is  therefore  proper 
to  cut  away  the  unripe  or  decayed  berries 
before  presenting  the  bunches  at  table. 

Autumn  and  winter  pears  are  gathered, 
when,  dry,  as  they  successively  ripen. 

Immature  fruit  never  keeps  so  well  as 
that  which  nearly  approaches  maturity. 
Winter  apples  should  be  left  on  the  trees 
till  there  be  danger  of  frost ;  they  are  then 
gathered  on  a  dry  day. 


FENCE,  Fire-Proof,  Wash  for.— Make 
a  wash  of  1  quart  fine  sand  and  1  part 
wood  ashes  well  sifted,  and  3  parts  lime 
ground  up  with  oil,  and  mix  together. 
Apply  this  to  the  fence  with  a  branch — 
the  first  coat  thin,  the  other  thick.  This 
adheres  to  the  boards  or  planks  so  strongly 
as  to  resist  an  iron  tool  or  fire,  and  is,  be- 
sides, impenetrable  by  water. 

FENCE  POSTS,  Preservation  of.— Any 
sort  of  timber,  when  employed  for  fence- 
posts,  will  be  more  than  twice  as  durable 
if  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  seasoned 
before  being  set  in  the  ground.  The 
durability  of  seasoned  posts  may  be  pro- 
moted, so  as  to  make  them  last  for  an  age, 
by  the  application  of  a  heavy  coat  of  coal- 
tar  to  the  portion  buried  in  the  earth,  and 
a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Some  farmers  set  the  ground- 
end  in  hot  tar,  and  let  it  boil  for  fifteen 
minutes.  When  cool  cover  with  coal-tar, 
thickened  with  ground  slate  or  ground 
brick.  The  boiling  stiffens  the  albumen, 
and  causes  the  pores  to  absorb  tar.  The 
coating  prevents  the  action  of  moisture. 
But  such  a  treatment  of  green  posts  would 
do  very  little  good,  and  perhaps  mischief. 
Others  contend  that  the  better  way  is  to 
season  the  post  well  before  setting  it,  and 
when  the  post-hole  is  filled  to  within  ten 
inches  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  to 
apply  a  heavy  coat  of  tar  and  fill  up  with 
earth.  As  fence-posts  always  decay  first 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  protect  the  post  a  few  inches 
above  the  surface,  and  about  a  foot  below 
it.  The  timber  begins  to  decay,  usually, 
on  the  surface  of  the  posts.  Therefore,  if 
the  surface  can  be  protected  by  some  anti- 
septic material,  posts  will  last  a  lifetime. 

FLY  ON  TURNIPS,  to  Destroy.— Take 
1  bushel  of  newly  slaked  lime,  and  mix 
therewith  y^  bushel  of  wood  ashes ;  mix 
and  blend  the  whole  intimately  together, 
and  sift  the  powder  lightly  along  the  top 
of  the  drills. 

FRUIT  TREES,  Over-Bearing— The 
bending  of  branches  of  trees  by  an  over- 
crop of  fruit  is  most  injurious;  for  the 
pores  of  the  woody  stalk  are  strained  on 
one  side  of  the  bend  and  compressed  on 
the  other;  hence  the  vessels  through 
which  the  requisite  nourishment  flows 
being  partially  closed,  the  growth  of  the 
fruit  is  retarded  in  proportion  to  the 
:  straining  and  compression  of  the  stalk. 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


523 


GRAPE,  Grafting.  —  One  important 
fact  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  in 
this  connection,  and  that  is,  that  the 
grape  vine,  having  a  very  thin  inner  bark 
or  liber,  does  not  graft  with  the  same  ease 
as  do  the  more  common  of  our  fruit 
trees,  such  as  apple,  pear,  etc. ;  more  care 
is,  therefore,  necessary  in  the  operation. 

Cleft  grafting  is  the  common  mode 
employed,  and  is  usually  done  by  dig- 
ging away  the  earth,  and  inserting  the 
graft  very  early  in  the  spring,  two  or 
three  inches,  or  at  the  first  smooth  place 
below  the  surface.  A  horizontal  cut  of 
the  stock  is  generally  made,  but  a  sloping 
one  is,  perhaps,  preferable,  from  the  fact 
that  it  enables  all  the  gummy  matter  and 
excessive  moisture  which  oozes  from  the 
cut,  to  run  down,  and  not  accumulate  to 
the  injury  of  the  cion.  Fuller  recom- 
mends grafting  in  the  fall;  yet  we  give 
his  method  in  his  own  words,  as  recently 
published  in  the  New  York  Iribune : 

"Select  cions  of  the  present  year's 
growth,  and  from  canes  a  quarter  to 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
cut  into  lengths  of  three  inches,  with  a 
bud  near  the  upper  end.  The  lower  end 
should  be  made  into  a  long,  slender 
wedge.  Remove  the  earth  about  the 
stock  four  to  six  inches,  if  the  main 
branching  roots  will  permit  of  this  depth. 
Then  cut  off  the  vine  a  few  inches  below 
the  surface  and  square  across ;  then  split 
it  with  a  chisel  or  a  knife,  making  as 
smooth  a  cleft  as  possible  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  wedge-shaped  cion.  v  If  the 
stock  is  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  two 
cions  may  be  needed,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  cleft 

•'  The  outer  edge  or  the  wood  of  the 
cion  should  be  placed  even  with  the  outer 
edge  of  the  wood  of  the  stock,  no  atten- 
tion being  paid  to  the  uniting  of  the 
two,  because  one  will  be  very  thick  and 
the  other  thin.  A  nice  fit  of  the  two  is 
essential,  and  in  crooked-grained,  gnarly 
stocks,  a  smooth,  even  cleft  can  only  be 
made  by  cutting  out  the  wood  with  a 
sharp  instrument.  But  it  does  not  mat- 
ter how  it  is  done  so  it  is  well  done. 
After  fitting  the  cions  to  stock,  wind  a 
strong  cord  about  the  two,  in  order  to 
hold  the  former  firm  in  place ;  then  pack 
grafting  clay  or  common  soil  about  the 
stock,  entirely  covering  the  wound  made 
and  the  lower  half  of  the  cion,  but  leav- 


ing the  bud  uncovered.  No  grafting 
wax  should  be  employed  in  grafting 
grape  vines.  After  the  cions  have  been 
inserted  as  directed,  invert  a  flower-pot 
or  small  box  over  the  cion;  upon  this. 
place  a  quantity  of  leaves,  straw  or  hay; 
then  cover  all  with  earth,  rounding  it  up 
in  order  to  keep  the  water  from  settling 
around  the  grafted  stock  as  well  as  to 
prevent  too  severe  freezing. 

"Early  in  spring  remove  the  covering, 
and  if  the  operation  has  been  properly 
performed,  the  cion  will  be  firmly  united,, 
and  will  push  into  growth  as  the  season 
advances.  I  have  had  Delaware,  Iona 
and  similar  varieties  make  a  growth  of 
from  forty  to  sixty  feet  of  vine  from  a 
single  bud  in  one  season,  set  in  strong 
stocks  in  the  manner  described.  Graft- 
ing in  the  spring  may  be  performed  in  the 
same  manner,  omitting  the  covering,  but 
it  should  be  done  very  early  or  after  the 
leaves  have  started  and  growth  begun. 
The  cions,  however,  should  be  cut  early 
and  kept  dormant  in  some  cool  place 
until  wanted  for  use.' ' 

But  valuable  above  all  other  expe- 
rience for  our  own  people,  will  be  that  of 
Mr.  George  Husmann,  and  as  he  has 
said  little  on  the  subject  in  his  well 
known  work,  "Grapes  and  Wine,"  we- 
take  pleasure  in  giving  that  experience, 
as  he  has  kindly  communicated  it  to  us: 

"As  you  wished  to  have  my  views  of 
grafting  the  vine,  especially  with  the  ob- 
ject of  grafting  some  of  our  varieties  most 
subject  to  the  ravages  of  the  Phylloxera 
upon  roots  of  varieties  which  resist  it,  I 
will  cheerfully  add  my  mite  to  the  re- 
searches which  have  already  thrown  so 
much  light  upon  the  history  and  the  fail- 
ure of  so  many  of  our  otherwise  most 
valuable  varieties.  My  first  attempts  at 
grafting  the  vine  were  made  in  the  spring 
of  1852,  nearly  twenty-three  years  since, 
and  were  made  by  grafting  the  then  rare 
varieties  of  Norton's  Virginia  and  Her- 
bemont  upon  five  years  old  Isabella 
roots.  I  found  in  the  first  edition  of  A. 
S.  Downing's  *  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of 
America,'  a  few  remarks  on  the  practica- 
bility of  grafting  the  grape  below  the 
ground,  which  led  me,  then  a  novice  in 
horticulture,  to  try  it,  and  with  eminent 
success.  I  took  the  ground  away  from 
the  crown  of  the  vine  until  I  came  to  a, 
smooth  place,   then   cut   off  the   stock,. 


5:4       ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


split  it  with  a  grafting  chisel  and  inserted 
from  one  to  two  cions,  according  to  size 
of  stock,  cut  to  a  long  wedge  with 
shoulders  on  each  side.  I  used  no  band- 
ages, as  the  stocks  were  strong  enough  to 
hold  the  cions  firmly,  and  only  pressed 
moist  earth  on  the  cut  to  cover  the  wound. 
This  was  done  on  the  22d  and  23d  of 
March,  and  the  cion  covered  and  shaded 
to  the  top  bud.  About  three-fourths  of 
the  grafts  grew  vigorously  and  fruited  the 
next  year.  They  have  produced  heavy 
crops  ever  since,  and  when  at  Hermann, 
a  week  ago,  I  still  found  them  vigorous 
and  healthy,  while  the  Catawbas  around 
them  have  "  passed  away  "  several  years 
ago.  I  have  practiced  various  methods 
since,  with  more  or  less  success,  and  still 
think  this  the  best  and  most  practicable, 
though  it  is  neither  an  easy  nor  a  pleas- 
ant task,  as  it  must  be  performed  when 
the  ground  is  still  cold  and  moist,  and 
requires  a  good  deal  of  stooping.  The 
inner  bark  or  liber  of  the  vine  is  very 
thin,  while  the  outer  bark  is  very  thick 
•on  a  large  old  stock.  The  success  of  the 
operation  depends  entirely  on  a  good 
junction  of  the  liber  of  stock  and  cion, 
and  therefore  requires  a  steady  hand  and 
a  good  eye  to  push  the  cion  to  its  place. 
My  friends,  the  venerable  Fr.  Muench 
and  Samuel  Miller,  practice  about  the 
same  method,  and  are  both  almost  inva- 
riably successful.  The  cions  should,  if 
possible,  be  cut  in  fall  and  kept  on  the 
north  side  of  a  building  or  fence,  so  as  to 
remain  dormant.  Should  the  stock  not 
be  strong  enough  to  hold  the  cion  firmly, 
it  should  be  tied  with  basswood  bark,  or 
an  oblique  cut  be  made  instead  of  a  split. 
This  is  preferable  in  small  vines  any  way, 
as  by  so  doing,  the  fibres  of  stock  and 
cions  are  both  cut  obliquely,  and  there- 
fore make  a  closer  fit. 

There  are  other  different  methods. 
Another,  which  I  will  mention  here,  has 
been  practiced  at  Hermann  with  very 
good  success,  though  I  have  not  been 
very  successful  with  it.  It  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  saving  the  vine,  provided  the 
graft  does  not  take.  It  is  done  by  sim- 
ply making  an  oblique  cut  into  the  stock 
below  the  surface  or  crown,  and  insert- 
ing the  cion,  cut  a  rather  blunt  wedge,  by 
lending  the  stock  to  one  side,  and  there- 
by opening  the  cut.  If  the  cion  takes, 
the  stock  is  cut  off  above  it.     Another 


method  is  grafting  under  the  bark  later 
in  the  season,  when  the  sap  flows  freely 
and  the  bark  peels  readily;  a  long, 
slanting  cut  is  made  on  one  side  of  the 
cion,  the  stock  cut  off  square,  the  bark 
lifted  with  a  knife,  and  the  scion  pushed 
down  under  it.  Every  one  who  has 
practiced  budding  will  readily  perform 
this  operation.  The  stock  is  then  tied 
with  basswood  bark.  I  have  followed 
this  plan  with  varied  success  later  in  the 
season,  but  prefer  the  first  method.  I 
think  grafting  above  ground  impractica- 
ble in  our  climate,  on  account  of  the 
high  winds  and  drying  influence  of  our 
summer  sun. 

As  to  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by 
grafting,  they  are  manifold.  They  may 
be  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  The  facility  it  gives  us  to  try  and 
fruit  new  and  rare  kinds  by  grafting  them 
on  strong  stocks  of  healthy  varieties, 
where  they  will  often  make  wood  strong 
enough  for  fruiting  the  next  season,  and 
give  us  abundance  of  propagating  wood, 
thus  gaining  more  than  a  year. 

2.  Nearly  every  vineyard  contains 
some  worthless  varieties,  which  are,  how- 
ever, strong  and  healthy  growers.  These 
can,  by  grafting,  be  changed  into  the 
most  valuable  varieties. 

3.  The  facility  by  which  varieties  which 
are  very  difficult  to  propagate  may  be  in- 
creased and  multiplied,  as  nearly  every 
variety  will  graft  readily. 

4.  Last,  but  not  least,  it  gives  us  a 
means  of  successfully  combating  the 
Phylloxera,  as  your  experiments  have  so 
conclusively  proven.  If  the  Catawba 
and  many  of  our  most  valuable  varieties, 
have  deteriorated  because  this  little  in- 
sect has  been  to  work  on  their  roots,  and 
the  roots  of  other  varieties  are  compara- 
tively exempt  from  its  ravages,  the  reme- 
dy would  indeed  be  a  very  simple  one. 
By  planting  such  varieties  as  propagate 
readily,  and  also  graft  with  ease,  they 
could  be  changed  by  grafting  the  second 
spring.  I  know,  from  experience,  that 
slow  growing  varieties  can  be  made  to 
grow  much  more  vigorously  by  grafting 
on  stocks  of  strong  and  healthy  growers. 
The  most  vigorous  and  productive  Dela- 
ware I  know  around  Hermann,  was 
grafted  on  a  Norton's  Virginia,  and  pro- 
duced an  abundance  of  fine  fruit,  when 
Delawares  on   their  own   roots,   in  the 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


5*S 


same  vineyard,  dropped  their  leaves,  and 
did  not  ripen  their  fruit.  It  is  certainly 
of  the  utmost  importance  that  experi- 
ments of  this  kind  should  be  made,  and 
I  would  advise  all  lovers  of  the  Catawba 
and  Delaware  to  try  it. 

But  now  the  question  arises,  what 
stock  shall  we  choose?  The  Clinton, 
though  easy  of  growth,  is  a  poor  stock,  as 
it  suckers  inveterately,  and,  besides,  has 
not  the  affinity  to  most  of  our  valuable 
varieties  which  makes  them  take  readily 
on  it.  In  fact,  I  do  not  consider  any  of 
the  Riparia  or  Cordifolia  class  as  good 
stocks,  for  Labrusca  and  its  hybrids,  or 
^Estivalis.  But  the  Concord  seems  to 
me  eminently  the  stock  to  graft  upon. 
Easy  of  propagation,  within  the  reach  of 
every  one,  with  the  adaptability  to  any 
soil  it  possesses,  and  as  nearly  every 
variety  will  unite  readily  with  it,  it  seems 
as  if  hardly  a  better  one  could  be  found. 
But  were  I  to  plant  it  for  this  purpose,  I 
would  take  good,  strong,  plants,  say  at 
least  one  foot  long  from  the  cutting  to 
the  crown,  plant  them  with  their  roots 
one  foot  below  the  surface,  and  trim  off 
the  surface  roots  clean,  only  leaving  the 
roots  on  the  two  lower  joints.  Then  cul- 
tivate well  for  one  year,  and  graft  as  near 
the  surface  as  practicable  to  insure  the 
life  of  the  cion.  Should  the  plants  make 
roots  above  the  junction,  I  would  cut 
them  smoothly  close  to  the  graft  every 
spring,  and  thus  establish  the  plant  en- 
tirely upon  Concord  roots.  ~ 

This  may  seem  very  troublesome  to 
our  friends  who  plant  vineyards  entirely 
upon  the  easy  plan,  and  let  them  take 
care  of  themselves.  But  I  think  that 
their  days  are  numbered.  This  slovenly 
culture,  or  rather  no  culture  at  all,  will 
never  make  us  a  wine  producing  country 
worthy  of  the  name ;  and  if  we  had  not 
a  single  one  of  that  stamp  left  among  us, 
I  believe  we  would  be  infinitely  better  off 
than  we  are  now.  If  France  can  import 
millions  over  millions  of  our  American 
varieties  to  regenerate  her  devastated 
vineyards,  we  can  certainly  afford  to  use 
the  means  ready  at  hand.  Our  Ameri- 
can wines  have  a  glorious  future,  and  we 
have  the  material  for  the  grandest  results 

already. 

****** 

Let  none  follow  or  commence  grape 
growing  in  the  future  who  are  not  willing 


to  do  their  best.  We  want  brains  and 
skill,  as  well  as  muscle.  We  want  close 
observation,  indefatigable  exertion  and 
intelligent  labor  in  the  vineyard  as  well 
as  in  the  wine  cellar.  It  is  my  belief  that 
the  darkest  days  of  American  grape  cul- 
ture are  over,  and  the  future  will  not  fail 
to  bring  us  glorious  results  if  we  labor  for 
it  faithfully. 

Your  labors  have  done  a  great  deal  to 
post  us  in  regard  to  out  insect  enemies 
and  friends,  and  should  be  gratefully  ap- 
preciated by  every  grape  grower,  while 
all  should  do  their  part  in  sending  you 
specimens  and  observing  their  habits. 
Geo.  Husmanw." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  above  expe- 
rience and  directions  refer  solely  to  graft- 
ing underground.  Both  Fuller  and  Hus- 
mann  deem  grafting  above  ground  im- 
practicable in  our  climate,  principally  om 
account  of  our  winds;  and  their  advice 
has  been  so  very  generally  followed  that 
little  attention  has  been  given  to  this 
mode  of  grafting  the  grape  vine.  The 
consequence  is  that  we  have  the  most 
conflicting  experience  as  to  the  results  of 
grafting,  for  by  the  underground  methods 
the  graft  will  make  its  own  roots  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  unless  very  great 
pains  are  taken  to  prevent  such  an  occur- 
rence ;  that  it  has  done  so  in  the  majori- 
ty of  cases  of  grafting  in  this  country  in 
the  past,  admits,  we  think,  of  little  doubt. 
Yet,  in  grafting  as  a  means  of  counteract- 
ing the  Phylloxera,  the  first  requisite  is  to 
prevent  the  graft  from  making  any  roots 
of  its  own;  for  it  must  be  remembered 
that  we  are  dealing  with  a  root  malady 
purely,  and  that  the  object  is  to  grow 
those  varieties  whose  roots  succumb  more 
or  less  to  the  attacks  of  the  insect,  by 
using  the  roots  of  those  which  resist; 
this  object  is  necessarily  frustrated  in  pro- 
portion as  the  graft  forms  roots  of  its 
own. 

There  are  two  methods  of  grafting 
above  ground,  which  we  have  every  reason 
to  believe  may  be  made  more  successful 
than  grape  growers  have  hitherto  been 
led  to  suppose.  The  first  is  by  tempora- 
rily making  a  false  surface  and  grafting  in 
the  ordinary  manner  just  described,  i.  e.r 
instead  of  digging  away  the  earth  and  in- 
serting the  cion  two  or  three  inches  below 
ground,  it  should  be    inserted    two   or- 


526       ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


three  inches  above  ground  and  the  earth 
thrown  up  around  it,  to  be  removed  only 
after  the  graft  is  thoroughly  and  perma- 
nently joined.  There  will  then  be  no 
danger  of  the  graft  forming  its  own  roots; 
and  it  is  certainly  as  easy  to  throw  the 
■earth  around  the  vine  as  to  dig  it  away, 
while  the  mechanical  work  can  be  much 
more  conveniently  and  agreeably  per- 
formed above  than  beneath  the  surface. 
No  doubt  this  mode  of  grafting  needs 
greater  care  to  make  it  successful,  espe- 
cially in  a  very  dry  season,  as  the  mound 
is  more  apt  to  dry  out  than  the  level 
ground,  yet  there  is  not  lacking  evidence 
that  this  method  will  work  well  in  our 
soil  and  climate.  Mr.  John  Vallet,  of 
New  Haven,  a  grape-grower  of  much 
experience,  has  had  eminent  success  in 
thus  grafting  above  ground,  employing 
flax  twine  and  paw-paw  bard  for  bandag- 
ing. He  considers  that  the  vine  grows 
more  vigorously  and  that  there  is  less 
danger  of  separating  the  graft  when  once 
formed,  as  there  is  no  necessity  for  going  be- 
low ground  to  destroy  the  suckers,  the  do- 
ing of  which  sometimes  loosens  the  graft. 

The  second  method  is  by  inarching. 
This  system  of  grafting  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  much  practiced  in  this  coun- 
try, yet  while  it  requires  great  care,  and 
success  may  not  as  often  crown  the  effort 
as  in  the  former  methods,  we  hope  more 
attention  will  in  future  be  given  to  it. 

The  operation  is  comparatively  simple: 
A  slice  two  or  three  inches  long  is  cut 
from  one  side  of  the  vine  to  be  grafted, 
and  a  similar  slice  from  the  vine  which  is 
to  serve  as  stock,  as  near  the  base  or  butt 
as  possible.  The  two  cut  portions  are 
then  brought  face  to  face,  so  as  to  fit  as 
neatly  as  possible,  and  are  then  bound  to- 
gether with  cord,  basswood  bark  or  other 
grafting  bandage,  which  should  be  kept 
moist  with  moss.  In  the  course  of  a  fort- 
night partial  unison  takes  place,  when  the 
bandage  should  be  somewhat  loosened  to 
admit  the  expansion.  In  six  or  eight 
weeks,  if  the  operation  is  successful,  the 
stock  and  cion  are  firmly  united,  when 
the  bandage  may  be  removed.  The  graft 
immediately  below  the  union  and  the 
stock  immediately  above  it  should  then 
be  partially  severed,  and  in  a  week  or  so 
more,  entirely  cut  loose. 

The  following  description  of  the  method 
has  been  furnished  us : 


For  this  method  it  is  desirable  that  two 
plants,  one  each  of  the  variety  which  is  to 
form  the  stock,  and  one  of  the  cion,  be 
planted  close  together,  say  about  one  foot 
apart.     In  June,    (the  first  year,   if  the 
plants  make  a  sufficiently  strong  growth, 
if  not,  the  second  year),  or  as  soon  as  the 
young  shoots  become  sufficiently  hard  and 
woody  to  bear  the  knife,  a  shoot  is  taken 
from  both  the  stock  and  the    cion   vine, 
and  at  a   convenient   place,  where  they 
may  be  brought  in  contact,  a  shaving  is 
taken  out  from  each  of  these,  on  the  side 
next  to  the  other,  for  a  length  of  two  to 
three  inches.     This  must  be  done  with  a 
smooth  cut  of  a  sharp  knife,  a  little  deeper 
than  the  inner  bark,  so  as  to  obtain   on 
each  a  flat  surface.      They  are  then  fitted 
snugly  together,   so   that  the  inner  bark 
joins  as  much  as  possible,  and   wrapped 
securely   with   some    old  calico  torn    in 
strips,  or  soft  bass  strings.      Besides  this, 
it  is  well  to  place  one  tie  a  little  below, 
and  one  above  the  grafted  point,  and  also 
to  tie  the  united  canes  to  a  stake  or  trellis 
to  insure  against  all  chances  of  loosening 
by  the  swaying  of  the  wind.      The  rapid 
swelling  of  the   young   growth    at   this 
period  of  the  year  makes  it  desirable  that 
the  grafts  be  looked  over  after  a  few  weeks, 
replacing  such  ties  which  may  have  burst, 
and  loosening  others  which  may  bind  so 
as   to  cut  into  the  wood.     A  union  will 
generally  be  made  in  the  course  of  two  or 
three  weeks,  which  will  be  further  consoli- 
dated in  the  course  of  six  to  eight  weeks, 
when  the  bandages  may  be  removed  and 
the  grafted  portion   left   exposed  to   the 
sun,  to  thoroughly  harden  and  ripen  it. 
The  shoots  themselves  are  to  be  left  to 
grow  undisturbed  for  the  rest  of  the  sea- 
son.     In   the  fall,  if  a  good   union    has 
taken  place,  the  cane  forming  the  cion  is 
cut   close  below  its  union  with  the   stock 
cane,  which  in  its  turn  is  cut  close  above 
the  connection.     Supposing  the  stock  to 
have  been  a  Concord    and    the  cion   3 
Delaware,   we  now   have  a   vine  of  the 
latter  entirely  on  the  strong,  vigorous  root 
of  the  former.     Of  course  constant  vigih 
ance  must  be  exercised  to  prevent  suckers 
from  starting  out  of  the  stock.     It  is  well 
to  protect  the  grafted  joint  the  first   few 
winters  by  a  slight  covering  of  straw  or 
soil  to  prevent  the  frost  from  splitting  it 
apart. 
The   party   in    giving    his    experience, 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


5*7 


-writes:  "I  have  positively  abandoned 
cleft  grafting;  it  is  too  much  trouble  and 
too  uncertain,  and  the  graft  often  makes 
its  own  roots.  I  assure  you  that  from  a 
long  experience  in  inarching,  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  not  alone  the  Delaware  but 
most  of  our  cultivated  varieties  will  do 
better  on  native  wild  roots  than  on  their 
own.  I  have  fourteen  acres  of  vines 
mostly  grafted  in  this  manner  on  wild 
stocks,  and  I  have  not  lost  one  of  such 
grafts.  It  is  preferable  to  graft  at  from 
ten  to  fifteen  inches  from  the  ground." 

Another  mode  of  grafting  above  ground 
is  thus  given  in  "  The  Cultivation  of  the 
Grape:" 

"After  the  first  four  or  five  leaves  are 
formed,  and  the  sap  is  flowing,  you  choose 
the  place  on  the  vine  where  you  intend 
to  graft.  At  that  point  wrap  tightly  a 
twine  several  times  around  the  vine. 
This  will,  in  a  measure,  prevent  the 
return  sap. 

"  Below  the  ligature  make  a  sloping 
cut  down,  as  shown  at  Figure  50,  a  ; 
also,  a  similar  reversed  one 
above  the  ligature,  as  at  b, 
about  one  inch  in  length. 
In  selecting  a  cion  prefer 
one  that  has  naturally  a 
bend.  Cut  it  so  that  it  shall 
be  wedge-shaped  at  both 
ends,  and  a  little  longer 
than  the  distance  between 
the  cuts  in  the  vine  at  a 
and  b.  Insert  the  cion, 
taking  care  to  have  the 
barks  in  direct  contact, 
securing  it  with  a  string,  c, 
bound  round  both  cion 
and  vine  sufficiently  tight 
to  force  the  cion  ends  into 
their  places.  If  the  work 
is  done  well,  no  tie  will  be 
required  at  a  and  b,  but  the 
joints  should  be  covered 
with  grafting  wax.  In  a 
short  time,  the  bud  at  </will  commence 
its  growth,  after  which  you  can  by  degrees 
remove  all  the  growing  shoots  not  belong- 
ing to  the  cion,  and  in  course  of  the  sum- 
mer you  may  cut  off  the  wood  above  b, 
and  in  the  fall  remove  all  above  a  on  the 
■stock,  and  above  c  on  the  cion. 

Still  another  mode  of  grafting  which  has, 
we  believe,  seldom,  if  ever,  been  attempt- 
ed in  this  part  of  the  country,  but  which 


has  been  employed  with  much  satisfaction 
the  past  year  by  a  few  vine  growers  in 
France,  and  especially  by  M.  H.  Bouschet, 
of  Montpellier,  remains  to  be  mentioned. 
It  is  the  winter  grafting  of  a  cutting  of 
such  variety  as  is  desired  to  grow,  upon 
another  which  is  to 
be  used  as  stock,  the 
combined  cuttings 
being  planted  in  the 
usual  manner  in 
spring,  leaving  only 
the  buds  on  the 
graft  proper  out  of 
ground.  This  is 
very  similar  to  our 
ordinary  mode  of 
making  apple  grafts; 
and  while  we  have 
little  or  no  experi- 
ence in  this  country 
on  which  to  base 
anticipations,  the 
method  is  worthy  of 
trial,  and  is  illus- 
trated at  figure  51. 
But  not  to  weary 
With  details,  we  here 
reaffirm  my  belief, 
51,  strengthened  by 

each  further  observation,  and  by  every  ad- 
ditional experience  of  the  past  years,  that 
just  as  the  working  of  the  root-louse  is  the 
primal  cause  of  failure  of  some  of  our 
choicest  varieties  of  the  grapevine,  so  in 
judicious  grafting  we  have  the  most  avail- 
able means  of  counteracting  its  work,  and 
of  thus  growing  successfully  many  of 
those  kinds  which  cannot  be  grown  in 
this  latitude  with  any  profit  or  success  on 
their  own  roots. 

GRAFTING. — In  grafting,  a  sharp  pen- 
knife and  a  good  fine  saw  are  indispensa- 
ble. Splitting  the  stalk  so  that  the  bark 
shall  not  be  at  all  bruised,  and  shaping 
the  scion  wedge-fashion  both  ways,  pre- 
serving also  the  bark  uninjured,  and  plac- 
ing the  rim  of  the  wood  of  both  stock 
and  cion  exactly  together,  so  that  the 
sap  can  intermingle,  there  is  no  danger 
of  failure  if  they  are  properly  waxed. 
One  year's  wood  should  always  be  used 
when  it  can  be  obtained,  as  it  is  more 
certain  to  take,  and  grows  more  vigor- 
ously. For  grafting  generally,  any  time 
is  good  when  growth  is  going  on,  and 
there  is  not  too  much  sap  in  the  cion ; 


Fig. 


5*8 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


the  amount  in  the  stock  makes  no  differ- 
ence. If  there  is  much  in  the  scion,  it  is 
liable  to  rot  before  the  union  takes  place. 
If  scions  are  taken  from  healthy  trees, 
and  are  kept  from  drying,  sprouting,  or 
other  injuries,  grafting  may  go  on  from 
early  in  the  spring  till  midsummer. 

GRAFTING,  (Root),  Apple  Trees.— 
This  kind  of  grafting  is  performed  as 
follows  :  Take  seedling  stocks  one  or  two 
years  old,  cut  off  the  stock  at  the  collar  of 
the  plant,  and  remove  the  top  root  and 
all  unnecessary  fibrous  roots,  leaving  only 
a  few  of  them  four  or  five  inches  long. 
Wash  the  stocks,  and  make  a  very  smooth 
cut  sloping  upward  an  inch  or  so  across 
the  collar.  In  the  centre  of  this  cut 
make  a  slit  or  tongue  to  receive  the  scion. 
The  scion,  three  or  four  inches  long, 
should  be  made  to  fit  the  tongue  exactly, 
both  the  woody  part  and  the  inner  bark. 
On  this  close  fitting  depends  the  success 
of  the  operation.  This  done,  cover  the 
entire  graft  with  the  wax,  or  with  pre- 
pared wax  cloth,  which  is  nothing  more 
than  cotton  cloth  spread  thinly  with 
grafting  composition  while  it  is  hot.  This 
work  is  commonly  done  in  the  leisure  of 
winter.  After  the  required  number  of 
stocks  have  been  grafted,  they  are  packed 
away  in  sand  in  a  cool  cellar  to  be 
planted  in  the  spring. 

HAY,  Cutting  and  Curing. — i.  Get 
ready  for  haying — that  is,  put  your  mow- 
ing machine,  etc.,  in  good  order,  so  as  to 
have  no  delay  when  you  begin  the  work. 

2.  If  you  have  a  good  deal  of  grass  to 
cut,  some  of  it  should  be  cut  a  few  days 
before  it  is  actually  mature,  or  you  will 
be  compelled  to  cut  other  fields  so  much 
later  than  it  ought  to  be  cut,  that  you 
would  lose  more  by  waiting  till  your 
earliest  grass  is  fully  ripe,  than  you  would 
gain  by  waiting  till  it  is  mature ;  besides, 
grass  cut  a  few  days  before  it  is  strictly 
ready  for  the  mower  makes  excellent 
hay,  but  not  quite  so  much  of  it  as  when 
cut  later. 

3.  When  the  time  comes  to  commence 
mowing — which  should  be  when  there  is 
a  prospect  ot  fair  weather,  go  ahead  and 
do  not  wait  until  the  dew  is  off,  on 
account  of  any  injury  the  hay  may  sus- 
tain, as  you  will  never  be  able  to  see  any 
difference  in  value  between  hay,  from 
grass  cut  with  or  without  the  dews  upon 
it. 


4.  Just  as  soon  as  the  sun  has  dried  the- 
upper  surface  of  the  grass,  the  spreading 
operation  may  commence;  and  yoa 
should  have  help  enough  to  do  the  work 
well.  No  grass  cut  during  the  previous 
afternoon,  and  up  to  ten  o'clock  that  day, 
should  remain  unspread  at  dinner-time, 
unless  it  be  such  as  is  light,  and  is  left  in 
good  shape  to  dry  by  the  machine,  as  is 
often  the  case.  Keep  the  grass  moving 
as  long  as  possible  before  you  begin  to 
protect  it  for  the  night;  and  here  we  will 
say  that  we  never  would  allow  a  load  of 
hay  to  be  put  into  our  barns  that  was  cut 
the  same  day,  except  when  the  grass  had 
been  delayed  to  be  cut  till  it  was  past  its. 
prime  and  partially  dry,  so  that  a  few 
hours  of  sun  and  wind  sufficed  to  cure 
it. 

5.  After  drying  the  hay  as  much  as 
possible  up  to  3  or  4  o'clock  p.  m.,  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  it,  and  hands  to* 
take  of  it,  the  question  comes  up :  Is  it 
best  to  cock  it,  or  to  rake  it  into  win- 
drows, and  so  leave  it  till  the  succeeding 
day,  when,  if  the  weather  be  fair,  it  may 
be  put  into  the  barn  or  stack  ?  If  left  in 
windrows  a  great  deal  of  labor  is  saved,, 
and  if  the  next  day  is  fair,  the  hay  is  in 
a  better  condition  to  be  spread  than  if  in 
cocks;  but  if  a  storm  ensues,  the  hay  is 
in  a  badw  shape,  and  will  suffer  injury, 
according  to  the  length  of  unfair  weather 
that  takes  place.  No  farmer  should  leave 
his  hay  over  night  in  windrows,  unless 
he  shall  have  the  very  best  of  reasons  for 
believing  that  the  next  day  will  be  fair. 

6.  Hay  may  be  injured  by  drying  too 
much;  but  the  wide-awake  farmer  will 
avoid  that,  and  either  get  his  hay  .into 
windrows  or  cocks  before  it  is  thus  dam- 
aged. 

HAY  STACKS,  To  Ventilate.— Stacks; 
of  hay,  corn-stalks,  etc.,  may  be  venti- 
lated by  making  a  hole  perpendicularly 
through  the  centre,  with  apertures  through 
the  base  and  top  of  sides  of  the  stack  to 
admit  a  current  of  air.  The  orifice 
should  be  constructed  when  the  stack  is 
being  built,  which  can  easily  be  done  by 
filling  a  bag  of  the  requisite  size  with  hay 
or  straw,  placing  it  upright  in  the  centre 
of  the  stack,  drawing  it  upward  accord- 
ing as  the  stack  rises.  In  this  way  a 
chimney  will  be  formed  in  the  centre  of 
the  stack,  which  will  carry  off  the  steam, 
if  the  hay  or  corn-stalk  should  ferment,. 


OXE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       529 


and  by  admitting  air  will  prevent  damage 
from  mold.  The  top  of  the  air-tunnel 
should  be  protected  by  a  roof  to  keep 
out  rain. 

HOGS,  Time  to  KilL  — In  fattening 
swine,  so  far  as  money  profit  is  concerned, 
the  farmer  will  realize  the  greatest  net  gain 
by  slaughtering  his  hogs  at  the  age  of 
eight  to  ten  months.  With  the  smaller 
breeds  and  thrifty  pigs  he  can  get  a  weight 
of  250  to  300  pounds;  while,  as  com- 
monly managed,  the  additional  eight 
months  add  only  about  100  pounds ;  and 
experience  has  shown  that  it  costs  but  a 
trifle  more  to  grow  and  fatten  a  weaned 
spring  pig  to  ten  months  old,  than  to  fatten, 
a  ten  months'  store  hog  from  July  to  De- 
cember; under  favorable  circumstances  it 
may  cost  less,  and  the  net  profit  be  in  fa- 
vor of  the  pigs. 

HOT-BEDS,  to  Make.— They  should 
be  in  a  warm  position,  fully  exposed  to 
the  sun,  facing  the  east  or  south,  and 
sheltered  by  a  fence  or  hedge  on  the 
west  or  north.  The  soil  should,  if  possi- 
ble, be  light  and  dry,  as  in  this  case  the 
bed  can  be  sunk  a  foot  or  more  in  the 
ground ;  but  if  damp  or  cold,  it  should 
be  built  upon  the  surface. 

Manure  fresh  from  the  stable  is  best. 
This  should  be  thrown  over  and  thor- 
oughly shaken  up  with  a  fork,  making  it 
into  a  conical  heap.  In  this  state  it 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  four  or  five 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  should 
be  turned  over,  shaking  it  up  as  before. 
At  the  end  of  another  three  or  four  days, 
it  will  be  ready  to  make  up  the  bed.  Lay 
out  the  ground  six  inches  larger  than  the 
frame,  and  put  down  a  stake  at  each 
corner.  The  frame  may  be  of  any  size; 
but  the  most  convenient  is  nine  by  three 
feet,  which  will  make  three  lights,  three  by 
six  feet,  the  ordinary  size,  which  can 
always  be  had  ready  made.  Proceed  to 
build  up  the  bed  to  the  height  of  two 
and  a  half  or  three  feet,  making  it  rather 
firm,  and  watering  if  the  manure  is  dry. 
When  the  bed  is  finished,  put  on  the 
lights,  and  let  it  stand  and  settle  and  ex- 
haust the  violent  heat.  In  a  day  or  two 
add  three  or  four  inches  of  light,  sandy 
loam,  spreading  it  evenly  over  the  bed. 
If  the  seeds  are  sown  in  the  soil  of  the 
bed,  two  or  three  inches  should  be  added; 


but,    if   in  pots,  no    addition    will    be 
necessary. 

The  pots  being  ready,  and  sown  with 
the  various  seeds,  should  be  put  into  the 
frame  shading  them  during  the  day,  and 
regulating  the  temperature  by  tilting  the 
lights  at  the  back,  both  night  and  day, 
and  covering  at  night  with  mats.  Plunge 
the  pots  in  the  soil,  and,  with  proper 
care,  the  seeds  will  soon  be  above  the 
soil.  A  thermometer  placed  in  the  bed 
will  be  the  safest  guide  to  the  inexperi- 
enced. It  should  not  rise  above  85 
degrees  in  the  day,  nor  sink  below  60  de- 
grees at  night.  As  the  heat  declines,, 
linings  of  fresh  manure  should  be  applied 
around  the  outside  of  the  bed;  but, 
ordinarily,  for  seed  this  is  not  necessary. 

The  length  or  number  of  the  frames  is 
immaterial;  but  they  should  be  nine  to 
twelve  inches  deep  at  the  front,  and  fif- 
teen to  eighteen  inches  at  the  back.  This 
will  give  a  good  slope  to  '  carry  off  the 
rain.  Cold  frames  are  simply  the  hot-bed 
frame  set  upon  a  warm  spot  of  ground, 
covering  it  at  night  to  keep  in  the  warmth 
accumulated  during  the  day. 

IRRIGATION.— By  judicious  flooding 
the  yield  of  grass  land  may  be  doubled ; 
but  by  flooding  at  improper  seasons  the 
grass  may  be  destroyed.  Water  should 
not  be  permitted  to  lie  on  grass  more 
than  two  days  at  a  time,  nor  more  than 
two  inches  in  depth,  and  not  at  all  during 
the  winter.  If  the  land  is  to  be  seeded 
the  coming  spring,  the  water  may  be 
turned  on  at  sundown  as  soon  as  the 
grass  has  become  well  started,  and  during 
the  dry  spells  weekly,  or  bi-weekly  if  rains 
occur.  It  should  never  be  turned  on 
while  the  soil  is  heated  during  the  day- 
time. When  the  grass  has  well  covered: 
the  ground  and  it  is  nearly  ready  for  cut- 
ting, no  water  should  be  given  for  two> 
weeks  before  the  hay  is  made.  When* 
that  is  done,  watering  should  be  repeated 
as  before  until  another  cutting  is  ready- 
No  water  should  be  given  for  a  month 
previous  to  the  winter,  as  it  is  very  injuri- 
ous during  the  frosts.  The  aftermath 
should  be  permitted  to  die  down  on  the 
meadow  on  the  approach  of  winter,  as  a 
protection  to  the  roots  from  frost.  Under 
such  treatment  four  tons  of  hay  has  been 
gathered  from  one  acre.  Such  a  meadow 
would  be  improved  also  by  underdraining; 
with  the  irrigation. 


53° 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


HEDGES  AND  HEDGE  PLANTS.— 

Live  fences,  as  they  are  very  properly 
termed,  have  long  been  held  in  high  esti- 
mation for  inclosures  when  plants  suita- 
ble for  the  purpose  could  be  secured.  The 
maintenance  of  efficient  fencing  is  a 
heavy  tax  upon  all  who  occupy  land,  and 
the  cost  is  greatly  increased  when  the 
materials  are  difficult  to  procure,  and  re- 
quire frequent  repairs.  If  the  chronolog- 
ical history  of  fences  should  ever  be  writ- 
ten it  might  be  divided  into  three  epochs: 
the  temporary,  the  equivocal  and  the  per- 
manent; or  the  period  of  the  wooden 
fence,  the  live  fence,  (possibly  including 
the  wire  fence,)  and  the  fence  of  stone. 
To  obtain  a  good  hedge  requires  a  suit- 
able plant,  care  in  its  formation,  and 
proper  keeping  afterwards.  Neglect  of 
any  one  of  these  essentials  will  prove  fatal 
to  the  object  in  view,  whether  as  a  pro- 
tection against  depredators  or  as  a  shel- 
ter for  ameliorating  local  climates. 

For  farm  hedges  there  are  only  two 
plants  which  can  be  considered  as  being 
perfectly  satisfactory.  These  are  the 
•Osage  orange  and  the  honey  locust.  The 
'Osage  orange  is  perhaps  to  be  preferred 
in  localities  where  it  is  sufficiently  hardy. 
It  is  cheaply  produced,  of  rapid  growth, 
thickens  its  branches  freely  when  pruned, 
has  formidable  thorns,  is  not  liable  to  in- 
sect injuries,  not  eaten  by  cattle,  and  will 
grow  in  any  soil  of  ordinary  fertility. 
The  honey  locust  is  a  good  plant  in  more 
northern  localities,  where  the  Osage  or- 
ange is  destroyed  by  cold.  It  is  also  well 
.  supplied  with  thorns,  is  of  rapid  growth, 
.  and  will  make  a  fence  as  soon  as  the 
•  other.  It  has  very  beautiful  and  delicate 
foliage,  and  is  more  robust,  but  less  dense, 
than  the  Osage — which  is  rather  an  ad- 
vantage than  otherwise  for  a  strong  fence. 
iSome  of  the  best  hedges  in  the  country 
.are  of  this  plant. 

Seeds  or  plants  of  either  of  the  preced- 
ing are  easily  obtained;  but,  where  time 
is  a  matter  of  consideration,  it  will  be  ad- 
visable to  procure  plants,  which  are  now 
produced  in  large  quantities  by  nursery- 
men, and  sold  at  prices  much  less  than  the 
cost  of  growing  them  on  a  small  scale.  It 
is  scarcely  possible  to  form  a  good  hedge 
iby  sowing  the  seed  on  the  position  which 
the  hedge  is  to  occupy.  The  casualties 
,of  growth  will  certainly  produce  many 
iareak  plants  that  will  be  eventually  de- 


stroyed by  their  stronger  neighbors,  leav- 
ing unsightly  blanks,  and  greatly  dimin- 
ishing the  uniform  efficiency  of  the  hedge. 
When  the  plants  are  properly  assorted  as 
to  size  before  setting,  an  equality  of 
growth  is  at  once  established. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  a  hedge-row 
a  breadth  of  three  to  four  feet  will  be 
amply  sufficient.  If  plowed,  the  ridges 
should  be  thrown  toward  the  centre,  form- 
ing a  slightly  mounded  finish.  In  stiff 
soils  this  can  be  done  to  a  greater  advant- 
age in  autumn  by  throwing  the  furrows  on 
each  side  from  the  centre  of  the  hedge 
line,  so  that  the  frosts  of  winter  may  pen- 
etrate and  loosen  the  subsoil;  and  then 
throwing  them  together  in  spring,  to  be 
ready  for  planting. 

The  best  distance  to  set  plants  is  from 
ten  to  fourteen  inches  apart,  and  in  a  sin- 
gle row.  On  poor  soils,  or  for  a  mere 
ornamental  dividing  hedge,  the  closer  dis- 
tance may  be  adopted ;  and  for  a  strong 
fence,  or  on  rich  soils,  the  wider  will  not  be 
too  great.  They  may  be  set  either  in 
fall  or  spring,  according  to  the  location. 
If  the  position  is  elevated,  and  the  soil 
naturally  dry,  fall  planting  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred ;  in  low  positions,  or  in  wet  soil, 
spring  planting  is  safer,  as  the  plants  are 
liable,  in  such  soils,  to  be  thrown  out  of 
the  ground  during  winter.  Even  in  wet 
soils,  however,  the  practice  of  planting 
in  the  fall  has  of  late  been  adopted,  and 
with  perfect  success,  by  placing  the  plants 
in  a  slanting  position,  instead  of  an  up- 
right one,  and  covering  them  slightly  with 
litter.  No  hedge  will  be  perfectly  satis- 
factory in  soils  saturated  with  water  dur- 
ing winter. 

The  perfection  of  a  hedge,  even  with 
the  best  plants,  depends  altogether  upon 
the  treatment  it  receives  in  its  early 
growth.  Neglect  in  pruning,  during  this 
period,  can  seldom  be  remedied  in  after 
years;  and  to  this,  more  than  to  any 
other  cause,  failures  in  forming  good 
hedges  may  be  attributed.  A  brief  state- 
ment of  the  principles  involved  in  form- 
ing them  will,  therefore,  be  given. 

The  only  form  in  which  a  hedge  can  be 
kept,  to  be  of  service  as  a  fence,  is  that 
of  a  pyramid.  When  it  has  attained  a 
height  of  five  feet  it  should  be  at  least 
three  feet  wide  at  the  base  or  surface  of 
the  ground.  All  pruning  must  be  direct- 
ed with  a  view  to  securing  this  form. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       531 


When  the  plants  are  first  set  out  they  should 
be  pruned  back  to  within  three  inches  of 
the  ground,  and  allowed  to  grow  undis- 
turbed during  the  first  season,  their 
growth  in  the  meantime  being  encouraged 
by  judicious  cultivation.  At  the  termi- 
nation of  the  yearly  growth  the  plants 
should  again  be  pruned  down  to  within 
four  inches  of  the  first  pruning,  and  the 
side  shoots  below  this  point  also  be  re- 
moved to  within  an  inch  of  the  main 
stem.  This  severe  pruning  of  the  branch- 
es will  give  to  the  roots  a  vigorous 
growth;  and,  when  the  buds  burst  in 
spring,  strong  shoots  will  immediately 
follow.  During  this  second  year's  growth 
the  hedge  may  be  partially  shaped  by 
repressing  the  growth  of  the  strongest 
perpendicular  shoots,  and  encouraging 
those  of  horizontal  tendency.  Practical- 
ly this  is  accomplished  by  going  over  the 
plants  about  the  end  of  June,  and  cutting 
all  upright  shoots  back  to  a  point  about 
eight  inches  above  the  previous  winter 
pruning,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  a 
shoot  or  leaf  on  the  side  branches  below 
that  point.  In  thus  cutting  back  the  up- 
right shoots,  the  side  growth  will  be  in- 
creased, and  a  breadth  of  base  secured, 
which,  at  this  stage  of  growth,  is  the  most 
important  point  of  all.  In  the  following 
winter  the  hedge,  if  it  has  progressed  at 
all  favorably,  may  be  pruned  down  to 
fourteen  inches  in  height  from  the  ground 
surface,  with  the  horizontal  branches  ex- 
tending from  nine  to  twelve  inches  on 
each  side.  The  principles  of  pruning 
are  that  growth  is  repressed  by  summer 
trimming,  and  encouraged  by  pruning 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen.  By  keeping 
these  facts  in  mind,  and  practicing  ac- 
cordingly, the  shaping  of  a  hedge  is  only 
a  work  of  time.  The  lower  branches 
can  always  be  retained  as  healthy,  and 
produce  as  much  density  of  foliage  as  the 
upright  portion  of  the  plants,  if  the  pyr- 
amidal form  is  strictly  maintained ;  but  if, 
at  any  time,  the  upright  growth  predomi- 
nates, the  lower  limbs  will  proportionate- 
ly lose  vigor.  The  upright  shoots  should, 
therefore,  be  pruned  during  summer,  in 
order  to  weaken  the  growth  at  that  point, 
and  to  strengthen  and  keep  the  base  of 
the  hedge  vigorous  and  close.  The  prin- 
cipal pruning  of  the  lower  branches 
should  be  performed  during  winter. 
This  is  the  only  way  in  which  a  hedge 


can  be  made  that  will  be  effective  as  a 
fence;  and  the  neglect  of  the  principles 
here  suggested  is  generally  the  origin  of 
the  conflicting  opinions  with  regard  to  the 
value  and  efficiency  of  hedges  as  farm 
fences.  They  may  receive  some  atten- 
tion for  a  year  or  two,  but  when  it  be- 
comes thoroughly  understood  that  they 
cannot  be  preserved  unless  trimmed  dur- 
ing summer,  when  attention  is  wholly 
given  to  ordinary  crops,  farmers  are  not 
always  disposed  to  give  hedges  the  atten- 
tion necessary  to  keep  them  in  good  con- 
dition ;  and  therefore  they  fail  to  be  of 
service.  It  should,  however,  be  remem- 
bered that,  as  the  hedge  becomes  perfect, 
the  yearly  labor  to  keep  it  in  order  grad- 
ually becomes  less ;  and  at  no  time  does 
it  require  so  much  labor  as  that  required 
to  keep  a  common  wooden  fence  in  good 
repair. 

For  purposes  of  protection  and  shelter 
to  gardens,  or  as  dividing  lines  in  the 
grounds  of  country  and  suburban  resi- 
dences, hedges  are  of  the  greatest  utility. 
For  these  purposes  there  is  an  extensive 
choice  of  plants,  both  evergreen  and  de- 
ciduous. A  well-grown  evergreen  hedge 
is  found  to  be  as  congenial  a  protection 
for  the  garden  as  a  brick  wall.  The  com- 
mercial value  of  shelter,  in  accelerating 
early  crops,  is  not  so  generally  known  as 
it  deserves  to  be ;  yet  it  is  fully  appreci- 
ated and  adopted  by  many  of  the  most 
successful  cultivators;  and,  as  a  means  of 
arresting  drying  winds  ana  lessening 
evaporation  in  level  tracts  destitute  of 
trees,  no  just  estimate  can  be  made  of  the 
intrinsic  value  of  close-foliaged  hedges. 

Among  evergreen  plants  the  Norway 
spruce  is  the  most  valuable  where  a  high, 
strong,  wind-break  is  necessary ;  and,  for 
the  purposes  of  sheltering  orchards  and 
vineyards,  it  is  unsurpassed.  It  will,  in 
time,  form  a  very  close  and  compact 
hedge  when  trimmed;  but  to  produce 
an  effective  shelter  in  the  shortest  period, 
the  plants  should  be  set  four  to  six  feet 
apart  in  the  row  or  line,  and  allowed  to 
grow  undisturbed,  so  far  as  pruning  is 
concerned,  until  the  leading  or  top  shoot 
reaches  the  required  height.  Then  by 
merely  trimming  the  top,  so  as  to  keep  it 
at  this  height,  the  side  branches  will 
spread  and  interlace,  forming  a  screen 
quite  as  effective  and  more  beautiful  than 
a  closely-clipped  hedge. 


53- 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


For  general  purposes,  perhaps  the  most 
useful  plant,  all  things  considered,  for  an 
evergreen  hedge,  is  the  American  arbor 
vitae.  Its  habit  of  changing  to  a  dingy 
brown  color  during  winter  is  a  fault  easily 
overlooked,  and  more  than  compensated 
by  its  numerous  good  qualities.  It  is  a 
plant  of  free  growth,  readily  transplanted, 
of  comparatively  small  cost,  and  grows 
well  in  any  good  soil,  but  preferably  in 
a  clayey  loam.  Plants  of  one  foot  in 
height,  set  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  apart, 
will  reach  five  feet  in  as  many  years. 
The  variety  Siberica  is  more  compact  in 
growth,  and  forms  a  perfect  and  shapely 
hedge,  without  any  trimming  whatever. 

The  most  beautiful  and  graceful  hedges 
are  formed  by  the  hemlock  spruce.  Al- 
though sometimes  of  slow  growth  after 
removal,  yet  it  develops  rapidly  when 
once  fairly  established.  Nothing  can  ex- 
ceed the  beauty  of  its  pendant  branches 
of  delicate  foliage;  and  no  other  plant 
will  admit  of  shearing  into  so  dense  a 
wall  of  green  as  this.  For  a  dividing  line 
in  the  pleasure  ground  or  flower  garden  it 
is  most  admirably  suited. 
'  There  is  a  great  variety  of  deciduous 
plants  well  adapted  for  inside  hedges, 
such  as  may  be  planted  for  protection  of 
crops,  or  as  ornamental  dividing  lines  in 
gardens,  but  which  will  not  be  suitable  as 
fences  for  stock ;  of  these  a  few  of  the 
best  may  be  mentioned : 

The  Buckthorn,  although  of  slender 
growth,  forms  a  tolerably  good  hedge. 
It  has  a  glossy  and  lively  green  foliage, 
which  it  retains  quite  into  winter,  thus 
affording  protection  for  a  lengthened 
period. 

A  very  beautiful  hedge  can  be  pro- 
duced from  the  common  English  maple. 
This  small  tree  is  naturally  compact  in  its 
habit  of  growth,  and  requires  very  little 
pruning  to  keep  it  in  form.  For  a  shel- 
ter belt,  when  a  smoothly  trimmed  hedge 
may  not  be  desired,  this  will  be  found 
suitable.  It  has  small  foliage,  ♦  and  the 
whole  plant  is  eminently  neat,  hardy,  and 
free  from  insects. 

The  European  hornbeam  is  a  good 
hedge  plant.  It  has  a  very  dense  foliage, 
and  the  small  ovate  leaves  are  closely  set 
on  the  branches.  It  is  rather  slow  in 
growth,  but,  in  consequence  of  not  re- 
quiring to  be  shortened  by  pruning,  as  is 
the  case  with  luxuriant  growing  plants, 


the  growth  is  economical,  and  a  hedge 
soon  formed.  In  ancient  gardening, 
when  topiary  work  was  fashionable  and 
plants  were  trained  and  pruned  into  forms 
of  birds,  vases,  etc.,  the  hornbeam  was 
largely  used  and  held  in  high  esteem. 

A  pleasing  variety  of  color  may  be  in* 
troduced  by  forming  a  hedge  of  the  pur- 
ple-leaved berberry.  This  plant  persist- 
ently retains  its  color  throughout  the 
summer,  and  with  care  can  be  kept  in 
good  shape  as  a  hedge. 

For  rapid  growth,  easy  propagation/and 
ample  foliage  of  shining  deep  green  color, 
there  is  no  plant  superior  to  the  Japan 
privet.  This  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  common  privet,  a  small-leaved 
and  much  inferior  plant.  Cuttings  of  the 
Japan  privet  may  be  inserted  at  once 
where  the  hedge  is  to  be  formed.  They 
will  root  quite  as  speedily  as  the  easiest 
rooting  willow  twig.  A  splendid  shelter 
or  screen,  eight  feet  in  height  and  four 
feet  in  width,  has  been  grown  in  five 
years  from  the  time  of  inserting  the  cut- 
tings. It  is  almost  an  evergreen,  retain- 
ing its  foliage  even  after  severe  frost. 
Twenty  degrees  of  frost,  in  December, 
has  no  effect  on  the  foliage,  and  for  at 
least  nine  months  of  the  year  it  is  clothed 
with  the  richest  verdure. 

For  sheltering  orchards,  vineyards,  or 
fields,  a  free-growing  plant,  of  compact 
habit,  should  be  selected.  Such  are  the 
Osage  orange,  white  birch,  English  bird- 
cherry,  honey  locust,  English  maple,  Eu- 
ropean larch,  English  alder,  many  of  the 
willows,  and  the  Lombardy  poplar.  Any 
of  these  will,  in  a  few  years,  afford  an 
efficient  shelter.  They  may  be  planted 
from  four  to  six  feet  apart,  and  allowed 
to  take  their  natural  habit  of  growth  until 
they  reach  a  height  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet.. 
If  the  tops  are  then  removed  or  checked, 
so  as  to  repress  upward  elongation,  they 
will  spread  and  interlace  their  lower 
branches,  forming  a  thick  shelter,  without 
the  trim,  formal  appearance  of  a  regularly 
cut  hedge. 

It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  no  length- 
ened period  of  uniform  success  in  fruit 
culture  can  be  realized  in  exposed  situ- 
ations, unless  a  systematic  plan  of  shel- 
tering by  belts  or  hedge  rows  is  intro- 
duced ;  and  the  time  is  fast  approaching 
when  no  person  will  think  of  planting 
fruit  trees,  or  raising  fine  fruits  of  any 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       533 


"kind,  without  first  preparing  for  them  a 
thoroughly  protected  situation. 

HEDGE,  Seed  for  Planting.— Gather 
them  in  the  fall  when  fully  ripe  and  com- 
mence to  fall  of  their  own  accord,  shell 
and  store  them  in  a  cool,  airy  place,  to 
insure  them  not  to  mold.  In  the  spring 
in  good  weather,  and  at  the  time  of 
planting  corn,  put  them  in  a  bowl  or 
crock,  and  pour  boiling  water  on  them 
until  the  seed  are  covered,  and  let  them 
stand  in  a  cool  place  eight  or  ten  hours ; 
then  pour  off  this  water  and  put  on  boil- 
ing water  as  before.  After  standing  from 
four  to  six  hours  drain  off  the  water 
again,  and  they  are  ready  immediately  to 
plant  in  the  ground,  which  must  have 
been  well  prepared  by  plowing  up  into  a 
ridge  where  the  fence  is  designed  to  be. 
Then  mark  off  a  straight  shallow  furrow, 
and  drop  two  or  three  seeds  in  a  place, 
18  or  20  inches  apart;  cover  one  or  two 
inches  deep,  owing  to  the  weather.  They 
will  be  up  in  four  or  five  days ;  cultivate 
as  corn,  and  if  necessary  use  the  hoe  to 
clear  them  of  weeds.  If  all  have  come 
up  well  they  can  be  dug  up  in  the  fall 
and  saved,  except  one  in  a  place,  and 
those  that  have  been  kept  through  the 
winter  can  be  planted  in  the  spring  the 
same  as  the  Osage  orange,  only  earlier  in 
the  season.  If  any  have  missed  grow- 
ing, be  sure  and  fill  the  space  with  a 
strong,  vigorous  plant;  cultivate  the 
second  year  the  same  as  the  first.  By 
having  the  plants  the  distance  designated 
enables  them  to  throw  out  a  considerable 
number  of  side  branches,  which  are 
essential  and  should  not  be  cut  off.  At 
two  or  three  years  old  they  may  or  may 
not  be  cut  and  plashed  down  as  Osage 
orange ;  if  not  cut  down,  they  should  be 
top  trimmed,  so  as  to  keep  the  side 
branches  alive  and  thrifty,  which  insures 
a  growth  of  thorns  on  the  side  branches, 
and  renders  it  stock-proof. 

HOG  CHOLERA.— We  find  the  follow- 
ing in  the  Southern  Cultivator: 

"  Last  year  I  lost  nearly  all  my  hogs 
with  hog  cholera.  My  neighbor  lost  none 
scarcely,  which  led  me  to  believe  that  he 
must  possess  a  sovereign  remedy  for  this 
evil.  I  asked  why  he  lost  no  hogs.  His 
reply  was,  that  he  '  kept  them  clear  of 
worms,  and  stimulated  with  black  pepper. 
I  first  fed  them  on  corn  soaked  in  lye  and 
•copperas,  to  clear  them  of  worms ;  after-  j 


wards,  gave  them  plenty  of  black  pepper. 
Those  that  were  sick  got  well,  and  those 
that  were  well  remained  so,  of  course.' 

"  This  year  I  have  given  my  hogs  an 
occasional  dose,  twice  a  week,  of  kero- 
sene oil,  said  to  be  a  preventive  of  chol- 
era. Several  of  my  neighbors  lost  nearly 
all  their  hogs,  and  six  weeks  ago  mine 
showed  signs  of  disease,  and  I  concluded 
to  try  the  lye  and  pepper.  I  prepared  it 
as  follows :  First,  shell  an  ear  of  corn  and 
soak  in  strong  lye  all  night ;  next  morn- 
ing add  a  half  teaspoonful  of  pulverized 
copperas.  Mix,  and  feed  in  a  trough. 
This  was  repeated  on  the  following  morn- 
ing, and  a  half  teaspoonful  of  black  pep- 
per was  added.  After  this  I  put  a  tea- 
spoonful of  pulverized  pepper  in  the  food, 
boiled  grits,  every  other  morning  for  a 
week. 

"  Result. — My  hogs  stopped  dying ;  all 
that  ate  got  well,  and  are  as  thrifty  now 
as  I  could  wish.  The  above  is  the  dose 
for  a  single  hog.  It  is  simple  and  reliable ; 
as  a  preventive  it  cannot  be  beat,  and  I 
have  seen  hogs  sick — very  sick,  too — 
restored  too  good  health  by  the  use  of 
this  remedy." 

HORSE  RADISH,  Culture  of.— The 
soil  must  be  deep,  so  as  to  allow  the  roots 
to  penetrate  a  foot  or  more  if  possible. 

The  sets  which  are  planted  consist  of 
the  small  roots  taken  from  the  large 
ones,  and  are  from  four  to  six  inches  in 
length.  In  order  to  distinguish  the  bot- 
tom from  the  top  end  of  the  sets,  a 
slanting  cut  is  made  across  the  lower  end, 
while  the  top  is  cut  off  square.  When 
planted  upside  down  they  will  grow,  but 
the  roots  are  apt  to  be  irregular  and 
branching.  These  sets  are  planted  in 
May,  in  rows  two  feet  apart  and  eighteen 
inches  between  the  plants.  During  the 
summer  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the 
weeds  down  and  the  soil  loose.  Horse 
radish  is  not  injured  by  frost,  and  may 
remain  in  the  ground  until  quite  late. 
Just  before  the  ground  closes  up  the  roots 
are  dug,  and  after  trimming  off  the  small 
rootlets  for  sets  for  planting  the  next 
season,  the  large  roots  are  either  stored  in 
pits  in  the  open  ground,  or  preserved  in 
sand  in  a  cool,  dry  cellar.  The 
small  rootlets  are  preserved  in  sand, 
taking  care  not  to  make  the  layers  of 
roots  so  large  that  they  will  heat. 


534- 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


MANURE  FUE,  Management  of.— 
Every  manure  heap  consists  of  three  por- 
tions, and  all  of  these  require  very  differ- 
ent means  for  their  preservation.  We 
have  first  the  carbonaceous  matter.  This 
forms  the  chief  bulk  of  every  manure 
heap,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  came  orig- 
inally from  the  atmosphere,  and  that  it 
can  be  replaced  from  the  same  source, 
theorists  who  have  not  carefully  watched 
the  results  attained  in  the  practice  are  apt 
to  depreciate  its  value.  It  is  not  as  valu- 
able as  the  other  two  constituents,  but  it 
serves  to  bring  the  land  into  fine,  friable, 
mellow  condition,  and  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that  the  carbonic  acid,  furnished 
by  its  decomposition,  is  not  a  source  of 
plant-food.  Under  any  circumstacnes, 
however,  it  is  well  to  be  economical  of  it, 
and  allow  none  to  go  to  waste. 

The  second  portion  is  the  inorganic 
plant-food  of  animals.  It  consists  of 
phosphoric  acid,  lime,  potash,  soda,  mag- 
nesia, soluble  silica,  etc.,  and  the  great 
source  of  loss  of  these  constituents  is 
from  their  being  washed  out.  They  can- 
not evaporate,  but  if  the  rain  and  liquid 
manure  are  allowed  to  fall  on  a  manure 
heap,  and  drain  through  it  and  out  of  it, 
the  manure  pile  becomes  a  mere  caput 
mortuum  — a  worthless  residuum  of  origi- 
nally valuable  materials.  Hence  every 
barnyard  where  manure  is  kept  exposed 
to  the  weather,  should  be  hollowed  out 
in  the  centre  and  well  puddled,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  soluble  matters  from  draining 
or  soaking  away.  Moreover,  if  the  farm- 
is  located  in  a  region  where  a  great  deal 
of  rain  falls,  it  is  necessary  to  place  a 
large  portion  of  the  barnyard  under  the 
cover  of  sheds,  which  prevent  excessive 
wetting.  Some  moisture  is  absolutely 
necessary.  Too  much  is  decidedly  in- 
jurious. 

The  third  constituent  of  the  manure 
heap  is  nitrogen.  This  is  a  substance  of 
great  and  undoubted  value,  and  every 
care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  and  in- 
crease it.  When  vegetable  substances 
containing  nitrogen  undergo  putrefaction, 
in  a  moist  state,  the  nitrogen  in  general 
becomes  converted  into  ammonia.  The 
same  process  of  putrefaction,  however, 
produces  carbonic  acid  in  large  quantities, 
and  this  combines  with  the  ammonia 
to  form  carbonate  of  ammonia.  This 
salt    is    comparatively    volatile,    and    if 


the  manure  is  allowed  to  dry  up,  while 
exposed,  in  thin  layers,  the  ammonia  dis- 
appears. Several  agents  may  be  set  to- 
work  to  fix  and  retain  it. 

Water  is  one  of  these — carbonate  of 
ammonia  dissolves  very  readily  in  water, 
and  does  not  then  evaporate  to  the  same 
extent  that  it  would  do  from  a  dry  mass. 

The  great  agent  in  the  fixing  of  ammo- 
nia on  the  manure  heap  is  the  humic  and 
similar  acids,  produced  during  the  decom- 
position of  the  straw.  These  acids  do  it 
very  effectually,  and  hence  the  importance 
of  mixing  animal  excrement  with  a  large 
proportion  of  moist  straw. 

One  of  the  most  powerful  fixers  of  am- 
monia is  plaster  or  sulphate  of  lime. 
When  this  meets  carbonate  of  ammonia 
in  solution  decomposition  ensues.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  and  sulphate  of  ammonia 
are  formed,  and  as  sulphate  of  ammonia 
is  not  volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
there  is  no  danger  of  loss  except  by  its 
being  washed  out. 

Hence  a  few  simple  rules  will  enable  us 
to  manage  a  manure  heap  so  as  to  avoid 
any  very  great  loss : 

i.  Prevent  all  loss  by  drainage  and 
soaking. 

2.  See  that  the  animal  excrements  are 
covered  with  moist  straw. 

3.  See  that,  while  too  much  water  is 
avoided,  there  is  a  sufficiency  to  keep  the 
manure  moist. 

4.  Moisture  and  packing  prevent  fire 
fanging — that  is,  too  rapid  fermentation. 

5.  If  you  find  it  convenient  to  use  a 
few  bushels  of  plaster,  sprinkle  them  over 
the  heap  so  that  the  plaster  will  be  incor- 
porated with  the  successive  layers.  It 
will  thus  prove  of  great  service. 

MANURE,  to  Shelter.— We  lose  a 
great  deal  from  the  washing  of  manure, 
when  out  of  doors,  as  well  as  by  evapo- 
ration. My  experience  has  led  me  to  the 
conclusion  that  we  want  a  tight  bottom  to 
our  manure  receptacle  as  much  as  we 
want  a  tight  roof  overhead.  When  I 
raised  my  old  barn  to  put  a  cellar  under 
it  I  saw  that  the  earth  underneath  looked 
damp  and  very  rich,  and  I  dug  out  and 
put  away  as  manure  all  that  had  the 
slightest  tinge  showing  that  it  had  been 
colored  by  the  manure  that  had  soaked 
through  the  floor.  I  have  no  doubt  I 
had  lost  for  years  quite  a  quantity  of  val- 
uable manure  in  that  way.     But  when  I 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       535:, 


got  down  to  the  clear  sand,  as  white  as 
the  sand  on  the  sea  shore,  we  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  that  was  not  good  for 
anything,  and  we  used  it  to  grade  up 
around  my  house,  intending  to  spread 
some  soil  over  it  in  order  to  make  the 
grass  grow.  Very  much  to  my  surprise, 
this  sand  that  we  had  taken  from  two  and 
a  half  to  three  feet  below  the  surface, 
that  was  entirely  barren,  as  we  supposed, 
threw  up  a  rank  growth  of  barn  grass 
that  lasted  one  year.  We  thought  if  it 
would  bear  barn  grass  we  would  wait  and 
see  what  else  it  would  bear.  That  barn 
grass  went  out  the  next  year,  and  up 
came  a  growth  of  witch  grass ;  and  from 
that  day  to  this,  fifteen  years  or  more, 
that  ground  has  grown  witch  grass  every 
year,  without  a  particle  of  manure. 
What  does  this  show?  It  shows  that 
these  fertilizers,  particularly  liquid  man- 
ure, go  down  further  than  we  have  any 
idea  of,  and  that  we  are  losing  more 
every  year  than  we  are  aware  of,  by  not 
having  it  in  the  bottom  of  our  barn-cel- 
lars. 

MANURE,  Garden  Refuse  as.— Green 
stuff,  such  as  cabbage  leaves,  radish  and 
beet  tops,  and  the  like,  should  not  be 
allowed  to  dry.  Let  them  go  while  fresh 
to  the  pig-pen  or  to  the  compost  heap. 
Young  weeds — and  old  ones  ought  not 
to  be  found  in  the  garden — should  have 
the  same  destination.  By  saving  all  the 
refuse  of  the  garden  in  a  heap  by  itself, 
or  putting  it  in  the  pig-pen,  a  surprising 
accumulation  of  valuable  compost  will  be 
found  at  the  end  of  the  season. 

MANURE,  Hen. — A  mixture  of  hen- 
dung,  unleached  wood-ashes  and  plaster, 
frequently  has  a  wonderful  effect  on  corn. 
If  the  ashes  and  the  hen-manure  are  per- 
fectly dry,  no  decomposition  or  chemical 
change  will  take  place  when  they  are 
mixed  together.  But  if  moist,  more  or 
less  ammonia  will  escape,  and  the  plaster 
will  not  hold  it.  The  only  advantage  of 
mixing  these  articles  together,  aside  from 
the  ease  of  applying  them,  is  probably 
this :  When  the  dry  hen-manure  is  thor- 
oughly broken  up  fine,  and  mixed  with 
the  ashes  and  plaster,  and  applied  in  the 
hill,  the  moist  soil  soon  induces  chemical 
action.  This  produces  more  or  less  heat 
immediately  under  the  seed  and  favors 
germination;  carbonate  of  ammonia 
would  also  be  given  off,  and  would  be 


absorbed  by  the  soil  immediately  in  con- 
tact with  the  roots  of  the  young  corn 
plants,  and  would,  if  everything  is  favor- 
able, cause  them  to  grow  rapidly  and 
assume  a  dark-green  color.  But  care 
must  be  used  in  applying  the  mixture,  or 
it  may  do  more  harm  than  good  by  burn- 
ing the  roots.  It  should  be  well  mixed 
with  the  soil,  and  not  come  in  direct 
contact  with  the  seed.  Some  persons 
apply  it  on  the  hill  after  the  plants  are 
up,  just  as  they  frequently  apply  the  plas- 
ter or  ashes  alone. 

MANURE,  Leaves  as. — Forest  leaves 
are  excellent  to  supply  the  stable-yards, 
and,  where  straw  is  scarce,  also  the  cow- 
stables  and  hog-pens.  They  can  be 
most  conveniently  gathered  after  the  first 
snow,  or  at  least  before  the  wintry  blasts- 
have  scattered  them.  They  then  lay 
compactly,  and,  being  moist,  can  be  han- 
dled with  greater  facility.  Leaves  absorb 
large  quantities  of  liquid  manure,  and  are 
an  excellent  fertilizer  in  spring.  They 
can  be  gathered,  too,  when  other  labor 
about  the  farm  is  slack. 

INSECTS,  to  Destroy.— In  some  sea- 
sons the  vegetables  in  our  gardens  are 
almost  annihilated  by  worms  of  several 
species.  Fall  plowing,  or  spading  the 
ground  just  before  frost  sets  in,  and  strew- 
ing the  ground  with  fine  salt  in  the; 
spring  some  time  before  the  seeds  are 
sown,  are  said  to  be  sovereign  remedies- 
against  these  petty  but  powerful  depre- 
dators. 

Some  vegetables  are  offensive  to  all  in- 
sects, such  as  the  elder,  especially  the 
dwarf  kind,  the  onion,  tansy,  and  tobacco, 
except  the  worm  that  preys  on  the  plant. 
The  juice  of  these  may  therefore  be  ap- 
plied, with  effect,  in  repelling  insects ;  and 
sometimes  the  plants  themselves  when 
green,  or  when  reduced  to  powder,  par- 
ticularly the  latter,  when  made  into  snuff. 

Set  an  onion  in  the  centre  of  a  hill  of 
cucumbers,  squashes,  melons,  etc.,  and  it 
will  effectually  banish  the  bugs. 

To  destroy  on  trees,  plants,  shrubs,  etc., 
tie  up  some  flour  of  sulphur  in  a  piece  of 
gauze,  and  dust  the  plants  with  it 

LETTUCE,  SNAILS,  to  Protect  from. — 
If  the  beds  are  surrounded  by  a  slate  or 
board  edging,  made  to  stand  five  inches 
above  the  ground,  and  occasionally  coat- 
ed with  a  paste  made  of  train-oil  and  sootr 


53^ 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


it  will  form  a  barrier  over  which  snails  will 
not  pass. 

Lettuce  in  Winter. — It  is  said  that 
heads  of  lettuce  can  be  produced  in  win- 
ter in  from  24  to  48  hours,  by  taking  a 
box  filled  with  rich  earth,  in  which  one- 
third  part  of  slaked  lime  has  been  mixed, 
and  watering  the  earth  with  lukewarm 
water;  then  taking  seed  which  had  been 
previously  softened  by  soaking  in  strong 
brandy  for  24  hours,  and  sowing  in  the 
usual  way.  We  are  assured,  but  will  not 
vouch  for  the  tact,  that  a  good-sized  head 
of  lettuce  may  be  obtained  in  the  time 
mentioned. 

MAPLE  TREES,  To  Tap.— Much  in- 
jury is  often  ignorantly  and  thoughtlessly 
inflicted  on  sugar  maple  trees  by  excessive 
tapping,  and  various  negligent  practices 
in  connection  with  the  operation.  As  a 
guard  against  such  malpractice  the  fol- 
lowing rules  will  be  useful :  1.  Use  noth- 
ing larger  than  a  three-fourth  inch  auger 
or  bitt.  One-half  to  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  is  best.  2.  Do  not  open  the  trees 
until  they  will  run  equally  well  on  all 
sides.  3.  Select  the  thriftiest  part  of  the 
tree  that  is  farthest  from  an  old  orifice. 
4.  Never  put  more  than  one  spout  to  a 
tree  that  is  less  than  one  foot  in  diameter, 
nor  more  than  one  bucket  to  one  less 
than  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  5. 
Never  bore  trees  more  than  once  in  a 
season,  but  freshen  them  once,  or  any 
time  after  a  long  and  hard  freeze.  6. 
Never  leave  spouts  in  the  trees  a  single 
day  after  they  have  done  running.  The 
•quicker  the  orifices  dry,  the  less  they  de- 
cay. 

The  following  facts  should  also  be  re- 
membered :  The  root  of  a  tree  will  some- 
times run  more  than  the  body.  A  healthy 
tree  runs  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its 
top,  and  should  be  opened  with  respect 
to  its  capacity  for  production.  Trees  in 
open  grounds,  with  spreading  tops,  dis- 
charge more  and  much  sweeter  water 
than  those  in  a  forest. 

MAPLE  SUGAR,  Making.— First,  the 
sweetness  and  cleanliness  of  the  tubs,  and 
everything  connected  with  the  sugar 
orchard,  and  without  this  requisite  no 
one  can  make  the  best  quality  of  sugar. 
And  we  think  that  tin  tubs  are  much  bet- 
ter than  wooden  ones,  for  tin  tubs  are 
easier  kept  clean  and  sweet.  The  sap 
will  penetrate  the  wood  of  the  wooden 


tub,  and  sours  and  dries  during  the  last 
part  of  sugaring;  and  another  advantage 
tin  has  over  wood  is,  you  can  gather  the 
sap  earlier  in  the  morning  from  the  tin 
tubs  than  you  can  from  the  wooden  ones. 
Most  of  the  wooden  tubs  are  manufac- 
tured of  timber  embracing  the  sap  as 
well  as  the  heart  timber.  This  sap-wood 
sours  much  quicker  than  the  heart-wood, 
so  that  heart  tubs  are  preferable  to  those 
containing  the  sap-wood.  We  notice 
that  some  use  wooden  tubs  painted  in- 
side and  out,  and  think  them  preferable 
to  tin,  as  they  do  not  warm  the  sap  as 
much  in  a  sunny  day  as  the  tin  does,  and 
will  therefore  keep  the  sap  longer  sweet ; 
but  the  fact  is  that  sap  should  not  stand 
in  any  tub  longer  than  one  can  help,  and 
as  the  sap  can  be  gathered  from  a  tin  tub 
whenever  it  is  warm  enough  for  it  to  run, 
and  as  it  will  keep  longer  in  bulk  if  gath- 
ered when  it  is  cold  than  it  will  in  the 
sap  tubs,  it  gives  the  tin  tubs  an  advant- 
age in  this  direction. 

Sap  should  be  gathered  and  boiled  as 
soon  as  possible  after  it  has  left  the  tree. 
This  is  one  of  the  main  points  on  which 
good  or  poor  sugar  depends,  for  the  lon- 
ger sap  stands  after  it  has  left  the  trees, 
before  it  is  boiled,  the  more  color  there 
will  be  in  the  sugar.  Sap  should  be 
strained  before  it  is  boiled,  to  take  out  all 
foreign  substances,  and  in  boiling  it  one 
should  make  it  a  point  to  syrup-off  quite 
often,  as  the  continued  boiling  of  the 
same  sweet  for  a  long  time  will  color  it, 
and  the  boiling  apparatus  should  be  con- 
structed with  special  reference  to  this 
idea,  and  the  syrup  should  be  sugared  off 
as  soon  as  it  has  stood  sufficient  time  to 
settle,  and  it  should  stand  in  tin  cans, 
and  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  if  pos- 
sible. Sap  commences  to  change  as  soon 
as  it  leaves  the  tree,  and  should  therefore 
be  worked  up  as  soon  as  possible ;  and 
our  motto  should  be,  in  making  sugar, 
first,  cleanliness,  secondly,  expeditious- 
ness,  and  thirdly,  to  get  all  foreign  sub- 
stances out  of  it,  and  to  put  none  in, 
either  in  boiling  the  sap  or  in  sugaring 
off. 

MILDEW,  Sulphur  for.— The  efficacy 
of  sulphur  in  destroying  and  preventing 
mildew  is  now  well  known,  and  it  is  the 
chief  reliance  of  the  vine-grower,  whether 
he  cultivates  under  his  glass  or  in  the 
open  air.     Where  sulphuring  is  systemati- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       537 


•cally  followed,  it  is  applied  at  least  three 
times — just  before  the  blossoming  of  the 
vines,  after  the  fruit  has  set,  and  when  it 
begins  to  color;  and,  beside  these  stated 
periods,  it  is  applied  whenever  the  ap- 
pearance of  mildew  indicates  that  it  is 
necessary.  The  mode  of  application,  by 
La  Vergne's  bellows  is  the  popular  way 
of  applying  the  sulphur.  The  bellows 
may  now  be  obtained  at  most  implement 
stores.  The  character  of  the  sulphur  is 
of  importance,  as  much  of  that  found  in 
commerce  is  liable  to  contain  acid,  and 
be  injurious  to  the  foliage.  Sulphur  con- 
taminated by  acid  may  be  detected  by 
the  taste,  but  a  more  delicate  test  is 
litmus  paper.  This  is  paper  stained  with 
a  blue  dye,  which  turns  red  when  it  is 
touched  by  acids ;  it  is  kept  by  the  drug- 
gists. The  sulphur  to  be  tested  is  mixed 
with  a  little  water  and  the  paper  wetted 
with  the  liquid.  If  the  least  trace  of  the 
acid  be  present,  it  will  be  indicated  by 
the  change  in  color  of  the  paper.  Some- 
times sulphur  is  not  sublimed  as  above 
described,  but  the  crude  lumps  are  ground 
to  powder  in  a  mill.  Sulphur  thus  pre- 
pared is  free  from  acid. 

MILK-ROOM,  Charcoal  in.— The  fact 
that  milk  will  absorb  noxious  gases  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  greatly  impair  its 
excellence  as  well  as  its  healthfulness,  is 
known  to  every  dairyman.  The  power 
of  absorption  is  not  confined  to  the  milk 
itself,  but  it  extends  to  all  the  products 
that  naturally  form,  or  are  artificially  pre- 
pared from  it,  where  they  are  cream,  or 
butter  and  cheese.  The  ill  flavor,  as  well 
as  the  disagreeable  odor,  of  much  of  our 
butter  and  cheese,  are  not  imparted  to 
them  from  substances  that  existed  in  the 
milk  when  it  was  drawn  from  the  cow, 
but  which  were  taken  up  while  the  milk 
was  setting  in  pans  or  tanks,  during  the 
manufacture  into  butter  and  cheese,  or 
while  these  products  of  the  dairy  are 
awaiting  sale.  How  shall  the  air  that 
enters  our  milk-room  be  purified?  The 
answer  is  easily  made — use  charcoal. 
This  common  and  inexpensive  substance, 
when  freshly  prepared,  is  capable  of  tak- 
ing up  and  securely  holding  ninety  times 
its  volume  of  ammonia,  and  a  propor- 
tionate amount  of  other  cases.  Not  only 
•does  it  tightly  hold  the  portions  of 
noxious  matter  that  pass  through  its 
meshes,  but  it   also  seems  to  have  the 


property   of   attracting   them   from    the 
surrounding  air. 

MILE,  To  Deodorize. — It  frequently 
occurs  in  the  spring,  when  the  farmers 
are  feeding  the  cows  upon  ruta-bagas,  or 
turnips,  that  the  milk  becomes  so  strongly 
impregnated  by  their  disagreeable  taste 
and  odor  as  to  be  unfit  for  butter-making. 
To  obviate  this,  put  a  pinch  of  finely 
pulverized  saltpetre  into  every  gallon  of 
cream.  A  little  saltpetre  worked  into 
butter  that  has  become  sour,  or  rancid, 
will  render  it  sweet  and  palatable. 

MILDEW  ON  ROSES,  Remedy  for— 
Mix  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  powdered 
sulphur  and  quicklime.  Moisten  with 
water,  and  let  the  lime  slake  in  contact 
with  the  sulphur.  After  the  lime  is 
slaked,  place  the  whole  in  a  kettle  with 
plenty  of  water,  and  boil  it  until  you  get 
a  saturated  solution  of  the  sulphuret  of 
lime.  This  will  be  transparent  and  of  an 
amber  color,  and  should  be  drawn  off  and 
preserved  in  bottles  for  use.  A  gill  of 
this  added  to  a  gallon  of  water,  and  ap- 
plied with  a  syringe,  will  kill  the  mildew 
without  injuring  the  roses. 

MOTHS,  (Codling),  To  Trap.— Take 
old  cider,  or  cider  vinegar,  not  very 
sharp;  put  half  a  pint  in  some  open 
vessel,  and  hang  it  in  all  parts  of  the 
orchard  when  in  bloom — empty  fruit  jars, 
or  tin  oyster  cans  with  the  top  all  off 
would  do.  The  string  holding  the  vessel 
should  be  so  placed  that  it  would  not 
turn  the  water  running  down  the  limb 
into  the  vinegar  or  cider.  If  you  have  a 
large  crop  to  harvest,  you  will  want  to 
look  to  them  every  week  or  two  to  empty 
and  renew  if  necessary. 

OATS. — Oats  are  chiefly  sown  after 
grass;  sometimes  upon  land  not  rich 
enough  for  wheat,  that  has  been  previous- 
ly summer-fallowed,  or  has  carried  turnips; 
often  after  barley,  and  very  rarely  after 
wheat,  unless  cross-cropping,  from  particu- 
lar circumstances,  becomes  a  necessary 
evil.  One  plowing  is  generally  given  to 
the  grass  lands,  usually  in  the  month  of 
January,  so  that  the  benefit  of  frost  may 
be  gained,  and  the  land  sufficiently  mel- 
lowed for  receiving  the  harrow.  In  some 
cases  a  spring  furrow  is  given  when  oats 
succeed  wheat  or  barley,  especially  when 
grass  seeds  are  to  accompany  the  crop. 
The  best  oats,  both  in  quantity  and 
quality,  are  always  those  which  succeed 


53» 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


grass;  indeed,  no  kind  of  grain  seems 
better  qualified  by  nature  for  foraging 
upon  grass  land  than  oats ;  as  a  full  crop 
is  usually  obtained  in  the  first  instance, 
and  the  land  left  in  good  order  for  the 
succeeding  crops. 

ONION,  Culture  of.  —  The  onion  is 
classed  among  the  hardy  vegetables,  and, 
in  fact,  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  the  hardy. 

It  would  be  well  to  have  the  land 
plowed,  cross-plowed  and  harrowed  in 
the  fall;  and  then  in  the  spring,  just  as 
soon  as  it  is  possible  for  the  ground  to  be 
worked,  plow,  cross -plow  and  harrow 
thoroughly  once  more. 

Should  your  ground  not  have  been 
plowed  in  the  fall,  give  it  as  thorough 
plowing,  cross-plowing  and  harrowing  as 
you  possibly  can,  early  in  the  spring, 
breaking  it  into  fine  particles  so  as  to 
leave  no  clods. 

A  sandy,  alluvial  soil  is  the  best ;  but 
any  rich  loam,  well  manured,  will  answer. 
At  all  times  a  new  soil  is  much  the  best, 
as  the  onions  grow  much  more  rapidly, 
and  are  less  troubled  with  weeds. 

Sow  just  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  got 
into  good  condition,  in  drills  sixteen 
inches  apart,  and  from  half  an  inch  to  an 
inch  in  depth. 

The  Large  Red  Annual  Onion,  or 
Wethersfield  Red,  as  it  is  generally  called, 
is  most  likely  to  produce  a  good  crop. 
Another  variety,  known  as  the  Early  Red, 
will  mature  perhaps  a  week  in  advance 
of  the  Large  Red,  but  will  not  produce  as 
large  an  onion.  The  yellow  and  white 
onions  will  not  produce  with  us  the  full- 
sized  onion  the  first  year,  but  require  first 
to  have  the  seed  sown  thickly  to  produce 
what  are  known  as  the  "sets."  These 
"  sets  "  are  kept  over  winter,  planted  out 
in  the  spring,  and  then  produce  the  large 
onion.  The  "sets"  known  as  Yellow 
and  White  can  be  procured  at  any  seed- 
store. 

It  will  take  five  pounds  of  seed,  if  sown 
by  hand,  and  four  pounds,  if  sown  with  a 
good  seed-drill,  per  acre. 

When  the  plants  are  three  to  four  inches 
high,  thin  out  to  a  distance  of  two  inches 
apart.  Keep  clear  of  weeds.  In  culti- 
vating, be  careful  not  to  stir  the  soil  too 
deep,  nor  collect  it  about  the  growing 
bulb.  A  top-dressing  of  wood-ashes  would 
be  found  very  beneficial  after  the  second 
weeding,  and  would  soon  be  observed  in 


the  increased  health   and  color  of  the 
plants. 

Should  there  be  any  stiff-necked  or 
scullions  in  the  patch,  roll  the  whole  bed 
with  a  moderately  light  drum-roller.  This 
will  cause  the  necks  or  outgrowth  to  settle 
back  in  the  bulb. 

Gather  when  the  tops  are  wilted  and 
dried.  Let  them  lie  a  day  or  two  on  the 
ground  to  dry ;  then  top  and  remove  to  a 
cool  place  to  keep  for  future  use. 

A  cool,  dry  season  is  best  to  bring 
them  to  perfection.  Hog  manure,  ap- 
plied in  the  fall,  and  well  plowed  in,  will 
be  found  one  of  the  most  beneficial  for 
this  crop.  The  onion,  unlike  other  crops, 
can  be  grown  in  a  constant  succession, 
without  the  least  deterioration  on  the 
same  ground  for  a  number  of  years. 

ONION,  Blight  and  Smut.— The  onion- 
blight  and  smut  is  at  times  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  onion  crop,  turning  the  most 
promising  fields  in  a  few  days  to  scenes 
of  desolation,  which  is  caused,  in  my 
opinion,  by  a  parasitic  plant,  growing 
upon  and  consuming  the  vitality  of  the 
onion.  The  onion-smut  so  impregnates 
the  land  with  its  spores  as  to  render  it  un- 
safe to  plant  onions  for  several  years  on 
land  thus  affected.  White  blight  comes 
upon  the  crop  at  the  period  of  its  most 
vigorous  growth,  in  a  dry  time,  showing 
its  effect  perhaps  in  a  small  spot  at  first, 
but,  in  case  the  dry  atmosphere  continues, 
rapidly  spreading  over  the  whole  field. 
Two  or  three  days  give  sufficient  time  to 
stop  entirely  all  future  growth  of  the  crop, 
unless  a  change  in  the  weather  occurs  un- 
favorable to  the  growth  of  the  parasite. 

In  many  localities  rank  weeds  might  be 
procured  in  great  abundance  on  fields  in-s 
tested  by  the  fungi  (on  the  field  alluded 
to,  weeds  three  feet  in  height  grew  in  pro- 
fusion); were  they  cut  down,  sun-dried, 
spread  over  the  field,  and  with  them, 
brushwood  and  all  useless  materials  found 
about  the  farm  burned,  the  surtace-spores, 
and  all  germs  of  a  parasitic  life  within 
reach  would  be  consumed,  and  caustiq 
potash,  lime  and  charcoal  would  be  liber- 
ated and  diffused  over  the  field  for  the 
benefit  of  the  succeeding  crops. 

PARASITES,  to  Destroy.  —  The  best 
and  simplest,  as  well  as  the  safest,  wash 
to  destroy  fleas,  mites,  itch-insects,  mange 
acari,  and  all  external  parasites  of  men 
and  animals  (and  probably  the  mange  in 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       539 


horses),  is  a  solution  of  sulphuret  of 
potassium  in  water,  say  two  to  four 
ounces  to  a  gallon  of  cold  water,  varying 
the  strength  according  to  the  age  and  the 
tenderness  of  the  skin  of  the  animal,  as 
the  solution  will  contain  some  potash, 
which,  if  too  strong,  would  irritate  a  deli- 
cate skin.  There  is  no  danger  in  its  ap- 
plication, but  it  has  the  disagreeable  odor 
of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  sulphuret 
of  potassium  comes  in  the  form  of  green- 
ish or  greyish  lumps,  put  up  in  tight  bot- 
tles. It  is  used  in  photography,  and  can 
usually  be  bought  at  the  principal  drug 
stores. 

Carbolic  acid,  diluted  in  water,  is  also 
recommended  as  an  excellent  wash  for 
killing  most  kinds  of  parasites. 

PARSNTPS,  To  Raise.— Select  a  heavy, 
but  clean  and  rich,  loam.  Plow  it  deep, 
and  harrow  it  thoroughly  as  early  as  it 
can  be  worked ;  mark  off  in  rows  fifteen 
inches  apart,  and  drill  in  the  seed  or  sow 
by  hand.  Use  plenty  of  the  seed,  two 
or  three  to  the  inch,  and  be  sure  it  is 
fresh.  Go  through  the  rows  with  a 
pronged  hoe,  or  other  implement,  as 
soon  as  they  can  be  distinguished.  When 
large  enough,  thin  the  plants  to  stand 
four  or  five  inches  apart,  and  be  sure  that 
they  stand  singly.  Keep  the  land  very 
clean  by  frequent  hoeing. 

PEACH  TREES,  Management  of.— 
Seedling  trees  are  the  longest  livers,  most 
prolific  and  most  profitable.  Secure  a 
good  variety  of  pits  which  produce  the 
same  kind  of  fruit — these  are  rare.  Plant 
pits  where  you  desire  your  tree  to  remain, 
or,  if  transplanted,  they  should  be  of  the 
first  year's  growth.  After  your  trees  have 
attained  to  a  proper  size,  cut  back,  and 
prevent  their  bearing ;  this  will  cause  the 
roots  to  spread  in  the  soil,  and  will  add 
to  the  longevity  of  the  tree.  Trees  which 
send  down  one  large  root  and  small 
fibrous  roots,  will  soon  become  covered 
with  moss  and  die.  Use  coal  ashes  and 
soap  suds  plentifully,  and  if  you  wish  to 
keep  the  trees  from  blooming  early, 
spread  manure,  coal  ashes  or  sawdust 
deeply  upon  the  roots  when  the  ground 
is  hardest  frozen,  and  do  not  remove  till 
late  in  the  spring.  (This  has  been  sold 
as  a  great  secret.)  The  largest  roots  of 
a  peach  tree  will  be  found  upon  the 
north  and  west  sides.  Branches  grow 
fastest  toward  the  south  and  the  east. 


PARSLEY,  Culture  of.— Sow  it  in  drills, 
half  an  inch  deep,  early  in  April.  When 
the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high, 
thin  them  to  six  inches  apart ;  to  keep  a 
young  stalk  constantly  for  use,  cut  down 
about  a  third  part  at  a  time.  Keep  it 
only  from  severe  frost.  For  this  object, 
select  a  warm  spot  of  ground,  light  and 
rich;  sow  it  early  in  the  season;  cut  them 
all  over  in  September  surround  the  bed, 
early  in  November,  with  boards,  and 
cover  with  mats  or  shutters ;  glass  is  much 
better  if  it  can  be  obtained. 

PEACH,  Yellows. — The  disease  termed 
the  yellows  is  truly  formidable.  It  is 
peculiar  to  the  peach  and  nectarine.  It 
has  destroyed  whole  orchards  in  portions 
of  the  country,  and  for  a  time  induced 
the  entire  abandonment  of  peach  culture 
in  certain  localities. 

The  cause  of  this  malady  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  ascertained.  According  to 
conjecture,  it  has  arisen  originally  from 
exhaustion  by  deteriorated  soil,  over- 
bearing and  neglected  pruning  and  bad 
cultivation.  But  whatever  may  have 
been  its  origin,  it  appears  at  present  to  be 
chiefly  communicated  from  diseased 
trees.  It  is  quickly  induced  by  inserting 
the  bud  from  an  affected  tree  into  a 
healthy  stock.  It  spreads  by  contact 
with  diseased  roots;  a  knife  used  in 
pruning  the  tree  will  infuse  poison  if  used 
on  another.  It  appears  to  be  communi- 
cated without  actual  contact,  the  healthy 
branches  nearest  a  diseased  tree  being 
usually  first  attacked.  It  is  also  prob- 
able that  the  stones  from  diseased  trees 
cause  its  development  after  a  few  years' 
growth.  Its  highly  contagious  nature, 
when  in  its  most  virulent  form,  is 
indicated  by  the  equal  facility  with  which 
young  and  vigorous  trees,  and  old  and 
feeble,  may  be  inoculated   by    contact. 

Its  infallible  indications  are,  first,  pre- 
mature ripening  of  the  fruit,  some  weeks 
earlier  than  usual — accompanied  with  a 
rather  insipid  flavor,  purple  discolora- 
tions  of  the  flesh.  These  usually  occur 
the  first  season,  and  on  a  part  of  the  tree 
which  has  first  been  inoculated  with  the 
poison.  The  following  season,  numerous 
small  wiry  shoots  are  frequently  throwh 
up  from  the  larger  branches,  the  leaves, 
become  yellow,  the  whole  tree  assumes  a 
sickly  appearance,  and  eventually  per- 
ishes.    No  instance  is  known  where  a. 


.540 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


decidedly  developed  case  of  this  disease 
has  ever  been  cured.  When  once  at- 
tacked, to  prevent  a  spread  of  the 
disease,  the  tree  should  be  immediately 
removed  and  burned.  No  young  trees 
should  be  planted  on  the  same  spot,  as 
the  diseased  roots  still  remain.  Stones 
for  seedlings  should  be  procured  from 
districts  of  the  country  where  it  has  not 
been  introduced. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  possess- 
ing a  strong  fertile  soil,  as,  for  instance, 
Western  New  York,  this  disease  has  not 
spread  extensively  when  introduced  from 
abroad.  It  has  generally  destroyed  a 
few  trees  near  the  affected  ones,  and  has 
then  disappeared. 

ORANGE  BLIGHT.— The  branches  be- 
come covered  more  or  less,  with  a  rust- 
like substance  which  ultimately  destroys 
the  affected  parts.  Probably  the  true 
remedies  for  the  evils  complained  of  con- 
sist in  thorough  drainage,  proper  culture 
of  the  soil,  moderate  manuring,  and 
destroying  the  cocci  and  fungi  by  fre- 
quent washings  with  weak  akaline  solu- 
tions, such  as  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia. 
Orange  -  plants  confined  within  glass 
structures  suffer  a  great  deal  from  insects 
and  fungi,  and  the  remedy  in  use  in  such 
cases  consists  in  thorough  washing  with 
whale-oil  soap  and  water,  and  the  free 
use  of  a  soft  brush.  Frequent  washings 
are  necessary. 

PEACH  TREES,  To  Prevent  Mildew 
■on. — In  the  months  ot  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, if  the  trees  are  in  a  stunted  or 
sickly  state,  take  away  all  the  old  mould 
trom  the  roots  as  carefully  as  possible, 
and  put  in  its  place  fresh  rotten  turf  from 
an  old  pasture,  without  any  dung ;  and 
the  trees  will  not  only  recover  their 
health,  but  will  produce  a  crop  of  fine 
swelled  fruit. 

PEACH  TREES,  To  Save.— Peach  trees, 
after  producing  a  few  crops,  often  not 
only  cease  bearing,  but  perish  in  a  short 
time ;  whereas,  the  natural  life  is  fifty  or 
sixty  years,  or  more.  The  cause  of  this 
defective  power  of  growth  is  believed  to 
be  owing  to  a  deficiency  of  potash  in  the 
soil,  and  that  if  this  alkali  be  supplied  to 
the  tree  so  that  it  shall  reach  the  small 
roots  and  be  absorbed,  the  fruit-bearing 
power  is  restored,  and  the  tree  itself,  pre- 
maturely perishing,  is  revived. 

Dr.  Wood  recommends  digging  around 


the  base  of  the  stem  a  hole  four  or  five 
inches  deep,  scraping  away  all  the  worms 
that  could  be  found  burrowing  at  the 
junction  of  the  stem  and  root,  and  fill- 
ing the  hole  thus  made  with  wood  ashes 
from  the  fire,  which,  of  course,  retain  all 
their  potash.  This  was  done  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1868,  and  with  a  result  the 
following  spring  at  which  he  himself  was 
astonished.  The  trees  appeared  to  have 
been  restored  to  all  their  early  vigor  and 
freshness;  they  put  forth  bright  green 
leaves,  blossoming  copiously,  and  bore  a 
crop  of  fruit  such  as  they  had  never 
borne  before,  many  of  the  branches 
breaking  down  under  the  load  of  peaches. 
PEAR,  Diseases  of. — Mr.  Meehan,  in 
an  essay  on  the  diseases  of  the  pear,  says 
debility  is  the  cause  of  much  of  the  trou- 
ble ;  and  this  want  of  vigor  is  produced 
by  excessive  summer  and  root  pruning, 
which  so  weakens  the  wood-producing 
principle  as  to  induce  inflorescence,  ac- 
cording to  the  well-known  law  that  na- 
ture always  makes  an  effort  to  reproduce 
the  plant,  in  proportion  to  the  danger  of 
death.  When  pear  trees  produce  flowers 
and  no  fruit,  and  the  blossoms  have  had 
no  external  injury,  it  may  be  safely  as- 
sumed that  the  soil  is  deficient  in  nutritive 
elements,  that  too  much  summer  pruning 
has  been  done,  or  too  many  surface 
roots  destroyed  by  a  persistent  stirring  of 
the  soil.  Pears  cannot  be  grown  to  great 
perfection  except  in  rich  and  generous 
soils.  Root  crops  cannot  be  raised  be- 
tween the  trees  without  breaking  up  the 
ground,  which  destroys  their  surface  roots, 
the  most  valuable  of  all  roots.  The  best 
method  is  to  sow  down  with  grass,  and 
manure  the  surface  two  or  three  times  a 
year,  the  grass  roots  will  never  run  deep, 
nor  exhaust  the  soil.  Twice  as  many 
trees  can  thus  be  grown  on  ground  where 
root  crops  are  not  grown ;  and,  if  too 
thick,  after  twenty  years'  growth,  they 
can  be  thinned  out.  Any  one  will  notice 
the  comparative  freedom  from  debility  of 
trees  grown  for  years  in  grass  over  those 
grown  in  constantly-stirred  soils.  Old 
pear  trees  in  Mr.  Median's  garden,  eight 
to  nine  feet  in  circumference,  always  bear 
when  they  have  any  flowers  at  all,  always 
have  healthy  foliage,  always  set  most  of 
their  blossoms,  and  drop  only  fruit  punc- 
tured by  insects,  enough  being  always 
left   to  produce  plentifully;  while   any- 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       541 


where  in  soils  with  regularly-stirred  sur- 
faces will  be  seen  innumerable  flowers 
with  little  fruit,  and  with  those  which  do 
set  great  numbers  are  found  afterwards 
upon  the  ground,  having  fallen  off  from 
no  other  cause  than  sheer  inability  in  the 
weakened  vital  principle  to  maintain 
them.  Leaf-blight  and  innumerable  dis- 
eases follow  exceedingly  weakened  vitali- 
ty ;  and  though  fire-blight,  cracking,  and 
other  diseases  are  the  means  of  destruc- 
tion to  many  thousands  of  bushels  of 
pears  annually,  debility  destroys  its  tens 
of  thousands. 

At  the  discussion  of  the  Lake  Shore 
Horticultural  Association,  Mr.  E.  P. 
Powell,  of  Adrian,  Michigan,  a  successful 
cultivator  of  pears,  recommended  mulch- 
ing pear  trees,  as  a  preventive  of  blight, 
and  as  advantageous  in  other  respects. 
He  sometimes  uses  long  manure,  though 
preferring  only  grass.  His  soil  is  a  clay 
underdrained.  A  few  years  after  plant- 
ing his  orchard  he  ceases  plowing  the 
land,  and  simply  cuts  the  grass  and 
spreads  it  about  the  trees.  No  strength 
is  taken  from  the  land  except  what  is 
gathered  in  the  fruit,  and  this  is  replaced 
four-fold  in  mulching.  No  stimulus  is 
given  to  hasten  the  growth  of  the  trees, 
and  the  wood  is  consequently  strong, 
compact,  and  ripe  each  year. 

Mr.  H.  Pennoyer,  another  successful 
cultivator,  sets  his  trees  without  manure 
or  anything  to  enrich  the  soil;  lets  the 
grass  grow  around  the  trees;  uses  the 
knife  freely,  so  as  to  bring  the  tree  into 
proper  shape  and  proportion.  Pear  trees, 
he  holds,  must  not  be  stimulated;  high 
manuring  forces  an  unnatural  growth, 
winter  kills  the  soft  wood,  and  blight 
finally  finishes  the  tree. 

PEAR,  Slugs  in. — The  pear  slug,  a 
brownish-green,  slimy  slug,  feeding  upon 
the  leaves  of  the  pear  tree,  deposits  its 
eggs  singly  in  June,  in  incisions  made  by 
the  piercer  of  the  female  under  the  skin  of 
the  leaf.  The  larvae,  hatching,  eat  the 
substance  of  the  leaf,  leaving  the  veins 
and  under-skin  untouched.  The  pupa  is 
formed  in  oblong  oval  cavities  under 
ground.  The  insect  appears  in  about 
fifteen  days  after  the  slug  has  gone  into 
the  ground,  in  June  and  August,  and  lays 
its  eggs  for  the  second  crop,  which  go  in- 
to the  ground  in  September  and  October, 
and  remain  until  the  following  spring, 


when  the  perfect  flies  come  out  to  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  foliage.  Mr.  Saunders, 
of  Canada,  states  that  this  insect  is  readily 
destroyed  by  dusting  the  tree  with  air- 
slacked  lime.  Coal  oil  will  injure  the 
trees,  and  road  dust  is  of  little  value  when 
dusted  over  the  trees. 

PEPPER,  Culture  of.— The  plants  are 
always  propagated  from  seed.  Sow  in  a 
hot  bed,  early  in  April,  in  shallow  drills 
six  inches  apart,  and  transplant  to  the 
open  ground,  when  summer  weather  has 
commenced.  The  plants  should  be  set 
in  warm  mellow  soil,  in  rows  sixteen 
inches  apart,  and  about  the  same  distance 
apart  in  the  rows.  When  all  danger 
from  frost  is  past,  and  the  soil  is  warm 
and  settled,  sow  the  seeds  in  the  open 
ground,  in  drills  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
deep,  and  fourteen  inches  apart;  and, 
while  growing,  thin  out  the  plants  to  tea 
inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

PLANTS,  To  Banish  Red  Spider  from.— 
Cut  off  the  infected  leaf.  The  leaf  once 
attacked  soon  decays  and  falls  off,  but  in 
the  meantime  the  animals  remove  to  an- 
other, and  the  leaf  from  the  moment  of 
attack,  seems  to  cease  to  perform  its 
office ;  but  persevere  in  the  amputation^ 
and  the  plants  become  healthy. 

PEAR  ORCHARDS,  Sites,  and  Shelter 
of. — Low  situations  should  be  avoided  on 
account  of  the  greater  extremes  of  tem- 
perature prevalent  in  valleys  than  in 
places  of  moderate  elevation,  and  the 
consequent  probability  of  injury  from  late 
spring  and  early  winter  frosts.  A  sloping 
hill-side,  contiguous  to  a  well-defined  val- 
ley, forms  the  choicest  orchard  site,  not 
only  for  pears,  but  for  other  fruits  as  well. 
To  insure  the  greatest  advantage  from 
position,  the  trees  should  not  be  planted 
lower  than  within  fifty  feet  of  upright  ele- 
vation from  the  lowest  point  in  the  valley. 
The  cold  air  will  then  settle  during  the 
night,  in  a  stratum  below  the  trees,  and 
the  warm  air  accumulated  in  the  lower 
ground  during  the  day  will  be  pressed  up 
to  the  higher  altitude  occupied  by  the 
orchard,  and  thus  afford  considerable  pro- 
tection in  cold  nights. 

The  obvious  necessity  of  shelter  to  pear 
orchards  has  led,  in  some  instances,  to  the 
mistake  of  selecting  low  grounds  for  their 
apparently  well  protected  position,  which, 
for  the  reasons  given  above,  are  the  worst 
possible  localities.     Contrasted  with  val- 


542 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


ley  planting,  even  what  might  be  termed 
bleak  exposures  have  the  preference,  and 
the  unsatisfactory  results  attending  orch- 
ards in  low  protected  grounds  has  led  to  a 
supposition  that  shelter  is  injurious  rather 
than  beneficial. 

The  addition  of  shelter  to  an  otherwise 
judiciously  selected  site  is  altogether  dif- 
ferent from  endeavoring  to  secure  it  by 
choosing  a  low  situation.  The  efficacy  of 
protection  is  now  generally  well  under- 
stood, especially  by  those  who  attempt 
pear  culture  in  regions  that  are  compara- 
tively treeless.  Even  the  White  Doyenne, 
the  famed  Virgalieu,  or  butter  pear,  worth- 
less in  exposed  situations,  is  produced  in 
all  its  pristine  excellence  where  the  tree  is 
protected,  as  may  be  seen  in  many  old 
gardens  in  cities,  where  this  variety  is  very 
common. 

The  shelter  required  is  not  so  much  to 
repel  or  alleviate  mere  thermometric  cold, 
as  it  is  to  arrest  evaporation  and  its  ac- 
companying exhaustion  of  vitality,  by 
checking  the  rapid  and  penetrating  action 
of  dry  winds. 

Evergreen  trees  afford  the  most  perfect 
shelter  in  the  least  space.  A  single  row 
of  Norway  firs,  Austrian  pines,  or  other 
equally  hardy  evergreen  trees  will  give 
shelter  for  a  considerable  distance;  thickly 
planted  belts  of  deciduous  trees  will  also 
render  effective  service.  How  far  apart 
these  belts  and  hedges  should  be  placed, 
and  in  what  direction  they  will  be  most 
useful,  will  depend  upon  the  surroundings 
and  local  specialties.  As  the  best  mode 
of  draining  a  field  will  depend  upon  its 
surface  undulations,  so  the  best  mode  of 
sheltering  will  be  guided  by  the  general 
aspect  and  position  of  the  orchard. 

PEAR  ORCHARDS,  Soil  for.— The 
pear  will  exist  in  a  variety  of  soils,  but 
attains  great  perfection  in  clayey  loam. 
Even  on  stiff  clays  the  tree  will  grow  and 
produce  very  satisfactorily  under  the  ame- 
liorating influences  of  the  preparation  and 
culture  which  such  soils  require.  Drain- 
ing first  and  subsoiling  afterwards  are  the 
chief  requisites  for  gradual  amelioration; 
in  short,  while  a  water-soaked  clay  soil  is 
the  most  utterly  worthless  of  all  lands  for 
the  growth  of  any  crop,  a  properly  drain- 
ed and  aerated  clay  soil  is  by  far  the  most 
valuable,  and  only  requires  careful  man- 
agement to  render  it  available  for  the  best 
productions  of  the  orchard,  farm,  or  gar- 


den. The  prominent  precaution  in  man- 
aging a  clay  soil  is  never  to  work  on  it 
while  wet,  but  only  when  it  is  dry  to  fri- 
ability. No  expedient  or  process  of  cul- 
ture will  compensate  for  the  injury  sus- 
tained by  working  clay  soils  during  sum- 
mer, when  they  are  saturated  with  water; 
the  injury  cannot  be  remedied  except  by 
a  winter's  freezing,  which  will  again  pro- 
duce friability,  under  proper  treatment. 

Soils  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  character 
are  not  well  adapted  to  the  pear.  In 
these  soils,  so  valuable  in  their  degree  of 
moisture,  the  trees  ripen  prematurely  and 
drop  their  foliage  early,  if  the  weather 
proves  dry  towards  the  end  of  summer; 
then,  in  the  event  of  moist  weather  fol- 
lowing a  period  of  drought,  a  late  second- 
ary growth  will  be  produced,  which,  fail- 
ing to  mature,  induces  a  tendency  to 
blight,  and  predisposes  to  other  diseases. 
Surface  dressings  of  compost,  repeated 
cultivation,  or  constant  mulching,  will 
counteract,  to  some  extent,  the  effects  of 
uncongenial  soil  for  the  pear  roots,  but 
where  it  is  impracticable  to  select  any  but 
a  thin  gravel  or  sand  for  the  growth  of 
this  fruit,  the  dwarf  tree  is  preferable,  as 
the  roots  of  the  quince  can  be  confined  to 
a  small  area,  which  may  be  prepared  and 
maintained  to  meet  all  the  requirements 
of  growth. 

PEAR  TREES,  Planting.— Where  the 
soil  has  been  prepared  by  deep  tillage  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  dig  holes  deeper 
than  required  to  merely  cover  the  roots  of 
the  plant.  In  heavy  soils  that  have  not 
been  prepared  in  the  most  thorough  man- 
ner the  holes  should  be  made  wide  rather 
than  deep.  In  gravelly  subsoils  pits  may 
be  dug  eighteen  inches  in  depth,  the  sur- 
face soil  and  the  subsoil  being  thrown  out 
at  opposite  sides,  and  filled  in  equally 
until  the  proper  height  is  reached  for  set- 
ting the  plant.  In  either  case  about  a 
bushel  of  compost,  made  up  of  leaf  mold, 
rotted  manure,  and  light  soil,  if  carefully 
spread  around  the  roots,  will  form  an  ad- 
mirable rooting  medium ;  this  should  be 
finely  pulverized  and  rather  dry  than  wet 
when  used. 

Deep  planting  and  shallow  planting  are 
the  injurious  extremes  in  setting  trees. 
The  plain  and  incontrovertible  rule  is  to 
set  the  plant  so  that  the  point  from 
whence  the  stem  and  roots  proceed  in  op- 
posite directions  will  be  about  one  inch 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


543 


below  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  is  infinitely  better  to  plant  so 
that  some  future  surface  dressing  may  be 
required  to  cover  the  swelling  exposed 
roots,  than  to  have  them  buried  below 
the  ready  influence  of  atmospheric  heat 
and  air. 

PEAR  TREE,  Mulching.— The  pre- 
servation of  a  proper  degree  of  moisture 
in  the  soil  surrounding  the  roots  of  the 
tree  is  the  principal  object  of  culture  dur- 
ing the  first  summer  after  planting.  Both 
the  kind  and  amount  of  care  will  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  weather;  something  will  also 
depend  upon  the  first  preparation  of  the 
ground.  Where  the  soil  has  been  drained, 
deepened,  and  pulverized,  and  the  surface 
is  loose  and  mellow,  nothing  further  will 
be  required  than  merely  to  prevent  a 
growth  of  weeds.  If  the  surface  is  tena- 
cious, frequent  stirring,  especially  after 
rains,  will  probably  suffice,  but  where  the 
soil  is  shallow  and  largely  composed  of 
sand  or  gravel,  mulching  will  most  effectu- 
ally accomplish  the  purpose. 

Any  loose  material  will  answer  as  a 
mulch,  such  as  coarse  manure,  strawy 
litter  of  any  kind,  or  short  grass  as  cut 
from  lawns;  where  a  few  trees  only  are 
to  be  cared  for,  tan  bark  and  refuse  char- 
coal dust  are  frequently  employed. 
Mulch  should  not  be  applied  before  the 
middle  of  June,  unless  the  weather  proves 
very  dry  and  warm  previous  to  that  time, 
and  on  clean  ground  it  may  remain  dur- 
ing the  following  winter,  or  be  renewed 
if  exhausted ;  but  in  rough,  soddy  ground, 
where  field  mice  may  lurk,  the  soil 
around  the  trees  should  be  thoroughly 
comminuted,  and  kept  clean  and  com- 
pressed. 

PEAR,  Culture.— The  best  mode  of 
treating  the  soil  in  pear  orchards  is  an 
important  question  both  in  regard  to  the 
health  of  the  tree,  and  the  production  of 
fruit.  Laying  aside  all  special  circum- 
stances, it  appears  evident  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  plants  will  indicate  the 
treatment  required;  the  object  being  to 
maintain  health  and  encourage  fruitful- 
ness,  the  measure  of  successful  accom- 
plishment of  these  conditions  will  greatly 
depend  upon  the  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples governing  vegetable  growth  pos- 
sessed by  the  cultivator.  When  the  trees 
are  young  the  chief  object  is  to  encourage 


judicious  growth,  by  employing  expedi* 
ents  known  to  favor  vegetable  extension, 
such  as  the  application  of  manures, 
breaking  up  and  pulverizing  the  soil, 
surface  stirring,  and  other  similar  opera- 
tions. By  judicious  growth  is  meant  a, 
luxuriance  not  incompatible  with  ma- 
turity, and  as  this  will  depend  upon 
climate  and  locality,  it  is  evident  that  a 
discriminating  knowledge  of  cause  and 
effect  will  largely  influence  success.  In 
northern  latitudes,  where  the  season  of 
growth  is  confined  to  five  months'  dura- 
tion, it  will  be  impossible  to  mature  the 
same  amount  of  wood  that  can  be  pro- 
duced on  trees  in  a  locality  having  seven 
months  of  growing  season.  In  the  latter 
case  stimulating  appliances  may  be  used 
with  the  best  effects  that  would  only  tend 
to  dissolution  in  the  climate  of  short 
summers.  The  great  desideratum  in  fruit 
culture  is  ripened  wood ;  all  useful  culti- 
vation begins  and  ends  with  this  single 
object  in  view,  and  is  the  criterion  of 
good  or  bad  management. 

To  cultivate,  or  not  to  cultivate,  is  a 
question  to  be  determined  by  climate  and 
condition  of  soil.  Where  it  is  deemed 
advisable  to  encourage  growth,  it  will  be 
proper  to  employ  such  appliances  of  cul- 
ture as  are  known  to  produce  that  result; 
and  again,  when  ample  luxuriance  is 
secured,  and  the  tendency  is  still  in  that 
direction,  all  surface  culture  should  be 
abandoned,  and  the  orchard  be  laid  down 
in  grass,  cultivation  to  be  again  practiced 
when  the  trees  indicate  its  necessity. 

PEAR  TREE,  Pruning.— The  pear 
tree  is  usually  a  victim  of  excessive 
pruning.  It  is  pruned  in  winter  to  make 
it  grow,  and  pruned  and  pinched  in  sum- 
mer to  make  it  fruit.  Why  it  is  that  the 
pear,  more  than  other  spur-bearing  fruit 
trees  should  be  supposed  to  require  so 
close  and  continued  pruning  does  not 
appear  easy  of  explanation.  It  is  evident 
that  this  immoderate  pruning  is  not 
followed  by  satisfactory  results,  for  while 
apple,  plum,  and  cherry  trees  fruit  with 
abundant  regularity,  with  but  little  atten- 
tion to  pruning,  unfruitfulness  in  the  pear 
is  a  frequent  cause  of  complaint,  especi- 
ally with  those  who  pay  the  strictest 
attention  to  pruning  rules,  showing  clearly 
that  successful  pear  culture  is  not  de- 
pendent upon  pruning  alone.  While  it 
is  perhaps   equally  erroneous   to   assert 


544 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


that  pear  trees  should  not  be  pruned  at 
all — an  extreme  which  no  experienced 
cultivator  will  indorse — it  is  worthy  of 
inquiry  whether  unpruned  trees  do  not 
exhibit  a  better  fruit-bearing  record  than 
those  which  have  been  subject  to  the 
highest  pruning  codes.  How  far  the 
proverbial  liability  of  the  pear  to  suffer 
from  blight  may  be  due  to  the  interfer- 
ence and  disarrangement  of  growths 
caused  by  summer  pruning,  it  may  not 
be  possible  to  decide,  but  the  tendency 
to  late  fall  growths,  and  the  consequent 
immaturity  of  wood  which  is  thereby 
encouraged,  is  well  known  to  be  of  much 
injury,  and  greatly  conducive  to  disease. 
Perhaps  no  advice  that  has  been  given  is 
so  fruitful  a  cause  of  failure  and  disap- 
pointment in  fruit  culture  as  that  em- 
bodied in  the  brief  sentence,  "  Prune  in 
summer  for  fruit." 

The  physiological  principle  upon  which 
this  advice  is  based  is  that  which  recog- 
nizes barrenness  in  fruit  trees  as  the  result 
of  an  undue  amount  of  wood  growth, 
and  that,  in  accordance  with  acknowl- 
edged laws,  any  process  that  will  secure 
a  reduction  of  growth  will  induce  fruitful- 
ness.  The  removal  of  foliage  from  a 
tree  in  active  growth  will  weaken  its 
vitality,  by  causing  a  corresponding 
check  to  the  extension  of  roots,  but  the 
removal  of  the  mere  points  of  strong 
shoots  has  no  palpable  effect  in  checking 
root  growth,  the  roots  proceed  to  grow, 
and  the  sap  seeks  outlets  in  other  chan- 
nels, forming  new  shoots,  which  in  no 
way  increase  the  fruitfulness  of  the  plant. 

While  it  may  be  confidently  stated 
that,  as  a  practical  rule,  easily  followed, 
and  of  general  application,  summer  prun- 
ing for  fruit  cannot  be  recommended 
except  as  an  expedient  rarely  successful, 
it  is  also  true  that  there  are  certain 
periods  in  the  growth  of  a  plant  when 
the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the  shoots 
would  tend  to  increase  the  development 
of  the  remaining  buds,  without  causing 
them  to  form  shoots.  For  example,  if 
the  growing  shoots  of  a  pear  tree  are 
shortened  or  pruned  by  removing  one- 
third  of  their  length,  say,  toward  the  end 
of  June,  the  check  will  immediately  cause 
the  remaining  buds  on  these  shoots  to 
push  into  growth  and  produce  a  mass  of 
twigs  as  far  removed  as  they  be  from 
fruit-producing  branches.     Again,  if  this 


pruning  is  delayed  until  August,  and  the 
season  subsequently  proves  to  be  warm 
and  dry,  the  probabilities  are  that  the: 
remaining  buds  will  develop  into  short 
spur-like  shoots,  from  which  blossom  buds 
may  in  course  of  time  be  formed;  but  if 
the  season  continues  wet,  and  mild  and 
growing  weather  extends  late  into  the 
fall,  these  same  shoots  will  be  lengthened 
into  weakly,  slender  growths,  which  never 
mature,  and  are  of  no  use  whatever. 
There  is  no  certainty  as  to  the  proper 
time  to  summer  prune,  because  no  two 
seasons  are  precisely  alike,  and  trees  vary 
intheir  vigor  from  year  to  year;  and  yet . 
this  uncertain,  indefinite,  and  constantly 
experimental  procedure  is  the  basis  upon 
which  the  advice  to  "prune  in  summer 
for  fruit"  is  founded. 

The  pear  tree,  in  fact,  requires  very 
little  pruning,  and  that  only  so  far  as  may 
be  necessary  to  regulate  branches  in  either 
of  two  exigencies;  In  the  first  place,, 
when  the  young  tree  is  placed  in  its  per- 
manent position  in  the  orchard,  its  roots 
will  be  greatly  disturbed  and  many  of 
them  destroyed ;  it  will,  therefore,  be  ex- 
pedient in  this  exigency  to  abridge  the 
branches,  so  as  to  restore  the  balance  of 
growth  that  existed  between  the  roots  and 
branches  previous  to  removal. 

This  pruning  at  transplanting  has  its. 
opponents  on  the  the  theoretical  grounds 
that,  as  the  formation  of  roots  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  action  of  leaves,  it  must  fol- 
low that  the  more  branches  and  leaves  left 
upon  a  plant  the  more  rapidly  will  new 
roots  be  produced ;  but  there  is  one  im- 
portant element  overlooked  in  this  rea- 
soning, namely,  the  loss  of  sap  by  evap- 
oration, which  speedily  exhausts  the  plant, 
while  it  has  no  active  roots  to  meet  the 
demand.  The  proper  practice  is  to  re- 
duce the  branches  so  as  to  give  the  roots 
the  preponderance,  and  many  kinds  of 
trees  can  only  be  successfully  removed  by 
cutting  the  stem  off  close  to  the  ground. 

If  the  tree  has  been  pruned  close  back 
at  planting,  the  first  summer  will  develop 
the  foundation  for  a  well-balanced,  sym- 
metrical plant,  but  as  this  res  alt  depends 
upon  a  good  start,  it  is  well  to  keep  an 
eye  on  the  young  growths  during  the  first 
season,  and  if  any  of  the  shoots  appear  to 
be  developing  to  the  detriment  of  others 
equally  necessary  for  future  branches,  the 
points  of  such  shoots  be  pinched  off,  but 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       545 


in  doing  so  let  there  be  as  small  a  re- 
moval of  foliage  as  possible,  the  object 
being  not  to  weaken,  but  merely  to  equal- 
ize growth.  As  a  general  rule,  no  advan- 
tage will  be  gained  by  pruning  any  por- 
tion of  the  shoots  after  the  first  season, 
unless  in  the  case  of  weakly  trees,  which 
will  be  strengthened  by  pruning  down 
during  winter.  The  removal  of  branches 
during  summer  weakens  growth,  but  when 
a  portion  of  the  branches  are  removed 
after  growth  is  completed,  the  rootc,  not 
having  been  disturbed,  will  have  the  pre- 
ponderance, and  the  number  of  buds 
being  diminished,  those  that  are  left  will 
receive  increased  vigor. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that 
there  is  nothing  more  certain  than  that 
by  shortening-in  or  pruning  back  the 
ends  of  shoots,  either  in  summer  or  win- 
ter, the  fruit-producing  period  is  retarded, 
and  the  fruit-producing  capabilities  of  the 
trees  abridged.  Fruiting  spurs  will  not 
form  where  the  growths  are  constantly 
interrupted  and  excited  by  pruning;  but, 
after  the  third  or  fourth  year,  young 
shoots  will,  in  the  majority  of  varieties, 
become  covered  with  fruiting  spurs  the 
second  year  after  their  formation  if  left  to 
their  natural  mode  and  condition  of 
growth.  Of  course,  this  refers  to  trees  in 
soils  of  moderate  fertility  grown  in  a  cli- 
mate favorable  to  the  plant. 

The  only  pruning,  then,  that  is  really 
essential,  after  the  plant  has  become  es- 
tablished, will  be  confined  to  thinning  out 
crowded  branches,  and  this  forms  the 
second  exigency  for  pruning.  If  low- 
headed  trees  are  preferred,  those  branches 
that  have  become  destitute  of  fruiting 
spurs  near  the  body  of  the  tree  may  be 
cut  out  and  a  young  shoot  be  allowed  to 
take  the  place  of  the  one  removed.  There 
will  be  no  lack  of  young  shoots  for  this 
purpose,  as  they  will  be  produced  from 
the  base  of  the  cut  branch,  selecting  the 
strongest  and  best  placed  to  occupy  the 
vacancy,  if  such  occupancy  is  desired. 
This  mode  of  cutting  back  branches  will 
be  more  particularly  essential  in  the  case 
of  dwarf  pears,  as  the  quince  roots  are 
unable  to  support  a  tall,  heavy-headed 
tree,  but  in  all  other  respects  dwarf  pears 
should  be  treated  the  same  as  standards. 

PEAR  TREE,  Stocks  on,  Growth  and 
Quality  of  Fruit,  Influence  of. — In  com- 

35 


paring  remarks  and  observations  made  by 
different  cultivators  with  reference  to  the 
merits  of  varieties,  their  growth,  product- 
iveness, size,  and  quality  of  fruit,  and 
other  characteristics,  there  is  found  so 
great  a  disparity  as  to  lead  to  a  supposi- 
tion that  different  varieties  are  being  dis- 
cussed under  the  same  name.  No  doubt 
this  is  occasionally  the  case,  but  the  dif- 
ference caused  by  the  influence  of  the 
stocks  upon  which  they  are  worked  is- 
frequently  to  blame  for  these  discrepan- 
cies. Every  nurseryman  is  aware  of  the 
great  irregularity  of  growth  in  plants  of 
the  same  variety ;  they  may  have  been 
grafted  at  the  same  time  on  stocks  of 
equal  size — planted  on  the  same  day  and 
in  the  same  way  and  in  the  same  soil,  yet 
their  comparative  growths  will  vary  con- 
siderably ;  so  much  difference  exists  that 
the  plants  will  be  classed  into  two  or 
more  sizes,  and  held  at  different  valua- 
tions. Although  the  vigor  of  growth  im- 
parted is  thus  varied,  the  habit  of  the 
variety  is  not  changed,  the  upright  form 
growth  will  still  characterize  the  Buffum, 
and  the  spreading  habit  of  the  Roztiezer 
will  remain  with  each  individual  of  that 
variety  ;  but  in  a  plantation  of  fifty  of  any 
sort  there  will  be  some  weak  growers,  and 
an  occasional  specimen  that,  after  linger- 
ing on  a  sickly  condition  for  several  years, 
will  finally  be  removed. 

It  is  reasonable  to  expect  these  diversi- 
ties in  the  growth  of  stocks  produced  from 
seed,  and  the  influence  they  impart  to 
the  graft,  but  it  is  seldom  that  allowance 
is  made  for  the  many  peculiarities  that 
may  undoubtedly  be  traced  to  this  cause. 
This  is  still  further  confirmed  by  the  more 
uniform  growth  of  dwarf  pears,  the  stocks 
of  which  are  produced  from  cuttings  or 
layers,  and  are,  consequently,  of  more 
uniform  vigor,  being  an  extension  of  one 
individuality,  instead  of  the  separate  indi- 
vidualities of  seedling  plants. 

The  opinion  is  now  becoming  prevalent: 
that  close  planting,  so  that  the  trees  shel- 
ter each  other,  is  advantageous.  For 
standard  trees,  eighteen  feet  apart  is  con- 
sidered a  good  maximum,  and  ten  feet 
for  dwarfs.  These  distances  preclude  the 
practicability  of  using  horse-power  in  the 
culture  of  the  soil,  at  all  events,  after  a 
few  years'  growth,  which,  all  things  being 
considered,  may  be  regarded  as  a  step  in. 
the  right  direction. 


546 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


PEAR-TREE  BLIGHT.— "For  nearly 
a  hundred  years  blight  of  the  pear  has 
been  the  terror  and  despair  to  growers 
of  its  fruit."  This  disease  is  known  un- 
der a  variety  of  names — winter  or  frozen 
sap  blight,  leaf  blight,  summer  blight, 
&c.  It  is  quite  different  from  insect 
blight  Since  the  temperature  and 
hygrometric  state  of  the  atmosphere  and 
the  conditions  of  the  soil,  whether  acid 
or  alkaline,  pulverous  or  stiff,  affect 
fungi  by  either  retarding  or  fostering  their 
growth,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  interest  to 
ascertain  how  far  observations  made  in 
relation  to  pear-tree  blight  agree  with  the 
fungus  theory.  Some  interesting  experi- 
ments have  been  prosecuted  in  relation 
to  pear  tree  blight,  particularly  during  the 
last  two  years.  A  pear-tree  which  was 
badly  blighted  on  its  main  trunk  was 
made  the  subject  of  special  experiment. 
Nearly  all  of  the  bark  was  blighted 
within  three  feet  of  the  ground,  only 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width 
being  left  to  connect  the  upper  part  of 
the  tree  with  the  unblighted  bark  at  the 
base.  The  affected  part  was  removed 
and  the  sap-wood  left  quite  exposed  to 
view;  but  to  prevent  injury  from  the  air 
it  was  at  once  coated  with  a  composition 
of  carbolic  acid,  sulphur,  lime,  and  water, 
and  used  as  a  paint.  After  the  lapse  of 
two  years  the  tree  was  wholly  recovered, 
and  the  denuded  part  is  again  covered 
with  new  and  healthy  bark.  The  tree  in 
all  respects  presents  a  healthy  appearance. 
Many  other  trees  much  affected  with 
blight  were  coated  heavily  with  the  sul- 
phur compositions,  and  have  evinced 
marked  signs  of  improvement.  It  is 
intended  to  continue  these  experiments 
•on  a  larger  scale,  until  sufficiently  numer- 
ous and  well-established  facts  attest  the 
best  mode  of  treatment.  These  experi- 
ment were  made  on  heavy,  compact,  par- 
tially undrained  soil,  lying  low,  and, 
therefore,  unfavorable  for  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  pear-tree  culture. 

PRUNING.— The  practice  of  indis- 
criminate lopping  off  of  limbs,  large  and 
small,  is  the  cause  of  disease  and  a 
weakening  of  the  constitution  of  the 
tree,  which  in  numberless  cases  leads  to 
premature  death.  It  has  been  found  in 
nine  case  out  of  every  ten,  where  a 
branch  of  considerable  size  had  been 
taken  off  it  would  leave  a  rotten  spot  in 


the  tree.  In  a  great  many  varieties  of 
the  apple  tree  there  is  a  liability  to  decay 
and  rot.  The  tree  may,  and  perhaps  in 
most  cases  will,  heal  over  this,  but  a 
diseased  spot  is  left  in  the  tree,  and  hence 
to  that  extent  is  left  in  an  unhealthy  state. 
And  the  more  these  spots  are  multiplied, 
the  more  the  tree  is  weakened  and 
diseased. 

PEAS,  Culture  of.— Peas,  for  an  early 
crop,  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  in  working  condition.  The 
soil  for  their  reception  should  be  light, 
dry,  and  well  sheltered.  Mild  manure, 
such  as  leaf-mound,  has  a  beneficial  effect. 
For  general  crops  the  ground  should  be 
well  manured  the  previous  year,  which 
causes  to  yield  more  abundantly.  They 
are  usually  planted  in  double  rows  three 
or  four  feet  apart,  and  covered  to  the 
depth  of  two  and  a  half  or  three  inches. 
The  height  of  the  pea  depends  much 
upon  the  moisture  and  richness  of  the 
ground.  The  method  of  planting  peas 
in  the  hills  with  potatoes  of  an  early 
variety  has  been  found  successful.  In 
dry  weather,  soak  the  peas  a  few  hours 
before  planting.  Pour  water  into  the 
drills  when  the  ground  is  dry,  before  sow- 
ing the  seed,  which  will  cause  them  to 
grow  at  once,  should  the  season  continue 
dry. 

PLANTS  (Outdoor),  Labels  for.— A 
convenient  method  of  preparing  outdoor 
labels  for  plants,  capable  of  resisting  the 
weather,  consists  of  cutting  them  out  of 
smooth  pasteboard,  and  writing  upon 
them  whatever  may  desired  in  ordinary 
ink.  When  this  is  dry  they  are  immersed 
in  linseed  oil,  or,  what  is  still  better,  lin- 
seed-oil varnish,  until  they  are  com- 
pletely permeated  by  the  liquid;  after 
which  they  are  hung  in  the  open  air  upon 
threads  to  dry;  they  become  like  iron 
and  resist  wet  for  a  long  time,  and  are 
more  durable  than  slips  of  metal. 

POTATOES,  Earthing  Up.— It  has 
been  demonstrated  that  earthing  up 
potatoes  diminishes  the  product,  and  re- 
tards the  ripening  of  the  tubers.  Long 
experiments  in  England  have  fully  proved 
this  fact — that  hilling  up  the  potato  will 
reduce  the  crop  one-fourth. 

POTATOES,  Raising,  Under  Straw.— 
We  give  an  experiment  in  raising  pota- 
toes under  straw,  by  a  noted  agriculturist : 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       547 


■"I  fitted  the  ground  as  for  planting  in  the 
■old  way,  three  feet  apart,  and  dropped 
the  potatoes  on  the  mark,  from  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  apart,  covering  them 
slightly  with  soil.  I  then  covered  to 
about  the  depth  of  ten  inches  with  old 
straw,  and  did  nothing  more  with  them. 
When  the  crop  was  ripe  I  raked  off  the 
straw,  and  raked  out  the  potatoes,  which 
were  mostly  on  the  surface,  looking  very 
nice,  fresh  and  large.  The  result  was,  I 
had  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and 
•eighty-six  bushels  per  acre;  while  the 
yield  from  those  planted  in  the  old  way 
in  drills,  and  cultivated  on  the  ground 
beside  of  them,  was  only  seventy-five 
bushels  per  acre,  which  was  rather  small 
for  this  section,  owing  to  the  dry  season. 
The  soil  is  a  sandy  loam. 

POTATOES,  SWEET,  Culture  of.— The 
•cultivation  is  very  simple;  good  stable 
manure  is  distributed  along  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  a  line  about  a  foot  wide, 
as  long  as  the  ridge  is  to  be,  and  as  thick 
as  the  supply  will  warrant.  A  ridge  is 
then  formed  over  the  manure  by  throwing 
a  furrow  toward  it  from  each  side.  The 
ridge  is  then  finished  by  the  use  of  a 
spade  and  hoe,  and  should  be  about  ten 
inches  high,  a  foot  across  at  the  bottom, 
and  while  the  sides  are  as  steep  as 
possible,  the  top  should  be  a  little  flat- 
tened. Set  the  plants  fifteen  inches 
apart,  putting  them  down  so  that  the 
junction  of  the  stem  with  the  first  leaf 
will  be  covered,  and  if  the  soil  is  not 
moist  at  the  time  of  planting,  water  the 
holes.  Keep  the  sides  of  the  ridge  clean 
until  the  vines  cover  them,  and  afterwards 
move  the  vines  once  a  week  to  prevent 
them  from  taking  root  at  the  joints. 
Plants  may  be  obtained  from  most  seed- 
dealers  and  florists. 

POTATO  ROT,  Barnet's  Certain  Pre- 
ventive for  the. — Sow  unleached  ashes 
over  the  field  once  a  week  for  six  or  seven 
weeks,  commencing  soon  after  the  second 
hoeing.  Apply  two  or  three  bushels  to 
the  acre,  using  care  to  dust  the  tops  well. 

POTATO,  Disease,  Preventive.  —  A 
French  farmer  has  discovered  that  the 
use  of  tan  is  an  efficient  preventive 
against  potato  disease.  For  three  years 
he  has  introduced  a  small  quantity  of  the 
residue  of  the  bark  used  in  tanning  into 
each  hole  on  planting  his  potato  crop, 
and  each  time   he  has  been  completely 


successful  in  preserving  his   fields   from 
the  annoying  disease. 

PLOWS  (Rusty),  to  Clean.— Take  a 
quart  of  water  and  pour  slowly  into  it  a 
half  a  pint  of  sulphuric  acid.  (The 
mixture  willl  become  quite  warm  from 
chemical  action,  and  this  is  the  reason 
why  the  acid  should  be  poured  slowly 
into  water,  rather  than  the  water  into  the 
acid.)  Wash  the  mould-board  (or  any 
other  iron  that  is  rusty)  with  this  weak 
acid,  and  let  it  remain  on  the  iron  until 
it  evaporates.  Then  wash  it  once  more. 
The  object  is  to  give  time  for  the  acid  to 
dissolve  the  rust.  Then  wash  with  water, 
and  you  will  see  where  the  worst  rusty 
spots  are.  Apply  some  more  acid,  and 
rub  those  spots  with  a  brick.  The  acid 
and  the  scouring  will  remove  most  of  the 
rust.  Then  wash  the  mould-board  thor- 
oughly with  water,  to  remove  all  the 
acid,  and  rub  it  dry.  Brush  it  over  with 
petroleum  or  other  oil,  and  let  it  be  until 
spring.  When  you  go  to  plowing,  take  a 
bottle  of  the  acid  water  to  the  field,  and 
apply  it  frequently  to  any  spots  of  rust 
that  may  remain.  The  acid  and  the 
scouring  of  the  earth  will  soon  make  it 
very  bright  and  smooth. 

PUMPKINS  Amongst  Corn.— Almost 
all  "  old  -  fashioned  farmers"  take  a 
crop  of  pumpkins  off  their  corn  fields, 
much  to  the  annoyance  of  the  theorist 
who  demonstrates  to  his  entire  satisfac- 
tion that  the  one  crop  must  detract  from 
the  full  force  of  the  other.  But  the  most 
careful  experiments  show  no  loss  to  the 
corn.  The  very  same  weights  result  from 
an  acre,  with  or  without  pumpkins. 

RADISHES. — It  is  said  that,  when 
radishes  cannot  be  grown  on  account  of 
worms  or  unsuitable  soil,  if  common 
wheat  bran  be  strewed  one  inch  thick  on 
any  good  soil,  well  hoed  in,  and  the  seed 
is  then  planted,  perfect  radishes  will 
result. 

RENNET,  Mode  of  Use.— The  way  to 
use  rennet  is  to  cut  off  a  bit  of  suitable 
size  (a  piece  an  inch  square  is  large 
enough  to  coagulate  several  gallons  of 
milk)  and  soak  it  for  some  hours  in  water; 
then  add  the  whole  to  the  milk,  a  little 
warmed.  The  mixture  is  now  very 
gradually  heated  to  something  above 
blood-heat,  or  about  120  degrees.  Very 
soon  it  undergoes  a  great  change,  and  a 


548 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


solid  white  curd  is  separated  from  the 
whey. 

PEANUT,  Culture,  Soil  for.— Any  soil 
that  can  be  put  in  a  friable  condition, 
and  kept  in  that  state,  will  produce  pea- 
nuts ;  but  that  which  is  best  adapted  to 
their  growth  is  a  light,  gray  soil,  without 
being  very  sandy.  The  color  of  the  pods 
always  partakes  of  the  color  of  the  soil ; 
and  as  the  brightest  pods  always  bring 
the  most  money,  so  the  gray  land  is  to 
be  preferred.  When  harvested  they  are 
perfectly  clean,  scarcely  a  particle  of  soil 
adhering  to  them.  Not  so  with  red  or 
chocolate-colored  lands.  They  leave  a 
stain  on  the  pods,  of  which  they  can- 
not be  divested  even  by  washing — a 
practice  frequently  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  a  fancy  article.  When 
taken  to  market  the  bright  nuts  will  com- 
mand from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  more  per 
bushel  than  the  brown,  though  equal  in 
all  other  respects.  The  gray  soil  is  there- 
fore to  be  selected  when  there  is  freedom 
of  choice,  but  the  brown  soil,  when  of 
the  right  texture,  is  equally  productive. 

In  choosing  a  sight  for  planting,  refer- 
ence should  be  had  to  the  crop  of  the 
previous  year.  Peanuts  require  a  clean 
soil;  they  will  follow  any  hoed  crop  to 
advantage,  with  the  exception,  perhaps, 
of  sweet  potatoes.  Corn  land  is  gen- 
erally preferred.  In  tide-water  Virginia 
much  of  the  land  was  heavily  marled  in 
former  years,  and  whenever  this  is  the 
case  an  important  and  perhaps  the  chief 
requisite  to  success  has  been  already  pro- 
vided. The  peanut  will  not  fruit  except 
on  a  calcareous  soil.  The  vines  may 
grow  with  the  greatest  luxuriance,  cov- 
ering the  whole  ground,  but  in  the  ab- 
sence of  lime  or  marl  the  pods  do  not 
fill :  they  turn  out  to  be  nothing  more 
than  what  is  popularly  called  "  pops."  If, 
then,  the  land  has  not  been  previously 
marled  or  limed,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
apply  say  a  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  of 
marl,  or  fifty  bushels  of  lime,  to  the  acre. 
The  kind  of  lime  chiefly  used  of  late 
years  is  burned  oyster  shells,  which  may 
be  had  in  abundance  in  all  the  large 
towns.  It  is  applied  in  either  of  several 
ways,  according  to  the  convenience  of 
the  planter,  and  with  about  equally  good 
effect.  If  there  is  any  choice,  spreading 
broadcast  is  perhaps  the  best,  to  be  done 
before  the  land  is  plowed;  in  which  case 


the  quantity  should  be  about  fifty  bushels 
to  the  acre.  A  favorite  mode,  where  a 
large  surface  is  to  be  planted,  is  to  strew 
the  lime  in  the  furrow  over  which  the 
bed  is  to  be  raised  for  planting.  In  this, 
case  a  less  quantity  will  answer  by  rea- 
son of  its  being  more  concentrated — say 
twenty  bushels.  Other  planters,  again,, 
who  are  hurried  in  their  work,  spread, 
the  lime  over  the  beds  after  the  crop  is 
planted,  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty  bush- 
els to  the  acre.  Either  mode  is  attend- 
ed with  good  success;  but  wherever  it 
is  practicable  to  have  a  choice  of  land 
that  has  been  sufficiently  marled  or  limed 
in  former  years,  and  preserved  by  judi- 
cious culture,  the  best  results  are  found 
to  follow.  In  such  cases  the  yield  not 
unfrequently  reaches  a  hundred  bushels 
to  the  acre.  Last  year  the  writer  was- 
told  by  a  planter  of  the  highest  charac- 
ter, that  on  twelve  acres  of  such  land: 
as  has  been  just  described  he  sold  four- 
teen hundred  bushels  of  nuts  of  prime 
quality,  besides  saving  an  ample  supply 
for  seed.  The  product  ranges  from  the 
quantity  stated  down  to  twenty-five  or 
thirty  bushels  to  the  acre,  according  to< 
the  skill,  or  want  of  skill,  of  the  plan- 
ter— a  fair  average  of  the  whole  being  es- 
timated at  fifty  bushels. 

Few  persons  make  peanuts  part  of  a 
regular  system  of  rotation,  but  the  pre- 
eminent success  of  a  gentleman  who  has. 
followed  the  plan  is  worthy  of  special 
reference.  Mr.  Henry  M.  Butts,  of 
Southampton  County,  Virginia,  has  for 
years  pursued  the  following  course:  The- 
lot  intended  for  peanuts,  say  next  year, 
has  been  seeded  in  stock  peas  this  year, 
the  vines  to  be  plowed  in  some  time  in 
September.  The  vines  afford  a  great 
quantity  of  vegetable  matter,  which  be- 
comes thoroughly  decomposed  by  the 
time  for  planting  the  crop.  When  the 
season  for  planting  is  at  hand,  the  ground 
is  replowed  and  laid  off,  and  ten  bushels 
of  lime  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  a 
hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  of  su- 
perphosphate strewn  in  the  furrows  to 
be  ridged  over.  The  year  following 
peanuts  the  land  is  planted  in  sweet  po- 
tatoes, with  a  liberal  dressing  of  stable 
manure.  The  third  year  it  is  laid  down 
in  stock  peas  again,  to  be  followed  by 
peanuts  as  before,  always  repeating  the 
lime  and  superphosphate.     The  crops  of 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       549 


Mr.  Butts  averaged,  one  year  with  an- 
other, not  less  than  one  hundred  bushels 
to  the  acre.  Last  year  from  ten  acres 
h?  sold  thirteen  hundred  bushels  of  prime 
peanuts,  entirely  exempt  irom  "pops," 
and  worth  three  dollars  per  bushel. 

PEANUT,  Cultivation.— Having  select- 
ed the  ground,  it  is  to  be  plowed  with 
a  one-horse  plow,  in  March  or  April, 
to  a  depth  not  exceeding  four  or  five 
inches.  The  advantages  of  shallow  cul- 
ture will  be  apparent  from  the  fact  that 
the  peduncles  continue  to  penetrate  the 
earth  until  a  firm  bed  is  reached  on  which 
to  deposit  the  nut;  and  the  still  further 
fact  of  the  increased  facility  afforded  in 
harvesting,  as  will  appear  when  we  come 
to  treat  of  that  branch  of  the  subject. 

About  the  10th  to  the  20th  ot  May 
is  the  time  for  planting.  If  the  land  is 
thin  and  needs  manuring,  open  furrows 
three  feet  apart,  and  strew  in  a  hundred 
to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  of 
Peruvian  guano,  or  from  a  hundred  and 
fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds  of  super- 
phosphate of  lime.  The  former  is  gen- 
erally used,  because  of  the  greater  cer- 
tainty of  getting  a  pure  article,  but  noth- 
ing can  be  better  than  the  latter  when 
well  prepared.  The  furrow  is  then  to  be 
ridged  over  and  the  whole  surface  thrown 
into  three-feet  beds,  which  should  be  re- 
duced to  within  two  or  three  inches  of 
the  general  level  of  the  field.  Then  mark 
off  the  rows,  and  at  distances  of  eighteen 
inches  plant  two  seeds,  covering  them  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  deep— not 
more. 

In  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  according  to 
the  weather,  the  young  plants  begin  to 
come  up.  As  it  is  very  important  to  get 
a  good  start,  the  missing  hills  should  be 
replanted  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 
It  is  the  custom  of  some  planters  to  put 
an  extra  quantity  of  seed  in  every  fourth 
or  fifth  row,  to  furnish  plants  for  trans- 
planting, if  needed ;  if  not  needed,  they 
can  be  thinned  out. 

As  soon  as  the  grass  makes  its  appear- 
ance give  a  light  plowing,  throwing  the 
earth  from  the  vines,  and  following  with 
the  hoe,  thoroughly  removing  all  the 
grass  from  the  row.  Plow  again  as  soon 
as  the  grass  reappears,  this  time  using  a 
double-shovel  or  cultivator,  and  the  hoe 
as  before  directed.  If  the  season  should 
prove  to  be  very  wet,  a  third  working  may 


be  necessary,  making  use  of  the  cultivator 
and  hoe  again. 

Next  comes  the  time  for  laying  by,  the 
vines  having  extended  nearly  half  way 
across  the  space  between  the  rows.  This 
is  done  by  running  a  mold-board  once  in 
the  middle  between  the  rows,  and  draw- 
ing the  earth  up  to  the  rows  with  the  hoe, 
care  being  taken  not  to  cover  the  vines 
and  to  disturb  their  position  as  little  as 
possible,  as  the  fruit  will  now  be  forming. 
It  will  be  necessary  also  to  guard  against 
making  the  bed  too  high.  When  there 
is  grass  in  the  row  it  must  be  pulled  up 
by  hand.  Soon  after  this  the  vines  will 
cover  the  whole  ground,  and  repress  every 
other  growth,  unless  it  may  be  a  chance 
weed  that  escaped  notice  at  the  former 
working. 

PEANUT,  Harvesting.— The  time  for 
harvesting  the  crop  is  from  the  15th  to 
the  30th  of  October,  immediately  after 
the  first  frost.  When  the  crop  is  forward, 
or  when  it  is  an  object  to  get  a  portion  of 
it  early  in  the  market,  the  operation  may 
be  commenced  in  the  latter  part  of  Sep- 
tember; but  the  longer  the  vines  continue 
to  grow,  the  greater  will  be  the  number 
of  sound  pods.  Select  a  time  when  the 
weather  is  settled  and  favorable,  and  with 
three-pronged  hoes  loosen  the  vines 
along  the  rows.  Hands  follow  the  digger, 
pull  up  the  vines,  shake  the  dirt  from 
them,  and  leave  them  in  the  same  place. 
In  dry  weather  they  will  be  sufficiently 
cured  in  two  days  to  be  shocked.  Show- 
ery weather,  though  it  may  somewhat 
delay  the  curing,  does  no  injury. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  shallow  cul- 
ture becomes  apparent  in  harvesting. 
When  the  fruit  is  deposited  only  a  few 
inches  below  the  surface,  the  vine  is 
detached  from  its  position  with  little  or 
no  loss;  when  the  depth  is  greater,  the 
stems  or  pedicles  are  liable  to  be  broken 
off. 

In  shocking,  provide  stakes  seven  teet 
long,  made  sharp  at  both  ends ;  then  lay 
two  fence  rails  on  the  ground  as  a  founda- 
tion, but  with  supports  underneath  to 
afford  free  access  to  the  air.  The  stakes 
are  stuck  in  the  ground  at  convenient 
intervals  between  the  rails,  the  stacks 
built  up  around  them,  and  finished  off  by 
a  cap  of  straw  to  shed  the  rain.  The 
diameter  of  the  stack  is  made  to  conform 
to  the  spread  of  a  single  vine. 


55° 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


After  remaining  about  two  weeks  in 
the  stack  the  picking  should  be  begun, 
taking  off  none  but  the  matured  pods. 
These  are  to  be  carried  to  the  barn,  and 
prepared  for  market  by  completing  the 
drying  process,  and  then  fanning  and 
cleaning. 

The  most  tedious  part  of  the  work  is 
the  picking.  An  expert  discriminates  at 
a  glance  between  the  mature  and  imma- 
ture pods,  but  cannot  pick  more  than 
two  and  a  half  or  three  bushels  per  day. 
A  machine  to  perform  the  operation 
would  be  a  most  valuable  invention. 
Unless  the  management  in  the  barn  is 
carefully  conducted,  there  is  great  dan- 
ger, where  there  is  much  of  a  bulk,  that 
the  peas  will  become  heated  and  mouldy. 
The  condition  in  which  the  early  deliv- 
eries are  often  received  at  market  renders 
this  caution  quite  necessary.  In  fact, 
there  is  as  much  slovenliness  in  the 
handling  of  this  crop  as  there  is  in  regard 
to  any  other,  perhaps  more,  for  the 
reason  that  so  many  inexperienced  per- 
sons engage  in  the  culture  every  year. 
Until  the  pods  are  thoroughly  seasoned 
the  bulk  should  be  frequently  stirred  and 
turned  over. 

A  certain  classification,  in  regard  to 
quality,  obtains  in  peanuts  as  in  every 
other  article  of  agricultural  produce.  The 
descriptive  terms  in  general  use  are 
"  inferior,"  U  ordinary,"  "  prime,"  and 
"  fancy ;  "  but  these  are  not  so  definite  as 
to  admit  of  no  intermediate  grades.  As- 
suming prime  to  be  the  standard,  and 
that  the  prime  are  $2  75  per  bushel, 
then  inferior  will  be  worth,  say,  $1  to 
$1  50;  and  fancy,  $3.  Seed  peanuts 
always  command  an  extra  price,  ranging 
from  $3  25  to  $3  50.  These  were  the 
current  prices  for  the  crop  of  1875. 

PEANUT,  Varieties.— There  are  two 
very  distinct  varieties  of  the  peanut, 
known  respectively  by  the  names  of  the 
Virginia,  and  the  Carolina  or  African. 
The  diversity  between  them,  however, 
does  not  amount  to  a  specific  difference, 
the  chief  characteristics  being  that  the 
one  has  a  large  pod  and  bean,  and  the 
other  a  small  one.  The  Virginia  is  culti- 
vated almost  exclusively  for  eating,  while 
the  Carolina  is  principally  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  oil,  which  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  olive  oil,  and  is,  accord- 
ingly, sold  as  such.     The  standard  weight 


of  the  Virginia  peanut  is  twenty-two 
pounds  to  the  bushel ;  that  of  the  Caro- 
lina twenty-eight  pounds.  In  the  mar- 
kets they  are  always  sold  by  weight. 

PEANUT,  Seed. — A  matter  of  primary 
importance  is  to  provide  seeds  of  good 
quality  for  planting;  and  in  order  to  be 
assured  of  their  excellence,  the  planter 
should  either  raise  them  himself,  or  buy 
them  of  a  person  on  whose  fidelity  he  can 
rely.  If,  after  the  vines  are  dug  and  they 
are  lying  in  the  field,  they  should  be 
exposed  to  frosty  weather,  the  germinat- 
ing principle  would  be  destroyed  or  im- 
paired. As  a  merchantable  article,  how- 
ever, their  value  is  not  at  all  affected. 
Neither  should  the  nuts  become  the  least 
heated  or  mouldy;  nor  should  they  be 
picked  off  the  vines  while  wet,  or  before 
they  are  thoroughly  cured.  It  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  the  most  careful  attention 
is  requisite  in  this  matter.  Previous  to< 
planting,  the  pods  should  be  carefully 
shelled  and  every  faulty  bean  thrown 
out;  not  even  the  membrane  inclosing 
the  seed  should  be  ruptured.  It  takes 
about  two  bushels  of  peanuts  in  the  pod 
to  plant  an  acre. 

The  peanut  crop  is  justly  considered 
exhausting,  but  not  more  so,  it  is  be- 
lieved, than  either  of  the  others  with 
which  we  have  compared  it.  Planters 
who  have  been  long  engaged  in  the 
culture  say  that  the  same  ground  may  be 
planted  for  a  succession  of  years,  pro- 
vided the  vines  are  restored  to  the  soil, 
and  a  moderate  application  is  annually 
made  of  guano  or  other  fertilizer.  Cotton, 
under  a  similar  system,  may  be  planted 
on  the  same  land  for  an  indefinite  period 
without  diminution  of  produce. 

The  vines  of  the  peanut  make  a  large- 
quantity  of  very  nutritious  provender, 
which  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  cattle.  If 
the  crop  is  dug  before  frost,  it  is  equal  in 
value  to  any  other  forage  plant.  As  the 
pods  are  picked  off,  the  vines  should  be 
placed  under  shelter,  secure  fom  the 
weather. 

On  account  of  the  profit  of  the  crop, 
it  has  taken  the  place  of  tobacco  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  places  where  the 
soil  is  adapted  to  it.  This  is  the  case  in 
the  large  tobacco-growing  counties  of 
Amelia,  Nottoway,  Halifax,  and  Bruns- 
wick, besides  others  of  less  note.  How 
far  north  the  culture  may  be  extended  to> 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      551 


advantage  is  at  present  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture; but  in  the  tide-water  district  of 
Maryland,  and  also  in  Delaware  and  the 
southern  part  of  New  Jersey,  it  well 
deserves  a  trial. 

RHUBARB,  Culture  of.— Rhubarb  suc- 
ceeds best  in  deep,  somewhat  retentive 
soil.  The  richer  its  condition,  and  the 
deeper  it  is  stirred,  the  better.  Sow  in 
drills  an  inch  deep.  Thin  out  to  6  inches 
apart.  In  the  fall  trench  a  piece  of  ground, 
and  manure  it  well ;  then  transplant  the 
young  plants  into  it,  3  feet  apart  each  way. 
Cover  with  leaves  or  litter  the  first  winter, 
and  give  a  dressing  of  coarse  manure  every 
fall. 

ROSE  TREES,  to  Clear  from  Blight- 
Take  sulphur  and  tobacco-dust,  in  equal 
quantities,  and  strew  it  on  the  treesjn  the 
morning  when  the  dew  is  on.  The  insects 
will  disappear  in  a  few  days.  The  trees 
should  then  be  syringed  with  a  decoction 
of  elder  leaves. 

RYE,  To  Cultivate. — Rye  ought  never 
to  be  sown  upon  wet  soils,  nor  even  upon 
sandy  soils  where  the  subsoil  is  of  a  reten- 
tive nature.  Upon  downs,  links,  and  all 
soft  lands  which  have  received  manure, 
this  grain  thrives  in  perfection,  and,  if 
once  covered  in,  will  stand  a  drought  af- 
terwards that  would  consume  any  other 
of  the  culmiferous  tribe.  The  several 
processes  may  be  regarded  as  nearly  the 
same  with  those  answering  for  wheat,  with 
the  single  exception  of  pickling,  which 
rye  does  not  require.  Rye  may  be  sown 
either  in  winter  or  spring,  though  the 
winter-seeded  fields  are  generally  bulkiest 
and  most  productive.  It  may  succeed 
either  summer  fallow,  clover  or  turnips ; 
even  after  oats  good  crops  have  been 
raised,  and  where  such  crops  have  been 
raised  the  land  will  always  be  found  in 
good  condition. 

SAGE,  To  Cultivate.— Put  it  out  in 
rows  two  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  a  foot 
apart  in  the  rows.  Cultivate  and  keep 
clean ;  it  does  well  in  sandy  soil.  Dry 
in  the  shade.  Put  up  in  square  pound 
packages  hard  pressed. 

SEED  CORN,  How  to  Select— In  shell- 
ing corn  for  seed,  discard  the  butts  and 
tips,  using  only  the  central  portion  of 
each  ear,  as  the  early  blade  and  root  are 
in  size  in  proportion  to  the  kernel  used; 
and  a  plant  from  the  large  grains  of  the 


center  of  the  ear  will  get  the  start  and 
keep  ahead  of  the  small  ones  from  the 
tip.  And  especially  select  from  ears  that 
have  the  grains  as  near  uniformly  large  as 
possible. 

SEED  BARLEY,  How  to  Select.— The 
best  is  that  which  is  free  from  blackness 
at  the  tail,  and  is  of  a  pale  lively  yellow, 
intermixed  with  a  bright,  whitish  cast, 
and  if  the  rind  should  be  a  little  shriveled, 
so  much  the  better,  as  it  indicates  a  very 
thin  skin. 

SEED  OATS,  How  to  Select.— Place 
your  oats  in  a  heap  at  the  leeward  end  of 
the  threshing  floor,  on  a  day  when  a  gen- 
tle breeze  is  blowing  through  the  barn. 
Take  a  common  wooden  flour-scoop,  and 
throw  the  oats  against  the  wind,  towards 
the  other  end  of  the  floor.  A  few  min- 
utes' experience  will  enable  you  to  throw 
them  so  that  they  will  fall  in  a  semi-circle 
at  a  nearly  uniform  distance  from  where 
you  stand.  The  oats  which  fall  farthest 
from  you  are  the  best  for  seed,  and  are 
to  be  carefully  swept  together  as  fast  as. 
they  accumulate  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. 

SEED  POTATOES,  How  to  Select— Be 
careful  to  secure  large,  sound,  and  well- 
ripened  seed;  cut  the  large  potato  into 
pieces  of  one  eye.  Begin  at  the  butt 
end;  cut  towards  the  center,  leaving  a. 
due  proportion  of  the  potato  with  each 
eye.  Potatoes  inadvertently  left  undug, 
if  they  do  not  freeze  during  winter,  in- 
variably produce  sound  ones,  larger  and 
more  abundant  than  those  kept  in  the 
cellar  through  winter.  This  has  lately 
suggested  the  plan  of  keeping  potatoes 
excluded  from  the  air  from  the  time  of 
digging  and  planting,  which  has  been 
found  to  invariably  prevent  rot. 

SEED  WHEAT,  How  to  Select— Seed 
wheat  should  not  only  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  from  the  seeds  of  weeds,  but 
small  grains  should  be  taken  out  with  a 
separator  or  suitable  fanning  mill,  leaving 
only  the  largest,  plumpest,  and  earliest 
ripened  kernels. 

SEED,  How  to  Test  the  Vitality  of— 
By  placing  almost  any  of  the  larger  seeds 
and  grains  on  a  hot  pan  or  griddle, 
where  the  vitality  is  perfect  the  grain  will 
pop,  or  crack  open,  with  more  or  less 
noise.  Where  the  vitality  is  defective  or 
lost,  it  lies  immovable  in  the  vessel. 


55* 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


SLUGS  and  SNAILS,  To  Destroy.— 
These  are  great  enemies  to  every  kind  of 
garden  plant,  whether  flower  or  vegeta- 
ble; they  wander  in  the  night  to  feed, 
and  return  at  daylight  to  their  haunts ; 
the  shortest  and  surest  direction  is :  "Rise 
early,  catch  them,  and  kill  them."  If 
you  are  an  early  riser,  you  may  cut  them 
off  from  their  day  retreats,  or  you  may 
lay  cabbage  leaves  about  the  ground, 
especially  on  the  beds  which  they  fre- 
quent. Every  morning  examine  these 
leaves,  and  you  will  find  a  great  many 
taking  refuge  beneath ;  if  they  plague  you 
very  much,  search  for  their  retreat,  which 
you  can  find  by  their  slimy  track,  and 
hunt  there  for  them  day  by  day.  Lime 
and  salt  are  very  annoying  to  snails  and 
slugs;  a  pinch  of  salt  kills  fhem,  and 
they  will  not  touch  fresh  lime;  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  sprinkle  lime  over 
young  crops,  and  along  the  edges  of  beds, 
about  rows  of  peas  and  beans,  lettuces 
and  other  vegetables;  but  when  it  has 
.been  on  the  ground  some  days,  or  has 
been  moistened  by  rain,  it  loses  its 
.strength. 

SMUT  IN  WHEAT,  Kemedy  for.— Soak 
the  seed  wheat  in  brine,  and  then  dust  it 
with  unslacked  lime.  This  will  prove  a 
perfect  prevention. 

SORGHUM  CULTURE.— The  soil  and 
climate  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of 
corn  is  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  sor- 
ghum, but  a  rich  upland  loam  will  yield 
the  richest  juice.  The  land  should  be 
well  worked,  and  kept  clean,  it  requiring 
about  the  same  treatment  as  corn.  It 
may  be  either  planted  in  hills  or  drills. 
As  the  cane  is  a  very  deep-rooted  plant, 
it  is  very  essential  that  the  land  should  be 
made  mellow  to  a  good  depth,  but  the 
seed  should  be  covered  shallow,  not  more 
than  half  an  inch  deep.  It  should  be 
planted  about  the  same  time  as  corn. 
The  young  plants  when  they  first  come 
up  look  like  blades  of  fall  grass;  they  are 
of  slow  growth  and  feeble  appearance 
for  some  time,  or  until  the  hot  weather  of 
July  and  August,  when  the  plants  will  go 
far  ahead  of  corn  in  a  rank  and  healthy 
growth.  It  appears  to  delight  in  hot,  dry 
weather,  as  its  roots  penetrate  deep. 
Drouth  does  not  affect  it  as  it  does  corn ; 
it  is  surprising  to  see  at  what  a  rate  it 
will  develop  itself  after  the  hot  weather 
.has  come.     It    is  also    very  hardy,  and 


may  be  transplanted  with  entire  safety. 
There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  in  regard 
to  keeping  the  suckers  pulled  off.  Ex- 
perience shows  that,  although  we  may 
lose  a  little  in  quantity,  it  is  more  than 
made  up  in  the  quality  of  the  syrup; 
therefore  have  a  deep,  mellow  soil  for  the 
roots  to  penetrate  in  search  of  food  by 
thoroughly  cultivating  it  during  the  early 
stage  of  its  growth ;  but  avoid  deep  plow- 
ing after  the  cane  has  once  acquired  con- 
siderable size,  as  the  roots  then  fill  the 
ground,  and  if  severed  the  plants  are 
greatly  dwarfed;  keep  the  suckers  off, 
and  be  sure  and  not  let  a  weed  show  its 
head. 

SORREL,  To  Remove.— This  field  pest 
may  be  eradicated  by  the  judicious  appli- 
cation of  either  lime  or  ashes.  The  sour- 
ing principle  of  sorrel  is  oxalic  acid ;  if 
this  be  removed  from  the  soil,  sorrel  can- 
not grow.  Lime  or  potash  unite  with 
the  oxalic  acid,  forming  oxalate  of  lime 
or  potash.  These  substances  are  some- 
times called  sweeteners  of  the  soil,  from 
their  ability  to  remove  acids  from  it. 
Sorrel  will  never  grow  on  lime  soil. 

SPINACH,  Culture  of. —Spinach  is  best 
developed  and  most  tender  when  grown 
in  rich  soil.  It  should  be  heavily  man- 
ured and  deeply  trenched.  Sow  early  in 
March  for  summer  crop,  in  drills,  which 
method  renders  the  cultivation  and  gath- 
ering of  the  produce  more  convenient. 
Encourage  the  growth  with  frequent  hoe- 
ing, which  draws  the  moisture  to  the 
roots.  For  a  succession  a  few  seeds  of 
the  summer  varieties  may  be  known,  at 
intervals  of  a  fortnight,  from  April. 

SQUASH,  Cultivation  of.— The  squash, 
being  a  tropical  vegetable,  requires  much 
care  and  attention  in  northern  latitudes, 
in  order  to  be  cultivated  with  success. 
Of  all  the  varieties  tested,  the  " Hubbard" 
has  proved  to  be  the  very  best  for  win- 
ter. The  planting  should  be  done  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  possible  after  the 
weather  becomes  sufficiently  warm,  so, 
that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  frost  nip- 
ping the  young  plants,  as  they  are  very 
tender.  A  few  hills  can  be  planted 
earlier,  and  covered  with  hay  or  straw 
when  there  is  danger  of  frost ;  in  fact,  if 
the  season  is  late,  it  will  pay  well  to  plant 
a  goodly  patch  and  protect  them  in  that 
way,  for  a  very  few  young  plants  will 
cover  a  wide  space  of  ground  when  c!:!. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       553 


The  land  should  be  made  deep  and 
(rich,  the  richer  the  better,  particularly  in 
the  hills;  the  best  manure  being  com- 
posted hen-droppings.  The  soil  should 
contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  sand  to 
make  it  quick  and  warm,  and  a  piece  of 
land  should  be  selected  sloping  well  to 
the  south,  so  that  the  rays  of  the  spring 
sun  can  be  quickly  felt  by  the  young 
plants. 

Plant  in  rows  at  least  sixteen  feet 
apart,  in  hills  from  eight  to  ten  feet ;  put- 
ting from  two  to  three  seeds  in  a  hill,  and 
when  well  started  thin  out  to  one  plant. 
Cultivate  thoroughly  all  the  ground  be- 
tween the  rows,  as  well  as  around  the 
plants,  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground. 
If  the  above  hints  are  followed  a  good 
crop  will  result. 

STUMPS,  To  Pull.— Stumps  of  two  to 
four  inches  m  ay  be  pulled  out  by  a  yoke 
•of  oxen,  by  hitching  the  chain  at  the  top 
•of  the  stump,  and  taking  two  or  three 
turns  around  it  so  as  to  get  a  twisting  pull 
upon  it.  Large  stumps,  up  to  eight 
inches,  may  all  be  pulled  out  by  using  a 
block  and  tackle.  Blocks  of  three  sheaves 
should  be  used,  and  a  rope  sufficiently 
strong  for  the  purpose.  A  hitch  should 
be  taken  upon  the  largest  stump,  and  all 
those  around  it  drawn  out,  when  another 
large  stump  may  be  chosen  to  hitch  to. 

Some  scientific  Frenchmen  have  been 
trying  experiments  in  extracting  them  by 
means  of  dynamite,  an  explosive  mate- 
rial resembling  gunpowder  in  its  action. 
The  results  were  quite  satisfactory.  A 
hole  from  nine  to  fifteen  inches  in  depth 
was  drilled  in  the  ground  close  to  the 
stump,  and  a  charge  of  eight  hundred 
grains  of  dynamite  was  placed  in  it  This 
was  exploded  by  means  of  a  safety  fuse, 
and  the  stump  and  roots  were  torn  to 
fragments,  so  that  they  could  easily  be  re- 
moved. 

TRANSPLANTING  During  the  Night. 
— A  gentleman  anxious  to  ascertain  the 
effect  of  transplanting  at  night,  instead  of 
"by  day,  made  an  experiment  with  the  fol- 
lowing results :  He  transplanted  ten 
■cherry  trees  while  in  bloom,  commencing 
at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Those 
transplanted  during  the  daylight  shed 
their  blossoms,  producing  little  or  no 
fruit,  while  those  planted  in  the  dark 
maintained  their  condition  fully.  He  did 
l'^.c  same  with  ten  dwarf  trees,  after  the 


fruit  was  one-third  grown.  Those  trans- 
planted during  the  day  shed  their  fruit; 
those  transplanted  during  the  night  per- 
fected their  crop,  and  showed  no  injury 
from  having  been  removed.  With  each 
of  these  trees  he  removed  some  earth 
with  the  roots.  The  incident  is  fully 
vouched  for,  and  if  a  few  more  similar 
experiments  produce  a  like  result,  it  will 
be  a  strong  argument  to  horticulturists, 
etc.,  to  do  such  work  at  night. 

TREES,  Oak. — The  process  of  deforest- 
ing our  lands  upon  the  Atlantic  border 
has  gone  on  for  centuries,  and  in  the 
very  populous  States  has  necessitated  re- 
planting. It  is  a  fact  not  sufficiently 
known,  that  oaks  may  be  rapidly  grown, 
and  will  develop,  within  an  ordinary  life- 
time, fine  groves  of  those  noble  trees 
which  give  so  much  dignity  to  an  old 
homestead.  Major  Ben.  Perley  Poore 
has  upon  his  estate  in  Massachusetts,  a 
splendid  oak  forest  or  wood  of  thirty 
acres,  every  acorn  for  which  was  planted 
by  himself  thirty  years  ago.  The  trunks 
of  the  trees  are  now  one  and  a  half  feet 
in  diameter. 

TOMATOES,  Cultivation  of.— Set  your 
tomato  plants  in  rows  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart,  and  the  same  distance  apart 
in  the  rows.  Let  the  rows  be  of  an  even 
number,  and,  if  possible,  running  north 
and  south,  for  the  better  advantage  of  the 
sunshine. 

Now,  beginning  with  the  first  couple  of 
rows,  at  one  end  set  a  pair  of  stakes  in 
such  manner  that  they  will  enter  the 
ground  just  outside  of  the  line  of  the 
rows,  and  cross  each  other  at  the  height 
of  about  four  feet  over  the  middle  space. 
Set  corresponding  stakes  at  the  opposite 
end  of  the  rows,  and  also  intermediate 
ones,  if  necessary. 

This  clone,  along  the  outside  of  these 
sloping  stakes  fasten  horizontal  strips  of 
edging,  beginning  with  the  first  about 
eight  inches  from  the  ground,  and  finish- 
ing with  the  one  which  will  run  in  the 
crossing  of  the  stakes. 

As  the  plants  grow,  carefully  train 
them  over  this  framework,  securing  them 
in  place  by  tying  with  strings,  and  judi- 
ciously trimming  when  needed. 

After  the  crop  is  removed  in  the  fall, 
the  material  of  this  simple  structure  may 
be  easily  taken  apart  and  laid  away  for     , 
use  the  coming  and  subsequent  seasons. 


554 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND   GARDEN. 


TOBACCO  CULTURE.— The  subject  of 
the  culture  and  management  of  tobacco 
is  one  which,  while  it  has  been  discussed 
at  much  length,  by  able  writers,  within 
the  past  few  years,  is,  at  the  same  time, 
one  which,  owing  to  many  changes  and 
improvements  in  its  management,  as  well 
as  in  the  various  styles  in  which  the 
"  weed "  is  prepared  for  use  by  manufac- 
turers, and  the  rapidly  growing  impor- 
tance ot  the  article  as  one  of  the  "leading 
staples"  of  the  country,  would  justify  some 
further  suggestions  founded  on  actual  ex- 
perience. 

One  of  the  leading  and  most  successful 
tobacco  grower  of  the  State  of  Kentucky 
furnishes  us  the  following  as  the  result 
of  his  experience  and  observation,  covering 
a  term  of  twenty  years,  both  as  a  grower 
and  seller  of  tobacco:  "In  the  outset,  I 
promise  to  give  no  startling  discoveries  or 
new  theories  on  the  subject,  but  will  state 
facts  which,  for  the  most  part,  may  be 
familiar  to  many  of  your  readers,  and  my 
object  in  writing  is  to  try  and  get  such  to 
practice  better  what  they  know,  and 
others,  who  have  given  the  subject  no 
thought,  and  have  never  grown  tobacco, 
to  devote  a  portion  of  their  farms  to  the  cul- 
ture of  a  crop  for  which  our  soil  and  climate 
are  so  well  adapted,  and  which,  when 
properly  managed,  yields  a  better  profit 
than  any  other. 

The  plant-bed  is  the  foundation  of  the 
crop,  and  is,  therefore,  of  the  first  impor- 
tance. The  best  time  to  sow  seed  is  in  Jan- 
uary or  February,  if  the  ground  is  not  too 
wet  or  frozen  too  deep ;  but  they  may  be 
sown  as  late  as  the  first  of  April  some- 
times, and  come  in  time  for  a  late  crop. 
The  most  successful  farmers  sow  plenty  of 
seed,  and  sow  them  early  as  well  as  late. 

In  selecting  ground  for  plant-beds, 
choose  rich,  loose  soil  in  your  new  ground, 
if  clearing  tobacco ;  if  not,  in  the  woods, 
on  some  rich  spot,  where  the  sun  will  shine 
on  the  bed  most  of  the  day.  Clear  a 
space,  say  thirty  feet  square,  of  the  grubs 
and  large  roots ;  rake  off  the  leaves  and 
trash,  and  then  commence  piling  the 
brush  by  laying  it  first  horizontally  along 
that  side  of  the  bed  from  which  the  wind 
or  breeze  is  blowing,  to  the  depth  and 
width  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  extending 
across  that  side  of  the  bed.  Then  con- 
tinue the  bed  by  setting  the  brush  upright 
with  butts  on  the  ground,  and  the  boughs 


leaning  against  that  which  is  lying  hori- 
zontally. Set  the  brush  as  thickly  over 
the  entire  surface  of  the  bed  as  possible, 
mixing  with  an  occasional  good-sized  stick 
of  wood.  It  is  important,  in  order  to  in- 
sure good  plants,  to  burn  the  ground  well, 
as  it  answers  the  double  purpose  of  de- 
stroying the  roots  and  seeds  of  foreign 
weeds  and  grasses,  to  prevent  their  spring- 
ing up  in  advance  of  the  tobacco  plants, 
and  also  dries  the  earth  and  puts  it  in 
good  condition  to  receive  the  seed  in 
almost  any  kind  of  weather.  In  burning, 
set  the  fire  on  the  side  from  which  the 
wind  is  blowing,  unless  it  is  blowing  so 
strong  as  to  cause  the  pile  to  burn  too 
rapidly  to  heat  the  ground  sufficiently  — 
the  danger  being  not  in  burning  too  much, 
but  the  reverse. "  Three  good  men  can 
pile  and  burn  a  bed  ten  yards  square  in  a 
day.  The  following  morning,  the  first 
thing,  rake  off  the  sticks,  chunks  and 
coals,  which  were  not  burnt,  and  with  a 
mattock  or  grubbing  hoe,  pulverize  the 
ground  well,  by  digging  to  the  depth  of 
four  or  five  inches,  carefully  removing 
roots  of  any  considerable  size,  which  last 
may  be  done  best  with  a  fine  rake. 

When  the  bed  has  been  thoroughly  pul- 
verized and  ready  to  be  sown,  mark  it  off 
in  lands,  five  feet  in  width,  with  the  hoe  or 
rake  handle,  and  cross  in  the  same  man- 
ner in  the  opposite  direction.  Mix  with  a 
common  washpanful  of  dry  ashes,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  seed  (and  no  more),  not  heaped, 
but  level  full,  and  sow  the  ashes  and  seed 
over  the  ground  in  the  same  manner  as 
sowing  wheat ;  sowing  first  over  the  bed 
in  one  direction,  and  then  in  the  opposite 
one,  so  as  to  distribute  the  seed  uniformly 
over  it.  After  sowing,  rake  the  ground 
lightly,  and  then  tramp  it  until  level  and 
comparatively  smooth.  Cover  lightly  with 
green  brush  having  no  leaves  on  it  to  pro- 
tect against  late  spring  frosts,  and  to  keep 
leaves  which  may  fall  from  adjoinig  trees 
from  covering  the  young  plants. 

Many  farmers  imagine  that  their  failure 
to  obtain  full  prices  is  attributable  to  the 
kind  of  seed  they  sow,  and  are  continually- 
hunting  new  varieties,  when  in  reality  they 
may  be  using  the  best,  and  the  fault  lies  in 
another  direction.  The  best  variety  to 
sow  will  depend  on  the  soil  to  be  planted 
and  purposes  for  which  the  tobacco  is  to 
be  used.  If  to  be  planted  in  old  land 
or  manured  lots,  which  are  best  adapted 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       555 


to  the  growth  of  heavy  fat  varieties  of 
tobacco,  called  shipping  leaf,  then  the 
Blue  Prior  or  Morrow  are  excellent  vari- 
eties. For  bright  wrappers  or  fillers  for 
chewing  tobacco,  the  Orinoco,  Yellow 
Prior  or  Little  Vic  are  preferable.  The 
Little  Vic  is  now  preferred  by  some  of 
the  best  growers  of  bright  wrappers  in 
Kentucky,  being,  as  they  assert,  much 
easier  to  cure  a  uniformly  bright  color, 
while  it  also  possesses  all  the  desirable 
chewing  qualities  of  the  other  varieties. 

It  is  said  that  one  bed,  the  size  we  have 
described,  will  furnish  plants  for  ten  acres; 
but  if  we  intended  planting  ten  acres,  we 
would  have  at  least  three  such  beds,  and 
would  prefer  four,  so  that  if  one  failed  in 
part,  the  deficiency  would  be  made  up 
by  others. 

It  is  a  well  established  fact  that  the 
most  successful  tobacco  growers  are  those 
who  get  their  crops  set,  and  in  order  to 
do  so  it  is  indispensable  to  have  an  abun- 
dance of  early  plants.  We  would,  there- 
fore, recommend  the  sowing  of  seed  in 
January,  February,  and  also  in  March. 
It  is  a  very  common  fault  to  sow  too  much 
seed  on  a  bed.  When  they  stand  too 
thick  on  the  ground  they  grow  up  very 
slim,  and  do  not  grow  off  readily  when 
transplanted.  In  preparing  new  ground 
for  planting,  it  should  be  broken  first  by 
a  coulter  plow,  which  cuts  the  roots  well, 
then  turned  over  by  a  two-horse  turning 
plow,  harrowed  well  each  way ;  the  roots, 
sticks,  etc.,  piled  and  burned ;  then  laid 
off  in  rows  three  feet  four  inches  each 
way  with  a  shovel  plow.  A  small  hill,  at 
the  crossing  of  each  furrow,  should  be 
made,  say  two  or  three  hoefuls  of  loose 
soil,  to  which  give  a  sharp  pat  with  the 
hoe  in  order  to  better  retain  the  moisture 
after  the  plant  is  set.  If  bright  wrappers 
are  the  aim,  and  especially  if  your  new 
ground  is  rich,  the  rows  may  be  only  three 
feet  one  way  by  three  and  a  half  the 
other. 

In  fact,  some  of  the  best  farmers  in 
Kentucky,  among  them  Mr.  R.  R.  Wake- 
field, of  Ballard  county,  have  recently 
adopted  drilling ;  that  is,  they  plant  only 
about  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  which 
is  the  usual  width  apart,  and  only  plow  one 
way.  In  this  way  they  obtain  a  more  silky 
leaf,  a  finer  and  better  color ;  and  although 
the  leaf  is  smaller  by  topping  high,  say 
fourteen  to  sixteen  leaves  to  the  plant, 


with  the  increased  number  of  plants  the 
yield  is  equal  and  sometimes  greater  than 
by  planting  the  usual  distance.  Old  land 
should  be  fallowed  deep  in  the  fall  if  pos- 
sible in  order  to  turn  under  the  weeds 
and  grasses,  and  give  them  time  to  decay 
and  enrich  the  soil,  and  it  also  gives  the 
cut- worm  a  good  opportunity  of  freezing, 
a  thing  to  be  desired,  as  it  is  often  very 
destructive  to  the  plants  when  set  in  old 
land,  but  never  much  trouble  in  new. 
Old  land  in  the  spring  should  be  pre- 
pared in  much  the  same  way  as  new,  ex- 
cept the  rows  should  be  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart  each  way,  which  gives  3,500 
plants  to  the  acre. 

Plants  will  live  when  transplanted  in 
fresh  lands  after  a  very  light  rain,  but  in 
old  land  a  good  soaking  rain  is  desirable 
in  order  to  insure  success,  besides  it  dam- 
ages the  plant-beds  much  less  to  draw 
from  them  after  a  good  rain.  Care  should 
be  taken  when  drawing  plants  from  the 
beds  to  avoid  trampling  on  the  young 
plants,  and  only  one  plant  should  be 
pulled  at  a  time,  for  by  pulling  a  handful 
with  half  a  dozen  which  are  large  enough 
to  plant,  there  will  be  sticking  to  their 
roots  perhaps  fifty  smaller  ones,  which 
would  be  large  enough  in  a  week  or  tea 
days,  and  which  may  be  needed.  Three 
experienced  hands  can  draw  the  plants 
and  set  four  or  five  acres  in  a  day ;  and 
were  I  intending  to  plant  a  full  crop,  say 
four  to  five  acres  to  the  hand,  I  would 
prefer  to  have  at  least  two-thirds  of  the 
crop  planted  during  the  first  season,  /.  e.> 
at  the  first  planting,  and  that  as  early  in 
May  as  possible,  and  the  remainder  within 
ten  or  fifteen  days  thereafter.  However, 
there  are  but  few  farmers  ready  to  plant 
before  the  15th  of  May,  which  is  ample 
time,  and  good  crops  are  made  when 
planted  as  late  as  the  middle  of  June,  and 
sometimes  later.  It  may  be  objected 
that  too  much  of  the  crop  should  not  be 
planted  at  once  for  fear  of  having  so  much 
to  ripen  at  one  time  as  to  be  unable  to 
house  and  take  care  of  it  properly ;  but 
the  reverse  is  usually,  if  not  invariably,  the 
case ;  and  much  more  tobacco  is  cut  too 
green  than  is  damaged  by  standing  in  the 
field  too  long ;  besides,  fully  a  third  of  the 
most  regular  stand,  all  planted  the  same 
day,  will  mature  a  week  or  ten  days  later 
than  the  other  two-thirds.  Plants  to  set 
in  old  ground  should  be  of  good  size,  say 


55$ 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


from  four  to  six  inches  high,  while  smaller 
ones  will  do  well  in  new  ground. 

The  process  of  transplanting  is  simple, 
and  consists  of  making  a  hole  in  the  hill, 
which  will  receive  the  plant  well  up  to  the 
leaves,  and  pressing  the  soil  firmly  around 
it,  taking  care  not  to  leave  a  hole  below 
the  roots  of  the  plant.  Fresh  land  re- 
quires less  cultivation  than  old,  being 
quicker  and  free  from  weeds  and  grass 
comparatively  —  two  to  three  good  plow- 
ings  and  hilling  once  with  the  hoe  are  suf- 
ficient. Old  tobacco  land  should  be 
plowed  at  least  four  times  and  hoed  twice. 
The  matter  of  cultivating  the  growing 
plant,  however,  as  it  depends  a  great  deal 
on  the  kind  of  season,  whether  wet  or 
dry,  will  have  to  be  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  farmer.  In  no  case  should  the 
ground  be  plowed  while  very  wet.  Be- 
fore the  plant  is  hilled  up,  which  is  the 
last  cultivation  it  gets,  and  when  it  is 
about  large  enough  to  stop,  the  bottom 
leaves  should  be  broken  off  (which  is 
called  pruning)  from  the  ground  up  from 
four  to  six  inches,  according  to  its  size. 

Topping,  which  is  breaking,  or  rather 
pinching  out  the  bud  of  the  plant,  in  or- 
der to  cause  it  to  spread  and  mature,  and 
also  to  prevent  it  running  to  seed,  should 
be  postponed  as  long  as  the  circumstances 
will  allow,  so  as  to  top  as  much  of  the 
crop  at  one  time  as  possible.  Early  in 
the  season,  old  land  tobacco  should  be 
topped  at  ten  leaves  to  the  plant,  which 
can  be  done  without  counting,  by  leaving 
the  two  top  leaves  hanging  directly  over 
the  two  bottom  ones.  Within  a  week  or 
ten  days  from  the  time  the  tobacco  is 
topped,  the  suckers  which  sprout  just 
above  each  leaf,  and  also  at  the  ground, 
make  their  appearance,  and  should  be 
broken  off  when  from  three  to  six  inches 
long.  If  neglected,  they  become  so  hard 
and  so  firmly  attached  to  the  stock  as  to 
bring  away  the  leaf  with  them,  and  if  en- 
tirely neglected  would  absorb  all  the  nour- 
ishment from  the  plant,  and  cause  a  total 
failure.  There  are  generally  three  crops 
of  these  suckers,  all  of  which  must  be  at- 
tended to  at  the  proper  time.  The  work 
of  keeping  off  suckers  and  horn-worms  is 
all  the  farmer  has  to  do  from  topping 
until  cutting  and  housing  time,  and  is 
.generally  all  he  wants.  There  has  been 
no  way  discovered  to  prevent  the  appear- 
ance of  the  horn -worm,  nor  to  keep  him 


from  imitating  the  example  of  his  illustri- 
ous neighbor,  "Young  America,"  in 
chewing  tobacco  —  in  fact,  he  seems  ex- 
travagantly fond  of  the  green  article,  and 
claims  it  as  his  birthright,  being  born 
(hatched)  on  the  leaves  from  an  egg  de- 
posited by  the  tobacco  fly.  They  are  not 
usually  abundant  until  about  the  full  of 
the  moon  in  August,  which  important  fact 
furnishes  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of 
early  planting;  for  tobacco  planted  in 
May  is  generally  so  nearly  ripe  by  the 
15th  or  20th  of  August  that  young  worms 
can  do  it  but  little  injury. 

The  simplest  and  best  way  of  disposing 
of  these  pests  is  to  pull  their  heads  off  as 
quickly  as  possible.  Some  writer,  who 
evidently  labors  under  the  delusion  that 
they  come  to  and  go  to  eating  again  as 
soon  as  the  farmer's  back  is  turned,  sug- 
gests gathering  them  in  tin  pails  and 
carrying  them  out  of  the  field  to  destroy 
them.  They  certainly  never  eat  any 
more  after  their  heads  are  taken  off,  and 
while  one's  hands  are  liable  to  be  slightly 
soiled,  this  is  the  best  mode  of  treatment, 
as  both  hands  and  eyes  are  needed  in 
worming  and  suckering,  both  being  carried 
on  at  the  same  time.  It  is  much  better 
to  kill  the  worms  while  quite  small,  as  a 
full  grown  one  will  destroy  a  plant  of 
tobacco  in  a  very  few  days.  Whole  fields 
are  sometimes  ruined  by  them,  but  we 
have  always  doubted  the  statement  that 
they  sometimes  crawl  on  top  of  the  fence, 
and  ask  passers  by  for  a  "  chaw."  The 
time  usually  necessary  for  tobacco  to 
mature  after  transplanting  is  about  ninety 
days,  but  varies  some,  according  to  soil, 
climate  and  the  season. 

Tobacco  should  never  be  cut  until 
thoroughly  ripe,  unless  forced  to  do  so  by 
prospect  of  frost.  New  ground  tobacco, 
when  ripe,  turns  to  a  yellowish  color,  and 
old  ground  becomes  spotted;  and  both 
are  brittle,  and  the  leaf  breaks  easily  by 
being  pinched  up  between  the  thumb  and 
finger. 

If  the  crop  is  large  enough  and  the 
force  sufficient,  enough  should  be  cut  in 
one  day  to  fill  a  barn,  so  that  the  process 
of  curing  will  be  uniform.  Cutting  is 
done  by  splitting  the  stalk  with  a  sharp 
butcher  knife,  from  the  top  to  within  two 
leaves  of  the  bottom,  and  cutting  off 
just  below  the  bottom  leaf.  The  plant  is 
then  inverted  and  set  over  the   stubble 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       557 


from  which  it  was  cut.  As  soon  as  it 
falls  or  wilts  it  is  put  in  piles  of  ten 
plants  each,  with  the  butts  toward  the 
sun.  If  the  sun  is  shining  very  hot,  care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  sun-burn,  which 
injures  it  very  much.  Piling  as  above 
will  generally  prevent  this.  Each  pile  is 
hung  on  a  stick,  and  if  the  tobacco  is 
very  large  eight  plants  to  a  pile  is  suffi- 
cient. Stick  your  stick  in  the  hill  adjoin- 
ing the  one  on  which  the  tobacco  is 
piled,  and  slanting  slightly,  and  hang  the 
tobacco  in  the  field,  instead  of  hauling  to 
the  barn  or  scaffold  before  hanging  it,  as 
it  saves  time  and  is  bruised  less.  As 
soon  as  hung  on  the  stick,  haul  directly 
to  the  barn,  and  hoist  from  the  wagon  to 
the  tier  poles,  filling  each  room  of  the 
barn  from  top  to  bottom  as  you  go. 

A  conveniendy  sized  barn  is  twenty  feet 
square,  five  firing  tiers  high.  The  lower 
tier  poles  should  be  about  eight  feet  from 
the  ground,  the  next  three  and  a  half  feet 
above,  the  third  three  and  a  half  above 
the  second,  and  so  on  to  the  top.  They 
should  be  four  feet  apart,  giving  five 
rooms  in  the  barn  from  top  to  bottom. 
Such  a  barn  will  hold  one  thousand  sticks 
of  tobacco,  usually  about  three  acres, 
and  can  be  built  of  logs  at  trifling  cost. 
The  sticks  should  be  four  and  a  half  feet 
long,  so  as  to  lap  the  tier  poles  well  and 
to  prevent  their  slipping  off.  Scaffolding 
in  the  field  has  been  entirely  abandoned 
by  the  best  farmers  in  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky, except  when  the  tobacco  is  to  be 
sun-cured.  The  distances  between  the 
sticks  when  hung  in  the  barn  should  vary 
somewhat,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
tobacco,  the  amount  of  sap  in  it,  and  the 
process  by  which  it  is  to  be  cured,  from 
six  to  eight  inches ;  and  if  intending  to 
cure  by  action  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
barn  should  be  quite  open,  and  the  sticks 
should  hang  ten  inches  apart  at  least. 

We  now  come  to  the  process  of  curing 
— the  most  important  as  well  as  the  most 
difficult  part  of  the  work — requiring  all 
the  energy,  watchfulness  and  intelligence 
the  farmer  can  bring  to  bear.  To  cure 
the  heavy,  dark  varieties  for  export,  called 
shipping  leaf,  the  usual  mode  of  firing  is 
supposed  to  be  the  best ;  and  as  a  bright 
color  is  not  indispensable  to  its  value,  the 
less  fire  used  the  better,  so  that  it  is  saved 
from  house-burn  until  cured  fully.  This 
does  not  apply,  however,  to  a  large  and 


valuable  proportion  of  the  Missouri  and 
Illinois  crops,  called  shipping  leaf,  and 
suitable  especially  for  the  English  mar- 
kets. This  should  be  cured  as  bright  as 
possible,  which  can  be  best  done  by  the 
use  of  flues  or  charcoal ;  and  at  the  same 
time  avoid  the  very  objectionable  flavor 
and  smell  of  smoke.  In  fact,  the  less 
smoke  any  kind  of  totacco  has,  the 
better  it  sells ;  and  when  charcoal  or  flues 
cannot  be  had,  as  much  of  the  curing  as 
the  weather  will  permit  should  be  done 
by  the  sun  and  air.  If  the  weather  is  fair 
and  the  barn  room  ample,  tobacco  will 
cure  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  in 
about  ten  days,  with  the  assistance  of 
very  little  fire,  and  will  be  much  sweeter 
and  more  valuable  than  if  cured  quickly 
by  hard  firing. 

The  climate,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
the  soil  of  Missouri,  are  as  well  adapted 
to  the  production  of  those  fine  and  high- 
priced  varieties  of  tobacco  used  in  this 
country  by  manufacturers  of  both  plug 
and  fine-cut  chewing,  as  Virginia,  North 
Carolina  or  Kentucky;  but  our  farmers 
have  not  yet. attained  anything  like  the 
perfection  in  the  management  of  their 
crops,  and  consequently  do  not  get  near 
such  prices.  The  use  of  flues  for  curing 
bright  manufacturing  leaf  is  gaining  in 
popularity  every  year,  and  we  have  yet 
to  see  the  first  farmer  who  ever  tried  them 
and  abandoned  them  for  any  other  pro- 
cess. Less  than  ten  years  ago  there  was 
not  one  in  western  Kentucky,  and  now  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  farmers  of 
that  section  cure  their  entire  crops  with 
them,  and  they  invariably  get  nearly 
double  as  much  as  the  same  tobacco, 
even  with  the  same  color,  would  bring 
if  cured  by  firing  in  the  old  way.  Even 
if  they  fail — as  they  sometimes  do  with 
any  process — to  get  a  strictly  bright 
color,  the  tobacco  is  so  sweet  and  has 
that  peculiar  flavor  which  manufacturers 
desire.  Besides  these  advantages,  they 
are  very  much  more  convenient,  saving  a 
great  deal  of  fuel,  and  the  farmer  is 
saved  the  disagreeable  task  of  smoking 
his  eyes  out. 

The  construction  of  the  flues  used  in 
Kentucky  is  very  simple  and  not  very 
expensive.  Two  parallel  nine-inch  brick 
walls,  about  eighteen  inches  apart,  and 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  high,  across  the 
centre  of  the  barn,  and  these  brick  walls. 


558 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


covered  with  cast-iron  caps  twenty  inches 
square,  and  so  made  as  to  lap  each  other 
half  an  inch  where  they  join,  with  a 
brick  furnace  to  receive  the  fuel  on  the 
outside  of  the  barn,  and  a  chimney  six  or 
:seven  feet  high  on  the  opposite  outside  of 
the  barn,  to  carry  off  the  smoke,  com- 
pletes the  flue.  The  flue  should  extend 
through  and  a  few  feet  beyond  the  barn, 
-and  the  chimney  should  be  that  distance 
from  the  logs  or  planks  to  avoid  danger, 
as  the  blaze  sometimes  reaches  through 
and  out  at  the  top  of  the  chimney.  Such 
a  flue  can  be  built  at  a  cost  of  $75  or 
$85.  The  cast  caps  should  be  slightly 
-arched,  as  they  throw  out  the  heat  better. 

As  soon  as  the  tobacco  is  housed,  the 
fire  should  be  started  in  the  flue,  and  a 
low  degree  of  temperature,  say  about  95 
•deg.,  kept  up  for  ten  .or  twelve  hours,  un- 
til the  leaves  are  yellow,  when  the  heat 
•should  be  gradually  increased  to  120  deg., 
and  so  remain  until  tails  are  partially 
■cured  and  curl  up,  when  the  heat  should 
be  increased  to  160  deg-,  and  kept  so  un- 
til the  leaf  is  thoroughly  cured,  and  the 
stalk  nearly  so. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  heat,  a  ther- 
mometer must  be  kept  hanging  in  the 
barn  in  a  corner  and  frequently  referred 
to.  While  the  above  is  as  near  a  rule  as 
can  be  given,  yet  the  judgment  of  each 
farmer  and  m  each  particular  curing  will 
be  needed,  as  the  amount  of  heat 
necessary  will  vary  according  as  the 
tobacco  is  light  or  heavy,  the  season  wet 
•or  dry,  etc. 

Coat-curing  is  practiced  successfully  in 
Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  portions  of 
Kentucky,  and  throughout  Missouri,  but  it 
is  not  so  certain  of  success  as  to  color,  is 
more  trouble,  and  in  the  end  more  ex- 
pensive than  flues.  To  cure  with  coal, 
a  thermometer  is  needed,  and  the  amount 
of  heat  necessary  the  same  as  with 
flues. 

After  the  fires  are  withdrawn,  the 
tobacco  in  a  short  time  will  come  in  case, 
unless  the  stalks  are  entirely  dried;  and 
then,  if  a  good  bright  color  has  been  ob- 
tained, it  should  be  hung  in  the  barn  as 
close  as  possible,  by  putting  two  or  three 
sticks  in  the  space  occupied  by  one,  to 
prevent  its  losing  its  color  by  the  damp 
spells  of  the  weather  during  the  winter. 
It  will  dry  in  this  condition,  and  remain 
so  until  stripping  time  in  the  spring;  or, 


if  stripped  during  the  winter,  should  be 
hung  back  on  sticks,  and  kept  crowded 
until  ready  to  prize. 

Having  rather  tediously  followed  you 
through  the  laborious  and  disagreeable 
part  of  your  work,  we  now  come  to  the 
comparatively  easy,  but  decidedly  most 
important,  because  most  profitable  part, 
namely:  stripping,  assorting  and  prizing; 
and  here  allow  us  to  say  that  the  farmers 
of  Missouri,  as  a  class,  are  far  behind 
those  of  the  other  tobacco  growing  States. 
This  is  attributable  mainly  to  the  fact  that 
our  farmers,  after  working  a  year  and 
making  a  crop,  in  order  to  save  a  few 
weeks'  extra  labor,  are  in  the  habit  of  not 
marketing  that  crop,  but  turning  it  over 
to  some  country  re-handler  or  speculator 
at  a  sacrifice,  and  he  about  half  way  pre- 
pares it  for  market. 

It  looks  reasonable  that  if  re-hand- 
lers can  take  the  tobacco  as  the 
farmers  deliver  it,  tied  in  large  bundles, 
lugs,  leaf  and  trash  altogether,  and  assort 
it,  and  make  one  bundle  into  four  or  five, 
at  an  expense  of  one  dollar  and  a  half  or 
more  per  100  pounds,  that  the  farmer  can 
better  afford  to  do  it  right  at  first.  The 
farmers  are  told  that  "  we  buyers  "  would 
rather  have  it  tied  thus,  so  that  we 
can  assort  and  classify  it  to  suit  our- 
selves, and  when  so  tied,  the  competition 
is  gone,  except  as  between  the  two  or 
three  country  buyers  in  each  county; 
whereas,  by  properly  assorting,  tying  and 
prizing,  which  the  farmer  can  do  much 
cheaper  than  any  one  else,  he  gets  not 
only  the  competition  of  all  the  great 
American  markets,  but  has  his  crop  in 
a  condition  to  ship  to  any  market  in  the 
world. 

It  would  not  cost  farmers  over  fifty 
cents  per  100  pounds  in  excess  of  the 
present  mode  of  delivering  to  country 
dealers,  to  prize  their  crops  properly,  and 
the  work,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases, 
would  pay  them  better  than  any  other 
they  could  do. 

Shipping  leaf  should  be  carefully 
assorted,  putting  all  the  ground  leaves, 
bruised  or  sunburnt,  etc.,  into  lugs,  a'nd 
leaf  should  be  neatly  tied  in  bundles  of 
not  over  six  leaves.  The  lugs  even  pay 
to  tie  into  small  hands.  At  present 
prices  there  is  a  difference  of  at  least  $1 
per  hundred   pounds  in   favor  of  small 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       559 


hands  in  lugs,  and  from  two  to  four  times 
.as  much  in  good  leaf. 

If  tobacco  is  too  soft  when  stripped  to 
prize,  it  should  be  hung  back  in  the  barn 
until  thoroughly  dry,  giving  good  room 
between  the  sticks  for  the  air  to  circulate. 
It  may  then  be  taken  down  the  first  damp 
spell  and  bulked  ready  for  prizing.  Tobac- 
co intended  for  the  English  market  should 
be  prized  in  much  drier  condition  than 
for  any  other,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  an  import  duty  in  that  country  of 
over  seventy  cents  per  pound  on 
the  article,  and  the  importer  wishes  to 
pay  duty  on  as  little  water  as  possible, 
A  large  proportion  of  the  shipping  leaf 
of  this  State  is  prized  by  the  country 
operators  with  a  view  to  the  English 
market;  and  we  think  if  managed 
differently  it  would  do  better  for  some 
other  markets,  and  can  be  prepared  with 
less  expense.  For  instance,  we  would 
prize  all  dark,  heavy  leaf  in  simply  good 
keeping  order,  and  not  in  what  is  called 
"factory  dried,"  and  only  factory  dry  that 
which  is  bright  or  colory.  Dark  shipper 
should  be  prized  in  hogsheads  of  1,600  or 
1,700  pounds  net;  lugs,  1,800  to  2,000 
pounds  net;  factory  dried,  1,250  to  1,400 
pounds  net.  Care  should  be  taken  in  all 
kinds  to  handle  neatly,  and  not  put  two 
kinds  in  one  hogshead  when  possible  to 
-avoid  it. 

Bright  wrappers  and  fine  fillers  should 
not  be  prized  so  as  to  bruise  the  leaf,  and 
if  very  fine  wrappers,  should  be  put  in 
half  hogsheads,  or  tubs  of  300  to  600 
pounds  net;  fillers  from  800  to  1,000 
pounds.  The  most  important  point  in 
these  varieties  is  the  assorting  or  classifi- 
cation ;  and  if  our  farmers  will  once  get 
to  prizing  their  crops,  and  attend  a  lead- 
ing market  in  person  occasionally,  where 
they  can  see  specimens  of  the  best 
managed  crops  of  different  States,  they 
will  soon  learn  more  than  can  be  written 
on  the  subject  in  many  long  articles,  and 
the  information  will  be  such  as  will  lead 
to  their  prosperity ;  and  if  only  a  few  of 
them  will  try  the  experiment,  our  object 
in  writing  this  will  be  accomplished. 

TOMATO  PLANTS,  To  Raise.— Make 
.a  hot  bed  in  the  customary  way,  about 
three  by  six  feet.  On  about  three  square 
feet  at  one  end,  sow  your  seed  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  thick ;  cover  with  one- 
half  an  inch  of  rich,  sifted  soil.     When 


the  plants  are  three  inches  hight  make  a. 
trench  across  the  bed,  leaving  one  side  at 
an  angle  of  fifty-two  degrees.  Wet  the 
plants  so  that  they  can  be  taken  up  with- 
out injuring  the  roots.  Place  them  in 
the  trench  two  inches  apart.  Cover  them 
up  to  the  last  leaves  by  making  another 
trench  so  near  that  the  rows  of  plants 
will  be  three  inches  apart.  When  they 
are  from  four  to  six  inches  high  trans- 
plant them  into  the  garden,  taking  care 
not  to  injure  the  roots.  Plants  raised  as 
above  directed  will  be  very  stocky,  will 
not  wilt  when  transplanted,  and  will  ripen 
their  fruit  before  frost  comes. 

TURNIP  CULTURE.— The  most  de- 
sirable soil  for  the  cultivation  of  this  root 
is  a  sandy  loam  free  from  stagnant  water 
— one  easily  cultivated  to  a  considerable 
depth,  notwithstanding  a  heavier  crop 
may  occasionally  be  obtained  from  a  clay 
loam. 

Early  in  the  fall  the  land  intended  for 
turnips  should  receive  a  heavy  coat  of 
farmyard  manure,  and  be  deeply  plowed; 
cross-plowed  in  the  spring  about  the  end 
of  May  or  the  beginning  of  June,  har- 
rowed and  rolled  until  a  fine  tilth  is 
secured.  Getting  the  soil  into  a  finely 
divided  state  is  a  matter  of  the  highest 
importance.  It  is  a  well  established  fact 
that  all  soils  have  the  power  of  absorbing 
and  retaining  to  a  greater  or  less  degree 
a  certain  amount  ot  moisture,  and  the 
more  finely  divided  and  thoroughly  pul- 
verized the  land,  the  greater  amount  of 
moisture  will  it  absorb  and  retain.  It 
would  be  very  difficult  to  state  absolutely 
when  it  is  the  best  time  to  sow,  inasmuch 
as  soils  and  seasons  vary.  On  clay  or 
clay  loam  perhaps  the  most  desirable 
time  is  from  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth  of 
June,  and  on  sandy  loams  from  the  tenth 
to  the  twentieth  of  that  month.  The 
quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre  will 
also  vary  with  the  weather.  In  damp 
weather,  on  sandy  soils,  2  lbs.  is  ample, 
and  on  clay  loam,  and  in  weather 
ordinarily  dry,  it  will  be  well  to  use  3 
lbs.  or  more.  The  depth  of  the  seed 
should  be  1  to  1  ^  inches  below  the  sur- 
face. It  is  better  for  plants  to  come  up 
thickly,  for  they  grow  faster  than  when 
thin,  and  are  more  apt  to  escape  the 
ravages  of  the  fly;  and,  moreover,  they 
require  immediate  attention  as  soon  as 
they  are   large  enough  to  thin.     Sowing 


S6° 


FARM,  ORCHARD,  DAIRY  AND  GARDEN. 


upon  drills  is  altogether  preferable  to 
sowing  on  the  level ;  not  only  can  a  much 
larger  crop  be  produced,  but  the  weeds 
are  far  more  easily  destroyed.  The 
distance  between  the  drills  should  be  26 
to  30  inches,  and  the  plants  should  be 
left,  by  thinning,  12  to  15  inches  apart. 
When  a  good  braird  has  been  secured, 
the  great  secret  of  success  is  in  stirring 
the  soil  frequently  when  dry,  and  keep- 
ing the  ground  pefectly  free  from  noxious 
weeds. 

WAGONS,  To  Grease  — But  few  people 
are  aware  that  they  do  wagons  and 
carriages  more  injury  by  grasing  too 
plentifully  than  in  almost  any  other  way. 
A  well  made  wheel  will  endure  common 
wear  from  ten  to  twenty-five  years,  if  care 
is  taken  to  use  the  right  kind  and  proper 
amount  of  grease;  but  if  this  matter  is 
not  attended  to,  they  will  be  used  up  in 
five  or  six  years.  Lard  should  never  be 
used  on  a  wagon,  for  it  will  penetrate  the 
hub,  and  work  its  way  out  around  the 
tenons  of  the  spokes,  and  spoil  the 
wheel.  Tallow  is  the  best  lubricator  for 
wood  axle  trees,  and  castor  oil  for  iron. 
Just  enough  grease  should  be  applied  to 
the  spindle  of  a  wagon  to  give  it  a  light 
coating ;  this  is  better  than  more,  for  the 
surplus  put  on  will  work  out  at  the  ends, 
and  be  forced  by  the  shoulder  bands  and 
nut  washers  into  the  hub  around  the  out- 
side of  the  boxes.  To  oil  an  iron  axle 
tree,  first  wipe  the  spindle  clean  with  a 
cloth  wet  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
then  apply  a  few  drops  of  castor  oil  near 
the  shoulder  and  end.  One  teaspoonful 
is  sufficient  for  the  whole. 

WATERMELONS,  Large. — Mr.  Stan- 
ley, of  South  Carolina,  gave  his  plan  for 
raising  watermelons  which  weighed  from 
twenty-five  to  forty-five  pounds  apiece. 
Holes  are  dug  two  feet  square  and 
eighteen  inches  deep,  twelve  feet  apart, 
filled  with  fresh  stable  manure  tramped 
down,  the  surrounding  soil  drawn  over; 
or  better  still,  fresh  soil  from  the  woods  or 
corners  of  fences,  mixed  with  road 
sand.  Make  the  hill  of  the  shape  of 
an  inverted  saucer,  a  little  well-rotted 
manure  or  guano  being  slightly  raked  in, 
and  some  coal  dust  applied  to  absorb  the 
sun's  rays,  which  also  prevents  a  crust 
from  being  formed.  Let  no  grass  or 
weeds  appear,  and  never  disturb  the 
vines  when  the   dew  is   on   them.     The 


best  varieties  are  Orange,  Bankright,  and 
Bradford. 

WHEAT,  To  Prevent  Mildew  in.— 
Dissolve  three  ounces  and  two  drachms 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  copperas,  or  blue 
vitriol,  in  three  gallons  and  three  quarts,, 
wine  measure,  of  cold  water,  for  eyery 
three  bushels  of  grain  that  is  to  be  pre- 
pared. Into  another  vessel,  capable  of 
containing  fifty-three  to  seventy-nine  wine 
gallons,  throw  from  three  to  four  bushels 
of  wheat,  into  which  the  prepared 
liquid  is  poured,  until  it  rises  five  or  six 
inches  above  the  grain.  Stir  it  thoroughly^ 
and  carefully  remove  all  that  swims  on 
the  surface.  After  it  has  remained  half 
an  hour  in  the  preparation,  throw  the 
wheat  into  a  basket  that  will  allow  the 
water  to  escape,  but  not  the  grain.  It 
ought  then  to  be  immediately  washed  in 
rain,  or  pure  water,  which  will  prevent 
any  risk  of  its  injuring  the  germ,  and 
afterwards  the  seed  ought  to  be  dried  be- 
fore it  is  put  in  the  ground.  It  may  be 
preserved  in  this  shape  for  months. 

WHEAT,  to  Prevent  Rust  in.— Some 
hours — at  the  longest  six  or  eight  before- 
sowing  —  prepare  a  steep  of  three 
measures  of  powdered  quicklime,  and 
ten  measures  of  cattle  urine.  Pour 
two  quarts  of  this  upon  a  peck 
of  wheat,  stir  with  a  spade  until 
every  kernel  is  covered  white  with  it.  By 
using  wheat  so  prepared,  rust  of  every 
kind  will  be  avoided.  I  have  often 
noticed,  while  in  the  neighboring  fields,  a 
great  part  of  the  crop  is  affected  by  rust ; 
in  mine,  lying  closely  by  it,  not  a  single 
ear  so  affected  could  be  found. 

The  same  writer  says  he  takes  the 
sheaves  and  beats  off  the  ripest  kernels 
with  a  stick,  and  uses  the  grain  thus 
obtained  for  seed. 

WHEAT  (Slugs  Upon),  to  Destroy.— 

Collect  a  number  of  lean  ducks,  keep 
them  all  day  without  food,  and  turn  them 
in  the  field  toward  evening;  each  duck 
would  devour  the  slugs  much  faster  than 
a  man  could  collect  them,  and  they  soon 
would  get  very  fat  for  the  market. 

WORMS,  Wire. — For  the  protection  ot 
grain  crops  against  wire-worms  we  advise 
the  sowing  of  six  bushels  of  salt  per 
acre,  just  as  the  plants  are  coming 
through. 


I 

BTRAWBEBBT  OBOWN  BOBXB. 


HMBB  SALT,  BBETTB. 


WIHK  WORK  URVA. 

See  pagea  368-MO. 


WIHK  WORM  KOTK. 

See  pages  S  3-560. 


r«A  WBEV1L  LARTA. 

See  page  882. 


•OTi  IN  HORSES. 

Se«page91. 


ttA.  WIITOi, 

See  page  382. 


BASFBBRRY  BORBR 

See  page  406. 


/ 


Miscellaneous  and  Useful  Knowledge 


AXLE-GREASE.— i.  Water,  i  gallon; 
soda,  ^  pound;  palm  oil,  10  pounds. 
Mix  by  heat,  and  stir  till  nearly  cold. 

2.  Water,  rape  oil,  of  each  i  gallon; 
soda,  ^  pound;  palm  oil,  ^  pound. 

3.  Water,  1  gallon;  tallow,  3  pounds; 
palm  oil,  6  pounds;  soda,  ^  pound. 
Heat  to  210  °  Fahrenheit  and  stir  until 
cool. 

4.  Tallow,  8  pounds;  palm  oil,  10 
pounds;  plumbago,  1  pound.  Makes  a 
good  lubricator  for  wagon  axles. 

BEANS,  to  Shell  Easy.— Pour  upon  the 
pods  a  quantity  of  scalding  water,  and 
the  beans  will  slip  very  easily  from  the 
pod.  By  pouring  scalding  water  on  ap- 
ples the  skin  may  be  easily  slipped  off, 
and  much  labor  saved. 

BED-TICKS,  to  Clean.— Apply  Poland 
starch,  by  rubbing  it  on  thick  with  a  wet 
cloth.  Place  it  in  the  sun.  When  dry, 
rub  it  if  necessary.  The  soiled  part  will 
be  clean  as  new. 

CARPETS,  to  Wain. — Shake  and  beat 
it  well ;  lay  it  upon  the  floor  and  tack  it 
firmly;  then  with  a  clean  flannel  wash  it 
over  with  a  quart  of  bullock's  gall  mixed 
with  three  quarts  of  soft  cold  water,  and 
rub  it  off  with  a  clean  flannel  or  house- 
cloth.  Any  particular  dirty  spot  should 
be  rubbed  with  pure  gall. 

CARPETS,  to  Clean.— Before  proceed- 
ing to  sweep  a  carpet  a  few  handfuls  of 
waste  tea-leaves  should  be  sprinkled  over 
it  A  stiff  hair  broom  or  brush  should  be 
employed,  unless  the  carpet  is  very  dirty, 
when  a  whisk  or  carpet-broom  should  be 
used  first,  followed  by  another  made  of 
hair,  to  take  off'  the  loose  dust.  The  fre- 
quent use  of  a  stiff  carpet-broom  soon 
wears  off  the  beauty  of  the  best  carpet. 
An  ordinary  clothes  brush  is  best  adapted 
for  superior  carperts.  When  carpets  are 
very  dirty  they  should  be  cleaned  by 
shaking  and  beating. 

Beat  it  well  with  a  stick  in  the  usual 
manner  until  all  the  dust  is  removed,  then 


take  out  the  stains,  if  any,  with  lemon  o 
sorrel-juice.  When  thoroughly  dry  rub 
it  all  over  with  the  crum  of  a  hot  wheat- 
en  loaf,  and  if  the  weather  is  very  fine,  let 
hang  out  in  the  open  air  for  a  night  or 
two.  This  treatment  will  revive  the 
colors,  and  make  the  carpet  appear  equal 
to  new. 

CARPETS,  Spots  on. — A  few  drops  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  warm  rain  water,  will  prove  a  safe 
and  easy  antacid,  etc.,  and  will  change,  if 
carefully  applied,  discolored  spots  upon 
carpets,  and  indeed,  all  spets,  whether 
produced  by  acids  or  alkalies.  If  one 
has  the  misfortune  to  have  a  carpet  injur* 
ed  by  whitewash,  this  will  immediately 
restore  it. 

CARPETS,  Ink  Spots,  to  Remove.— As 
soon  as  the  ink  has  been  spilled,  take  up 
as  much  as  you  can  with  a  sponge,  and 
then  pour  on  cold  water  repeatedly,  still 
taking  up  the  liquid ;  next  rub  the  place 
with  a  little  wet  oxalic  acid  or  salt  of"  sor- 
rel, and  wash  it  off  immediately  with  cold 
water,  and  then  rub  on  some  hartshorn. 

CLOTH,  Cleaning  and  Scouring  of. — 
The  common  method  of  cleaning  cloth  is- 
by  beating   and  brushing,  unless   whem 
very  dirty,  when  it  undergoes  the  opera- 
tion of  scouring.     This  is  best  done  on 
the  small  scale,  as  for  articles  of  wearing 
apparel,  etc.,  by  dissolving  a  little  curd 
soap  in  water,  and,  after  mixing  it  with  - 
a  little  ox-gall,  to  touch  over  all  the  spots; 
of  grease,  dirt,  etc.,  with  it,  and  to  rub- 
them  well  with  a  stiff  brush,  until  they 
are  removed,  after  which  the  article  may/ 
be  well  rubbed  all  over  with  a  brush  or 
sponge  dipped  into  some  warm  water,  toi 
which  the  previous  mixture  and  a  little' 
more  ox-gall  has  been  added.    When  this 
has  been  prop  erly  done,  it  only  remains  to 
thoroughly  rinse  the  article  in  clean  water 
until  the  latter  passes  off  uncolored,  when 
it  must  be  hung  up  to  dry.     For  dark- 
colored  clot  hs  the  common  practice  is  to> 


3< 


(56i) 


56: 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


add  some  fuller's-earth  to  the  mixture 
of  soap  and  gall.  When  nearly  dry, 
the  nap  should  be  laid  right,  and 
the  article  carefully  pressed,  after  which 
a  brush,  moistened  with  a  drop  or 
two  of  olive  oil,  is  passed  several  times 
over  it,  which  will  give  it  a  superior  finish. 
Cloth  may  also  be  cleaned  in  the  dry 
way,  as  follows :  First,  remove  the  spots, 
us  above,  and,  when  the  parts  have  dried, 
strew  clean,  damp  sand  over  it,  and  beat 
it  in  with  a  brush,  after  which  brush  the 
article  with  a  hard  brush,  when  the  sand 
will  readily  come  out,  and  bring  the  dirt 
with  it.  Black  cloth  which  is  very  rusty, 
should  receive  a  coat  of  reviver  after 
•drying,  and  be  hung  up  until  the  next 
day,  when  it  may  be  pressed  and  finished 
off  as  before.  Scarlet  cloth  requires  con- 
siderable caution.  After  being  thoroughly 
rinsed,  it  should  be  repeatedly  passed 
through  cold  spring  water,  to  which  a 
tablespoonful  or  two  of  solution  of  tin 
has  been  added.  If  much  faded,  it 
should  be  dipped  in  a  scarlet  dye-bath. 
Buff  cloth  is  generally  cleansed  by  cover- 
ing it  with  a  paste  made  with  pipe-clay 
and  water,  which,  when  dry,  is  rubbed 
and  brushed  off. 

CLOTH,  Renovation  of. — The  article 
undergoes  the  process  of  scouring  before 
described,  and,  after  being  well  rinsed 
and  drained,  it  is  put  on  a  board,  and  the 
thread-bare  parts  rubbed  with  a  half- worn 
hatter's  card,  filled  with  flocks,  or  with  a 
teazle  or  a  prickly  thistle,  until  a  nap  is 
raised.  It  is  next  hung  up  to  dry,  the 
nap  laid  the  right  way  with  a  hard  brush, 
.  and  finished  as  before.  When  the  cloth 
is  much  faded,  it  is  usual  to  give  it  a  dip, 
as  it  is  called,  or  to  pass  it  through  a 
.  dye-bath,  to  freshen  up  the  color. 

CLOTH,  To  Revive  the  Color  of  Black. 

If  a  coat,  clean  it  well,  then  boil  from 
two  to  four  ounces  of  logwood  in  your 
copper,  or  boiler  for  half  an  hour;  dip 
your  coat  in  warm  water,  and  squeeze  it 
as  dry  as  you  can ;  then  put  it  into  the 
copper  and  boil  it  for  half  an  hour.  Take 
it  out,  and  add  a  piece  of  green  copperas, 
about  the  size  of  a  horse-bean;  boil  it 
Another  half  hour,  then  draw  it,  and  hang 
at  in  the  air  for  an  hour  or  two ;  take  it 
sdown,  rinse  it  in  two  or  three  cold 
•waters;  dry  it,  and  let  it  be  well  brushed 
-with  a  soft  brush,  over  which  a  drop  or 


two  of  the  oil  of  olives  has  been  rubbed, 
then  stroke  your  coat  regularly  over. 

CRAPE,  To  Restore. — Skimmed  milk 
and  water,  with  a  little  bit  of  glue  in  it, 
made  scalding-hot,  is  excellent  to  restore 
rusty  Italian  crape.  It  clapped  and 
pulled  dry  like  muslin,  it  will  look  as 
good  as  new ;  or,  brush  the  veil  till  all 
the  dust  is  removed,  then  fold  it  length- 
wise, and  roll  it  smoothly  and  tightly  on 
a  roller.  Steam  it  till  it  is  thoroughly 
dampened,  and  dry  on  the  roller. 

DYEING,  General  Principles  of.— 
Dyeing  is  a  chemical  process,  and  the 
mode  of  its  performance  depends  upon 
the  substance  operated  on.  Thus,  it  is 
found  that  the  process  by  which  wool  is 
dyed  black  would  only  impart  a  rusty 
brown  to  linen.  Wool  unites  with  almost 
all  coloring  matters  with  great  facility, 
silk  in  the  next  degree,  cotton  less  easily 
than  silk,  and  linen  with  even  more 
difficulty.  Preparatory  to  the  operation 
of  dyeing,  each  of  these  substances  under- 
goes a  species  of  preparation  to  free  the 
fibres  from  adhering  foreign  matter,  as 
dirt,  grease,  etc.,  which  would  prevent 
the  absorption  of  the  aqueous  fluid  to  be 
afterwards  applied,  as  well  as  impair  the 
brilliancy  of  the  edge.  Wool  is  cleaned 
or  scoured  by  means  of  a  weak  alkaline 
lye,  soap  and  water,  or  putrid  urine;  the 
latter  being  very  generally  used  for  this 
purpose.  Silk  is  cleaned  from  the  natural 
varnish  that  covers  it,  by  boiling  with 
white  soap  and  water.  Cotton  and  linen 
are  cleaned  with  alkaline  lyes  of  more  or 
less  density.  The  substances  so  prepared 
are  ready  to  undergo  the  various  opera- 
tions of  dyeing. 

Among  the  various  coloring  materials 
employed  by  dyers,  some  impart  their 
tints  to  different  substances  by  simple  im- 
mersion in  their  infusions  or  decoctions, 
and  have  hence  been  called  substantive 
colors;  but  by  far  the  greater  number 
only  impart  a  fugitive  dye,  unless  the 
fibres  of  the  stuff  have  been  previously 
filled  with  some  substance  which  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  the  latter  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  coloring  material  on  the 
other.  The  substances  applied  with  this 
intention  are  called  "mordants,"  and 
generally  exercise  the  double  property  of 
fixing  and  striking  the  color  Thus,  if 
calico  be  dyed  with  a  decoction  of  mad- 
der, it  will  only  receive  a  fugitive  and 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       563 


dirty  red  tinge,  but  if  it  first  be  run 
through  a  solution  of  acetate  of  alumina, 
dried  at  a  high  temperature,  washed,  and 
then  run  through  a  madder  bath,  it  will 
come  out  of  a  permanent  and  lively  red. 
The  principal  of  mordants  are  the  acetates 
of  iron  and  alumina,  sulphate  of  iron 
alum,  and  some  other  chemical  salts.  A 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  behavior  of 
mordants,  with  different  coloring  sub- 
stances, is  of  paramount  importance  to 
the  dyer. 

After  having  received  the  proper  mor- 
dants, the  goods  are  dried  and  rinsed, 
after  which  they  are  passed  for  a  shorter 
•or  longer  time  through  an  infusion,  de- 
coction, or  solution  of  the  dyeing 
materials  which  constitute  the  dye-bath, 
they  are  again  dried  and  rinsed.  In 
many  cases  the  immersion  in  the  dye- 
bath  is  repeated,  either  with  the  same 
materials  or  others,  to  vary  or  modify  the 
■color.  After  the  substances  have  been 
properly  dyed,  they  are  subjected  to  a 
thorough  rinsing  or  washing  in  soft  water, 
until  the  latter  runs  off  uncolored. 

DYES  (Aniline),  General  Bules. — It  is 
very  important,  especially  when  light  and 
bright  shades  of  aniline  colors  are  required, 
to  have  a  pure  water-bath,  free  from  all 
foreign  ingredients,  which  may  be  inju- 
rious to  the  dye. 

In  dyeing  with  aniline  colors,  it  is 
essential  to  use  only  wooden  or  tin  ves- 
sels; copper  or  iron  is  very  injurious  to 
the  color.  For  family  dyeing,  any  earth- 
•en  or  enameled  basin  will  do. 

When  sulphuric  acid  is  mentioned  in 
our  recipes,  the  common  commercial 
quality  is  meant. 

Where  woolen  yarns  contain  much 
grease,  it  is  important  to  wash  them  well 
in  a  bath  of  soda  and  soap,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  ioo°  to  1200  Fahr. 

In  speaking  of  temperature,  the  Fah- 
renheit scale  is  always  understood. 

DYES,  Anilines,  Quantity  to  be  Used. 
— One  pound  of  aniline  dyes  the  follow- 
ing quantity  of  goods  a  medium  shade : 

Aniline  Red — One  ounce  dyes  19 
pounds  wool,  or  i2}4  pounds  of  cotton, 
or  9lA  pounds  of  silk. 

Crimson — Same  proportion  as  aniline 
red. 

Blue  or  Violet — One  ounce  dyes  15^ 
pounds  of  wool,  or  9^  pounds  of  cot- 
ton, or  7^  pound  of  silk. 


Brown  or  Yellow — One  ounce  dyes 
li}4  pounds  of  wool,  or  7^  pounds  of 
silk. 

Green,  oxidized  Powder — One  ounce 
dyes    32^  pounds  of  silk  (night  green). 

Green,  Iodine  Paste — One  ounce  dyes 
^  of  a  pound    silk  (atlas  night  green). 

Picric  Acid —  One  ounce  dyes  16 
pounds  of  wool  or  silk,  yellow;  17^  to 
18  pounds  of  wool,  green,  according  to 
shade. 

DYES,  Aniline  Blue,  Soluble  in  Water 
— Reddish  Blue,  or  Blue  de  Lyons. 
Bluish  Blue,  or  Blue  Blue.  English  Opal, 
or  night  Blue. 

Dissolve  the  blues  by  boiling  in  suffi-- 
cient  water,  and  filter  the  solution  through 
paper,  flannel  or  shirting.     If  a  sediment 
remains  mix  it  with  sulphuric  acid,  and 
boil  again  with  more  water. 

DYEING,  on  Wool— Recipe  a.  For 
every  twenty  pounds  of  goods  mix  one- 
half  pound  of  good  starch  with  cold 
water,  so  as  to  make  a  thick  paste,  then 
add  to  it  i}(  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  put  the  whole  with  the  dye,  into  the 
bath;  stir  and  let  it  boil  well  before 
taking  the  goods  into  it.  This  recipe  is 
liked  well  for  both  light  and  dark  shades. 

Recipe  b.  For  every  ten  pounds  of 
goods  add  to  the  bath  one-halt  to  one 
pound  dissolved  gum  arabic;  then  sour 
the  bath  with  sulphuric  acid  till  it  obtains 
a  perceptibly  sour  or  biting  taste.  The 
goods  are  then  dyed  in  the  usual  manner, 
but  care  must  be  taken  in  not  adding  the 
dye  all  at  once ;  it  has  to  be  done  in  two  or 
three  installments,  letting  the  goods  boil 
a  few  minutes  during  the  intervals.  The 
bath  will  at  first  show  a  very  light  ap- 
pearance, which  must  not  induce  the 
dyer  to  add  too  much  of  the  dye,  be- 
cause the  color  develops  itself  during  the 
process  of  dyeing,  particularly  through 
the  boiling,  which  results  in  the  fine,  in- 
tensive and  even  color  of  the  goods.  The 
use  of  gum  arabic  has  proved  successful 
in  obtaining  the  utmost  beauty  and  clear- 
ness of  color,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
utmost  use  of  all  the  dye. 

It  the  bath  after  using  it  once,  is  to  be 
used  for  the  second  lot  of  goods,  only 
one-half  to  three-fourths  pound  of  gum 
arabic,  and  of  course  proportionately  less 
sulphuric  acid  than  in  the  first  instance 
need  be  added:  and  for  the  third  lot 
only  half  the  quanity  of  gum  arabic  as 


564 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


for  the  second  lot  is  necessary;  and  for 
all  the  following  lots,  'same  proportion, 
three-eighths  of  a  pound  of  gum  arabic, 
is  sufficient. 

For  this  process  the  cheap  sulphuric 
acid  is  entirely  sufficient,  and  the  dearer 
mordants,  such  as  oxalic  acid  and  chlo- 
ride of  tin,  become  unnecessary.  Boil- 
ing for  about  one  hour  suffices  to  dye 
a  lot  of  goods.  Begin  with  a  cold 
bath,  and  gradually  heat  it  to  the  boiling 
point.  More  sulphuric  acid  shades  the 
color  off  into  a  bluish  tint. 

To  avoid  the  crocking  (rubbing  off) 
of  the  color,  which  circumstance  is 
sometimes  causing  complaints,  give,  after 
dyeing,  a  lukewarm  water-bath,  in  which, 
for  every  ten  pounds  of  goods,  one-fourth 
pound  of  cream  tartar  has  been  dissolved. 
Turn  them  five  or  six  times  in  such  bath, 
and  dry  them    without  further  washing. 

On  woolens  which  have  to  be  scoured, 
dye  a  deeper  shade  than  wanted,  because 
the  scouring  takes  off  two  shades  of  the 
color. 

DYEING,  on  Cotton. — Recipes  a  and  b, 
for  fuchsine,  are  also  applicable  to  blues, 
adding  the  dissolved  blue  gradually,  so  as 
to  obtain  even  shades. 

A  little  alum,  or  sulphuric  acid,  added 
to  the  dye-bath,  heightens  the  brilliancy 
of  the  color. 

DYEING,  on  Silk.— Prepare  the  silk 
with  Marseilles  (castile)  soap;  sour  the 
bath  with  sulphuric  or  tartaric  acid.  Dye 
and  stiffen  with  fuchsine. 

DYES  (Aniline),  Black,  on  Wool.— 
For  two  pounds  of  wool  a  bath  is  pre- 
pared of  twenty  quarts  of  water,  three 
ounces  of  permanganate  of  potassa, 
four  and  a  half  ounces  of  sulphate  of 
magnesia. 

The  use  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  has 
for  its  object  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
caustic  alkali,  and  has  already  been  pro- 
posed by  Tessie  du  Mothay.  The  wool 
is  impregnated  with  this  solution,  and 
left  it  until  the  fluid  has  become  color- 
less or  nearly  so,  whereby  it  is  colored 
dark-brown  and  covered  with  brown  oxide 
of  manganese. 

This  process  takes  place  easily  in  the 
cold,  but  it  is  best  to  dissolve  the  per- 
manganate in  hot  water.  The  wool  is 
now  pressed  out,  and  without  washing 
conveyed  into  a  bath  of  twelve  ounces  of 
commercial     aniline     oil;     twenty  -  one 


ounces  of  commercial  hydrochlor.  acid, 
eight  quarts  of  water,  where  it  is  moved 
about  in  the  cold :  it  attains  here  directly 
a  dark  green-black-appearing  color.  It 
is  pressed  out  again,  washed  in  water 
containing  a  little  soda,  and  treated 
with  a  weak  solution  of  red  chromate 
of  potassa. 

This  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
one-third  of  an  ounce  of  bichromate  of 
potassa  in  ten  quarts  of  water.  The 
color  becomes  now  dark  black,  when 
the  wool  is  washed  with  water  and 
dyed. 

DYES,  Aniline,  Orange,  or  Corallin. — 
Dissolve  by  boiling  one  pound  carefully 
in  ten  pounds  best  alcohol. 

DYEING,  On  Wool.— Wash  the  wool 
well ;  bring  the  bath  to  nearly  the  boil- 
ing point ;  add  the  dissolved  dye  grad- 
ually, and  it  will  readily  go  on  the  fibre. 

DYEING,  On  Silks.— Add  to  the  wa- 
ter bath  (temperature  ioo°  Fahr.)  a  solu- 
tion of  Marseilles  (castile)  soap.  Take 
the  silk  through  it,  raising  the  tempera- 
ture to  1300;  then  add  the  dissolved 
orange  to  this  bath,  heating  it  gradually. 
When  the  silk  has  taken  the  color,  add  to 
the  bath  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  which  sets, 
it  on  the  fibre ;  then  handle  the  silk  quick- 
ly, heating  the  bath  to  1700,  but  not 
higher.     Wash  well  after  dyeing. 

DYEING,  On  Cotton.  —  Same  as  for 
wool. 

DYE,"  Aniline  Red,  or  Fuchsine. — «» 
Aniline  red  (roseine),  a  bright  red,  used 
extensively,  and  answering  all  common 
purposes. 

b.  Aniline  red,  diamond  crystal,  pre- 
ferred for  silk  and  fine  woolens,  giving  a 
still  more  brilliant  shade  than  roseine. 

Dissolve  the  crystals  in  the  proportion 
of  one  ounce  to  twelve  pounds  of  water, 
in  a  stone  jar,  by  pouring  boiling  water 
into  it  gradually,  stirring  it  well  mean- 
while, till  all  is  dissolved.  Then,  after 
the  solution  has  become  cool,  filter  it  be- 
fore use  through  paper,  muslin,  or  flannel,, 
to  avoid  specks  on  the  fibre.  The  sedi- 
ment on  the  filter  can  be  boiled  again, 
and  will  gradually  dissolve  almost  en- 
tirely, 

You  can  also  dissolve  the  red  readily 
in  950  alcohol.  One  ounce  crystals  to 
one-fourth  pound  alcohol. 

DYEING,  On  Wool.— Prepare  a  bath 
of  a  temperature  of  1500  to  1600;  put  into 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       565 


it  as  much  of  the  dissolved  dye  as  will 
give  you  the  desired  shade,  and  then  put 
in  your  goods,  which,  after  a  lapse  of 
twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  will  be  com- 
pletely dyed.  Wash  the  goods  only 
slightly,  after  dyeing,  in  pure  water. 

DYEING,  On  Silks.— Prepare  the  silk 
by  carefully  washing  it  in  a  solution  of 
Marseilles  (castile)  soap.  Dye  in  a  luke- 
warm (about  950)  bath,  adding  the  dis- 
solved fuchsine  gradually;  the  silk  will 
take  the  color  readily  and  rapidly.  In 
order  to  intensify  and  increase  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  color,  wash  the  silk  in  a 
bath  soured  by  sulphuric  acid,  or,  better, 
tartaric  acid,  after  dyeing.  If  the  goods 
or  ribbons  require  any  stiffening,  put 
them  through  a  bath  containing  a  little 
•dissolved  gelatine  or  gum  arabic. 

DYEING,  On  Cotton.— a.  With  soap. 
Boil  three-eighths  of  a  pound  of  soft  soap 
for  every  ten  pounds  of  goods  in  water, 
with  an  addition  of  a  little  olive  oil;  make 
a  concentrated  bath  of  it  in  a  small  vat, 
at  120°,  turn  the  goods  five  times,  and 
let  them  lie  in  it  one  hour.  Then  wring 
three  times,  and  wash  them  in  cold  wa- 
ter, to  which  is  added  one-fourth  ounce 
sulphuric  acid  for  every  twenty-five  pounds 
of  goods.  Turn  four  times,  then  wring 
four  times,  and  dye  with  fuchsine  in  a 
third  bath,  giving  the  dye  into  the  bath 
gradually,  which  is  necessary  to  get  an 
•even  shade. 

b.  With  sumac.  Boil  a  decoction  of 
one-half  pound  of  good  sumac  (Sicily)  for 
every  ten  pounds  of  goods.  Filter  the 
solution  and  pour  it  into  a  small  water- 
bath,  temperature  1400  to  1500.  Turn 
the  goods  five  times,  and  let  them  lie  in 
it  one  hour.  Wring  three  times,  then  dye 
with  fuchsine,  in  a  second  bath,  just  as  in 
the  above.  For  dark  shades  a  little  more 
sumac  may  be  used,  but  not  more  than 
five  or  six  ounces  for  every  ten  pounds  of 
goods.  Too  much  of  it  would  make  the 
color  too  yellowish.  If  several  lots  are 
prepared  in  the  same  sumac-bath,  take 
proportionately  less  sumac  for  the  second 
and  third  lots  than  for  the  first.  The 
sumac  decoction  must  not  be  too  old;  if 
it  has  become  sour  it  is  useless  for  fuchsine 
dyeing.  Do  not  prepare  more  than  three 
lots  without  renewing  the  sumac-bath. 

DYE,  Analine,  Yellow. — This  color  dis- 
solves entirely  by  simply  boiling  it  in  wa- 
ter and  filtering  it 


DYEING,  On  Silk.— Add  the  solution 
to  a  water-bath,  soured  by  some  acetic  or 
sulphuric  acid,  and  dye  at  a  temperature 
of  1400  to  1700. 

DYEING,  On  Wool— Dye  same  way  as 
for  silk,  only  sour  the  bath  with  sulphuric 
or  oxalic  acid. 

You  can  obtain  every  shade,  from 
orange  to  cherry-red,  by  shading  off  the 
yellow  of  aniline  with  fuchsine.  An  ad- 
dition of  dissolved  Marseilles  soap  will 
heighten  the  brilliancy  of  the  color. 

ALDEHYD,  Green  Powder,  or  Night 
Green. — The  best  means  for  dissolving 
this  color  is  sulphuric  acid.  Take  for 
every  ounce  of  powder  about  one  ounce 
of  sulphuric  acid,  66s  Beaume,  or  in 
proportion  for  every  dram  of  powder, 
about  one  dram  of  sulphuric  acid.  Stir 
well,  and  put  the  mixture  'either  at  once 
into  the  hot  dye-bath,  or  else  dissolve  it 
before  doing  so  in  a  rather  large  quantity 
of  hot  water. 

DYEING,  On  Wool,  Flannels,  etc.— 
Prepare  the  goods  as  follows :  Mix  one 
ounce  chloride  of  lime  in  cold  water, 
then  add  about  six  pounds  of  water  to  it, 
and  let  it  settle.  Draw  off  the  clear  so- 
lution, and  bringing  it  up  to  90*  or  iooQ 
Fahrenheit,  put  in  the  yarn,  which  must 
have  been  well  washed  and  be  still  moist; 
draw  it  through  for  fifteen  minutes,  then 
let  the  yarn  cool  off,  wash  again,  and  put 
into  a  new  bath  of  ioo°  Fahrenheit,  which 
contains  for  every  6  pounds  of  water,  one 
ounce  of  hyposulphate  of  soda.  Draw 
the  yarn  through  this  bath  also  for  fifteen 
minutes,  let  it  cool,  and  then  wash  again 
thoroughly. 

Woolens  or  yarns  prepared  in  this  way 
will  then  dye  in  the  green  bath  without 
further  additions  of  mordant,  and  at  a 
temperature  of  the  dye-bath  of  about  175* 
Fahrenheit.  In  order  to  obtain  light  and 
yellowish  shades,  add  picric  acid,  which 
by  itself  dyes  yellow.  The  preparation 
must  be  moderated  more  or  less,  accord- 
ing to  the  desired  shade ;  at  all  events,  it 
must  be  done  carefully  and  slightly,  so  as 
not  to  injure  the  goods. 

DYEING,  On  Silk.— Prepare  the  silk 
by  careful  washing  in  a  solution  of  Mar- 
seilles white  (castile)  soap.  Dye  at  a 
temperature  of  125*  to  175*  Fahrenheit; 
add  the  dissolved  dye-stuff  gradually  to 
the  bath,  when  the  silk  will  take  the  color 


566 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


easily  and  rapidly.  In  order  to  intensify 
and  increase  the  brilliancy  of  the  color, 
wash  the  silk  in  a  bath  slightly  soured  by 
sulphuric  acid,  or,  better,  cream  tartar, 
after  dyeing.  If  the  goods  or  ribbons  re- 
quire any  stiffening,  put  them  through  a 
bath  containing  a  little  dissolved  gelatine 
or  gum  arabic.  Add  picric  acid  to  ob- 
tain yellowish  tints. 

DYE,  Bismarck  Brown. — This  color 
has  become  very  popular,  not  only  by  its 
own  beauty,  as  a  bright  brown,  but  also 
by  combining  readily  with  fuchsine  in 
topping,  when  it  yields  splendid  garnet 
and  maroon  shades. 

.  Dissolve  by  adding  sufficient  warm  wa- 
ter to  dampen  the  color,  pouring  on  it 
more  water  gradually  till  it  is  all  dis- 
solved. It  is  important  to  observe  great 
care  in  dissolving ;  if  the  water  is  poured 
on  too  fast,  the  color  will  not  dissolve, 
but  remain  as  sediment  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel. 

DYEING,  On  Wool. — Prepare  a  hot 
water-bath  and  add  the  color ;  the  goods 
will  dye  readily.  For  maroon  and  gar- 
net, dye  first  with  fuchsine,  or  mock 
crimson,  and  top  off  with  the  Bismarck. 

DYEING,  On  Silk  and  Cotton.— Same 
recipes  as  for  fuchsine,  but  add  no  acid 
to  the  dye-bath,  and  give  the  dissolved 
color  to  the  bath  in  three  or  four  install- 
ments, so  as  to  obtain  even  shades. 

DYE,  Crimson. — A  kind  of  cherry  color 
is  produced  by  this  dye.  Dissolve  and 
dye  exactly  like  aniline  red  or  fuchsine. 

DYE,  Hoffinan's  Violet  or  Purple— Sol- 
uble in  water.  No.  i,  reddish  shade  of 
purple;  No.  2,  medium  shade  of  purple ; 
No.  3,  blueish  shade  of  purple. 

The  water  soluble  Hoffman's  are  dis- 
solved by  boiling  in  sufficient  pure  water. 

Dampen  first  with  a  little  boiling  wa- 
ter, in  order  to  prevent  a  caking  of  the 
dye.  Add  gradually  more  till  all  is  dis- 
solved. Filter  the  solution  through  pa- 
per, flannel  or  shirting. 

These  Hoffman  violets,  soluble  in  wa- 
ter, are  very  valuable,  not  only  by  reason 
of  their  very  brilliant  shades,  but  also  by 
the  very  simple  method  of  dyeing. 

DYEING,  On  Wool.— The  color  is 
dyed  like  fuchsine,  without  any  acids 
whatever,  only  the  bath,  to  which  the  dye 
has  been  added,  is  brought  to  the  boiling 
point.  Any  shade  of  the  primula  flower 
can  be  obtained,  and  the  simplicity  ot 


the  process  of  dyeing  has  made  it  also- 
very  popular  in  Europe  for  family  dyeing. 
It  has  proved  very  successful  for  all  Hoff- 
man's soluble  in  water,  to  add  to  the 
bath,  together  with  the  dye  for  every 
ten  pounds  of  goods,  one  pound  of  dis- 
solved gum  arabic,  which  helps  to  make 
the  color  even  and  fast  on  the  fibre. 

Splendid  gray  tints  are  also  obtained, 
if  you  dye  the  wool  only  a  light  tint. 

DYEING,  On  Cotton. — Same  recipes  as 
for  fuchsine. 

DYEING,  On  Silk.— Same  recipes  as 
for  fuchsine,  but  add  only  a  little  acid  to 
the  dye-bath,  and  give  the  dissolved  color 
to  the  bath  in  three  or  four  installments, 
so  as  to  obtain  even  shades. 

DYE,  Iodine  Green,  New  Atlas  Green, 
or  Vert  de  Chine  in  Paste  and  Crys- 
tals.— Dissolves  in  water — four  pounds 
water  to  one-half  pound  of  paste;  fifty 
ponds  water  to  one-half  pound  of  crys- 
tals. 

DYEING,  On  Wool.  — Two  separate 
baths  are  required,  viz.: 

a.  An  alkali  bath,  in  which  the  wool 
takes  the  dissolved  dye-stuff,  but  remains 
still  colorless. 

b.  A  sour  bath,  in  which  the  dye-stuff 
is  fixed  and  developed  upon  the  fibre. 

For  bath  a,  you  take  three  to  four 
pounds  silicate  of  soda  for  every  ten 
pounds  of  goods ;  add  the  dissolved  dye 
and  manipulate  the  wool  in  this  bath  at 
about  150°  to  1608  Fahrenheit.  The 
wool  ought  not  to  show  any  color  in  this 
bath ;  if  it  does,  more  silicate  must  be 
added. 

Bath  b  contains  only  water,  soured  by 
acetic  acid;  temperature  about  150s  ta 
1608  Fahrenheit.  A  little  tannin  is  added 
to  make  the  color  fast. 

In  order  to  find  how  far  the  wool  has 
been  dyed  in  bath  a,  you  take  out  a 
small  sample  skein,  rinse  it  a  little,  and 
put  in  the  sour  bath  bf  when  it  will  in- 
stantly turn  green.  In  case  the  sample 
does  not  show  the  desirable  strength, 
then  the  wool  must  remain  in  bath  a  till 
this  is  the  case.  Exact  shade,  according 
to  sample,  is  indispensably  necessary,  be- 
cause the  wool  cannot  be  taken  back,  in- 
to bath  a  from  the  sour  bath  b. 

As  soon  as  the  sample  shows  the  de- 
sired strength  of  color,  take  the  wool  out 
of  bath  a,  let  it  drip  off  well  over  the 
bath,  in  order  not  to  lose  any  dye-stuff, 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       SCT 


and  rinse  a  little ;  put  it  in  bath  b,  where 
the  color  develops  vividly.  Bath  a  can 
never  be  exhausted,  but,  like  an  indigo 
bath,  can  be  used  constantly,  with  pro- 
portionate additions,  to  supply  the  used- 
up-dye-stuff  and  silicate. 

Do  not  be  frightened  by  the  apparent 
tediousness  of  manipulation;  the  result 
recompenses  for  the  same,  and  by  cor- 
rect use  you  obtain  a  chemical  combina- 
tion of  the  color  with  the  fibre,  very  dif- 
ferent in  results  from  the  present  dyeing, 
which  touches  the  surface  only.  All 
shades,  from  the  lightest  to  the  darkest, 
can  be  produced. 

Picric  acid,  or,  still  better,  flavine,  is 
used  to  shade  the  green  into  desired  yel- 
lowish tints  and  added  to  bath  b,  but  care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  specks;  then 
wash  and  dry.  One-half  a  pound  of 
paste  will  dye  five  pounds  of  goods  a  full 
medium  shade.  One-half  pound  of  crys- 
tals, from  thirty-five  to  thirty-seven  and 
one-half  pounds. 

Some  have  found  it  still  better  to  dye 
the  flavine  bottom  first,  and  then  to  top 
it  with  the  iodine  green,  as  above,  get- 
ting more  full  shades  by  it. 

DYEING,  on  Silk.— Prepare  the  silk, 
by  carefully  washing  it  in  a  solution  of 
Marseilles  (castile)  soap.  Dye  in  a  bath 
of  950  temperature.  Sour  the  bath 
slightly  by  acetic  acid.  Add  the  dye 
in  three  to  four  installments;  the  silk 
will  readily  take  the  color. 

If  the  goods  or  ribbons  require  any 
stiffening,  put  them  through  a  bath  con- 
taining a  little  dissolved  gelatine  or  gum 
arabic. 

DYE  (Napthaline),  Bismarck  Brown. 
— Gives  very  brilliant  goldish  brown 
tints.  Dissolve,  and  dye  the  same  as  Bis- 
marck brown. 

DYE  (Picric  Acid),  Crystal!  and  Pow- 
der.— This  color  has  become  very  impor- 
tant in  dyeing,  not  only  bright-yellow 
shades,  but  also  brilliant  greens  and  drabs, 
on  wool  and  silk. 

Picric  dissolves  readily  in  boiling  water, 
and  dyes  quickly  and  evenly  in  sour 
baths,  avoiding  the  trouble  which  fustic 
and  other  yellow  dyes  often  give.  Be- 
sides brilliancy  of  color,  it  facilitates 
correctness  in  shading  off,  a  very  im- 
portant point  where  samples  have  to  be 
matched.     Use  either  wooden   or    cop- 


per   vessels;    in    tin    the  color  becomes 
dull. 
DYEING,  Green,  with  Picric,  on  WooL 

— Purify  the  water-bath  at  per  general 
rules  above;  add  for  every  five  pounds 
of  woolens,  one-half  pound  of  alum,  One- 
half  pound  glauber  salts,  about  one 
ounce  sulphuric  acid,  and  as  much  in- 
digo, carmine,  and  picric  acid  as  the 
desired  shade  of  green  requires.  Let  the 
bath  boil,  and  mix  together  for  a  few 
minutes  before  dipping  the  goods  in. 
Dye  as  usual  at  the  boiling  point,  tor 
about  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  By  add- 
ing a  proportionately  larger  quantity  of 
indigo,  carmine,  and  less  picric,  or  vice 
versa,  a  more  bluish  or  yellowish  green 
will  be  produced.  In  short,  any  shade  of 
green  can  be  obtained.  Picric  acid  yields- 
a  great  deal  of  color;  care  must  there- 
fore be  had  in  using  it. 

DYEING,  Drab  Colors  with  Picric  on 
Wool. — Sour  the  bath  as  above,  omitting 
the  alum,  and  add  the  picric  acid,  to- 
gether with  the  indigo,  carmine,  archil  or 
cudbear. 

DYEING,  Yellow,  with  Picric  on  WooL 
— Sour  the  bath  and  dye  as  above  for 
green,  omitting  the  carmine  of  indigo. 

DYEING,  Green,  with  Picric  on  Silk, 
— Prepare  the  silk  as  fuchsine,  and  add 
the  carmine  of  indigo  and  picric  acid  to- 
the  bath,  which  has  been  soured  by  sul- 
phuric acid.  For  silk  dyers,  take  a  neu- 
tral picric  (free  from  acid)  which  is  pre- 
ferred for  many  purposes. 

DYE  (Saflranine),  Aniline. — A  rose 
pink  on  silk  or  wool  dissolves  very 
readily  in  boiling  water,  and  has  to  be 
carefully  filtered  before  adding  it  to  the 
dye-bath. 

DYEING,  on  Wool. — The  same  as 
fuchsine. 

DYEING,  on  Silk. — For  dyeing  oa 
silk,  add  the  color  to  a  bath  in  which 
you  have  dissolved  some  castile  soap,  and 
dye,  keeping  the  bath  lukewarm. 

SCARLET  of  Aniline.  —  Dissolve  in 
boiling  water  only,  one  pound  of  scarlet 
to  twenty  pounds  of  water. 

DYEING,  on  WooL — Add  to  the  boiling 
bath  for  ten  pounds  of  wool,  two  pounds- 
of  Epsom  salts,  one  ounce  of  boracic 
acid,  and  as  much  of  the  dissolved  dye 
as  the  light  or  dark  shade  you  want  to- 
get  requires.  Keeping  the  goods  in  the 
bath  on  the  boiling  point  one-quarter  to* 


s& 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


hclf  an  hour  dyes  the  color  thoroughly 
c:i  the  fibre.  If  you  add  sulphuric  acid 
to  the  same  dye-bath,  and  turn  the  goods 
in  it,  you  can  change  the  scarlet  into  a 
bright  orange. 

DYEING,  on  Silk.— Dye  exactly  like 
the  orange,  but  do  not  add  any  sulphuric 
acid  to  the  bath. 

DYE  (Catechu),  Brown.— Steep  four 
ounces  catechu  and  half  an  ounce  blue 
vitriol  about  one  hour  in  a  brass  or  cop- 
per kettle,  with  the  amount  of  water 
deemed  necessary  to  work  in  easily. 
Then  put  in  the  goods  and  steep,  at  a 
scalding  heat,  from  five  to  ten  hours,  stir- 
ring often,  and  adding  water  from  time  to 
time  to  make  up  for  the  loss  in  steam. 
Lift  out,  cool  rinse  in  clean  water,  and 
dry.  If  the  color  is  not  dark  enough, 
make  a  bath,  using  half  an  ounce  of 
bichromate  of  potash  in  five  or  six  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  steep  the  goods  in  it, 
.at  a  scalding  heat,  one  hour,  stirring 
•often.  Lift  out,  cool,  rinse,  and  dry. 
This  is  sufficient  for  two  pounds  of 
■cotton. 

DYE  (Chemic),  Blue,  to  Make.— Chemic 
for  light  blue  and  green,  on  silk,  cotton, 
•  or  woolen,  and  for  cleaning  and  whiten- 
ing cottons,  is  made  by  the  following 
process : 

Take  one  pound  of  oil  of  vitriol, 
which  pour  upon  one  ounce  of  the  best 
^Spanish  flora  indigo,  well  pounded  and 
•.sifted;  add  to  this,  after  it  has  been  well 
sstirred,  a  small  lump  of  common  pearlash 
.as  big  as  a  pea,  or  from  that  to  the  size 
(•of  two  peas ;  this  will  immediately  raise 
a  great  fermentation,  and  cause  the  in- 
digo to  dissolve  in  more  minute  and  finer 
particles  than  otherwise.  As  soon  as 
this  fermentation  ceases,  put  it  into  a 
"bottle,  tightly  corked,  and  it  may  be  used 
the  next  day.  If  more  than  the  quantity 
of  pearlash  "be  used,  it  will  deaden  and 
sully  the  color. 

DYE  (Chemic),  Green. — This  is  made 
the  same  as  chemic  blue,  by  adding  one- 
fourth  more  of  oil  of  vitriol.  If  the 
chemic  is  to  be  used  for  woolen,  East 
India  indigo  will  answer  the  purpose  even 
better  than  Spanish  indigo,  and  at  a  less 
price;  but  the  oil  of  vitriol  is  good  for 
both  green  and  blue. 

DYE  COLORS,  to  Discharge.— The 
dyers  generally  put  all  colored  silk 
which  are  to  be  discharged  into  a  copper, 


in  which  half  a  pound  of  white  soap  has 
been  dissolved.  They  are  then  to  be 
boiled  off.  The  copper  beginning  to 
be  full  of  color,  the  silks  are  taken  out 
and  rinsed  in  warm  water.  In  the 
interim,  a  fresh  solution  of  soap  is  to  be 
added  to  the  copper,  and  then  proceed  as 
before,  till  all  the  color  is  discharged. 

DYE,  Compound  Colors. — Compound 
colors  are  produced  by  mixing  togethei 
two  simple  ones ;  or,  which  is  the  same 
thing,  by  dyeing  cloth  first  of  the  simple 
color,  and  then  by  another.  These  colors 
vary  to  affinity,  according  to  the  propor- 
tion of  the  ingredients  employed.  From 
blue,  red,  and  yellow,  red-olives  and 
greenish-grays  are  made. 

From  blue,  red,  and  brown,  olives  arc. 
made,  from  the  lightest  to  the  darkes\ 
shades ;  and  by  giving  a  greater  shade 
of  red,  the  slated  and  lavender-grays  ar& 
made. 

From  blue,  red,  and  black,  grays  of  all 
shades  are  made,  such  as  sage,  pigeon, 
slate,  and  lead  grays.  The  king's  01 
prince's  color  is  duller  than  usual ;  this 
mixture  produces  a  variety  of  hues,  ot 
colors  almost  to  infinity. 

From  yellow,  blue,  and  brown,  are 
made  the  goose-dung  and  olives  of  all 
kinds. 

From  brown,  blue,  and  black,  are  pro- 
duced brown-olives  and  their  shades. 

From  the  red,  yellow,  and  brown,  are 
derived  the  orange,  gold-color,  feuille- 
mort,  or  faded  leaf,  dead  carnations,  cin- 
namon, fawn,  and  tobacco,  by  using  two 
or  three  of  the  colors  as  required 

From  yellow,  red  and  black,  browns  of 
every  shade  are  made. 

From  the  blue  and  yellow,  greens  of  all 
shades. 

From  red  and  blue,  purples  of  all  kinds 
are  formed. 

DYE,  Crimson,  a  Shawl  to. — Take 
about  a  table-spoonful  of  cudbear ;  put 
it  into  a  small  pan,  pour  boiling  water 
upon  it,  stir  and  let  it  stand  a  few  min- 
utes, then  put  in  your  silk,  and  turn  it 
over  a  short  time,  and  when  the  color  is 
full  enough,  take  it  out ;  but  if  it  should 
require  more  violet  or  crimson,  add  a 
tea-spoonful  or  two  of  purple  archil  to 
some  warm  water,  and  dry  it  within 
doors.  To  finish  it,  it  must  be  mangled 
or  calendered,  and  may  be  pressed,  if 
such  a  convenience  is  at  hand. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       569 


DYEING,  Cotton  with  Madder  as 
.Practiced  at  Smyrna. — Cotton,  at  Smyrna, 
Mr.  Eton  tells  us,  is  dyed  with  madder  in 
the  following  manner:  The  cotton  is 
iboiled  in  common  olive  oil,  and  then  in 
mild  alkali;  being  thus  cleaned,  it  will 
take  the  madder  dye;  and  this  is  the  fine 
color  so  greatly  admired  in  Smyrna  cotton 
yarn.  "I  have  heard,"  adds  the  gentle- 
man, "  that  the  sum  of  five  thousand 
pounds  was  given  in  England  for  this 
secret!"  It  is,  doubdess  a  secret  in  pre- 
paring cottons,  and  perhaps  other  articles, 
for  the  reception  of  a  particular  dye,  very 
well  worth  knowing. 

DYE,  Gray. — Sumach,  two  pounds; 
logwood,  one  pound ;  make  a  decoction 
with  water,  pass  the  stuff  through  it,  and 
afterwards  through  weak  iron  water  (sul- 
phate or  acetate);  lastly,  add  a  little 
iron  liquor  to  the  decoction,  and  again 
turn  the  stuff  through  it.  This  gives  a 
pearl  gray. 

a.  Dissolve  one  pound  of  tartar  in  four 
.gallons  of  water,  turn  the  stuff  through  the 
liquor  for  half  an  hour;  add  a  decoction 
of  galls  one-fourth  of  a  pound,  and 
.sumach  one  and  one-half  pounds ;  put 
in  the  stuff  and  boil  for  half  an  hour ; 
then  take  out  the  stuff,  add  sulphate  of 
iron  one  pound,  and  when  dissolved 
again,  put  it  in,  and  work  it  well  for  an 
half  hour  longer.  Ash  gray.  This 
"will  dye  fifteen  to  twenty-five  pounds  of 
wool. 

b.  Galls  bruised,  two  pounds;  wine- 
stone,  one  pound ;  water,  sixteen  gallons , 
boil  for  thirty  minutes,  then  put  in  the 
stuff  and  work  it  well  for  half  an  hour ; 
take  it  out,  add  three  pounds  of  green 
copperas,  and  when  dissolved  again,  put 
in  the  goods  and  work  them  well.  Ash 
jjray.  This  will  dye  sixty  to  seventy 
pounds  of  wool.  The  addition  of  a 
little  alum  converts  this  into  a  mouse 
gray. 

c.  Pass  the  stuff  through  a  weak  fustic 
bath,  and  next  through  a  very  weak  de- 
coction of  galls,  to  which  a  little  alum 
has  been  added ;  then  remove  the  goods, 
refresh  the  bath  with  a  little  logwood, 
boil  half  an  hour,  add  some  blue  and 
green  vitriol,  and  when  dissolved,  finish 
the  stuff  therein.     Yellowish  gray. 

d.  Give  the  stuff  a  pale  blue  tint  in  the 
indigo  bath,  then  pass  it  through  a  weak 
decoction  of  galls  and  sumach,  take  it 


out,  add  a  little  iron  liquor  to  the  bath, 
and  work  the  stuff  well  through  it.  In 
this  way  may  be  given  every  shade  of 
iron  gray,  slate  gray,  and  the  other 
shades  that  turn  upon  the  blue. 

DYE,  How  to  take  the  Stains  from  the 
Hands. — Take  a  small  quantity  of  the  oil 
of  vitriol,  pour  it  in  some  cold  water,  in 
a  wash-hand  basin,  and  wash  your  hands 
with  it,  without  soap ;  the  dye  will  then 
come  off.  You  may  afterwards  cleanse 
them  completely  in  hot  soap  and  water, 
taking  care  that  all  the  acid  is  washed 
away  before  the  soap  is  applied. 

DYE,  Indigo  Blue  for  Yarn.— To  dye 
this  beautiful  blue,  use  wine-pipes  or 
some  other  large  casks,  sunk  in  the  earth 
at  a  depth  convenient  for  the  operator  to 
work  at.  Five  of  these  constitute  a  set,  and 
are  worked  together  and  kept  of  the  same 
strength.  The  yarn  being  worked  in 
quantities  of  one  hundred  pounds,  twenty 
pounds  are  passed  through  each  vat. 

Each  vat  is  filled  about  three-fourths 
with  cold  water;  there  are  then  added 
eight  pounds  of  indigo,  sixteen  pounds  of 
sulphate  of  iron  (copperas),  and  twenty- 
four  pounds  newly-slacked  lime.  The 
whole  is  well-  stirred  with  a  rake  for 
half  an  hour,  and  this  stirring  is  re- 
peated every  hour  and  a  half  for  the  first 
day. 

The  stirring  must  be  continued  until 
the  solution  becomes  a  rich  oak  yellow, 
having  large  blue  veins  running  through 
it,  and  a  fine  indigo  froth  on  the  surface. 
When  these  signs  are  all  favorable,  the 
solution  is  allowed  to  stand  for  several 
hours  till  all  the  solid  matter  settles,  when 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

The  mode  of  dyeing  consists  in  simply 
immersing  the  goods,  and  working  them 
in  the  solution  for  fifteen  minutes,  taking 
out  and  wringing  or  pressing,  and  then 
exposing  to  the  air ;  repeating  this  opera- 
tion until  the  desired  depth  of  color  is 
obtained.  The  yarn  is  then  washed  in 
cold  water  and  dried.  When  the  shade 
required  is  very  deep,  the  yarn  may,  pre  ■ 
vious  to  washing,  be  passed  through  a 
tub  of  water  acidulated  with  vitriol  till  it 
tastes  acid,  and  then  washed;  this  adds 
brilliancy  to  the  color. 

DYEING,  Kid  Gloves.— In  dyeing  kid 
gloves  the  first  thing  needed  is  an  iron 
hand  on  which  the  glove  is  drawn.  If 
the  glove  is  to  be  dyed  black,  it  is  first 


57° 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


brushed  over  with  alcohol  and  allowed  to 
dry;  it  is  then  immersed  in  a  decoction  of 
campeachy  wood  for  a  few  moments, 
and  the  operation  is  repeated  in  ten  min- 
utes, and  in  ten  minutes  more  it  is  brushed 
over  with  a  solution  of  green  vitriol.  If 
the  color  is  not  dark  enough  a  decoction 
of  fustic  or  quercitron  is  added  to  the 
campeachy  solution.  Instead  of  sulphate 
of  iron  the  nitrate  can  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage. When  the  glove  begins  to  dry 
it  is  rubbed  with  olive-oil  and  soap-stone 
and  then  laid  between  folds  of  flannel 
and  pressed.  It  is  afterward  again  rubbed 
with  oil  and  soap-stone,  and  drawn  on 
the  iron  hand  to  dry.  A  brown  is  ob- 
tained from  fustic,  campeachy,  and  cam- 
wood, with  the  addition  of  some  alum. 
For  bright  colors  the  process  is  far  more 
simple,  it  being  only  necessary  to  paint 
the  glove  with  a  brush  or  sponge  dipped 
in  a  solution  of  aniline  dye  of  the  desired 
color. 

DYE,  Bed. — The  various  shades  of 
red  are  given  by  madder,  cochineal,  lac- 
dye,  safflower,  etc.,  fixed  by  aluminous  or 
tin  mordants.  Less  permanent  dyes  are 
produced  by  Brazil-wood,  peach-wood, 
and  archil.  Safflower  contains  a  yellow 
as  well  as  a  red  coloring  matter.  The 
first,  being  soluble  in  cold  water,  is  ex- 
tracted by  putting  the  safflower  in  a  bag 
and  kneading  it  under  water.  The 
safflower,  thus  deprived  of  yellow  matter, 
yields  its  red  color  to  alkaline  liquids,  at 
the  time  of  using  which,  lemon  juice  or 
some  other  acid  is  added  sufficient  to 
saturate  the  alkali.  Pink  saucers  are 
made  by  adding  lemon  juice  to  the 
alkaline  infusion  of  washed  safflower,  and 
allowing  the  coloring  to  deposit.  Mad- 
der also  contains  a  dun  coloring  matter, 
which  deteriorates  the  red,  unless  pre- 
viously removed.  This  may  be  partially 
effected  by  washing  it  in  cold  water; 
another  method  is  to  treat  the  madder 
with  its  own  weight  of  sulphuric  acid, 
which  carbonizes  the  other  matters,  but 
leaves  the  red  color  uninjured.  As  mad- 
der gives  out  but  little  of  its  red  coloring 
matter  to  water,  the  decoction  is  not 
strained  off,  but  the  madder  is  left  in  the 
bath.  With  acetate  of  iron  madder 
yields  a  purple  tint.  Lac-dye  is  imported 
from  India;  requires  acids  for  its  solution. 

DYE,  Bed-Brown.— Remarkably  bright, 
and  the  cost  of  the  dye  is  not  more  than 


sixpence.  For  a  middling-sized  woman's^ 
pelisse,  when  your  copper  boils,  put  in 
the  following  dyeing-materials:  Half  a 
pound  of  ground  camwood,  two  ounces 
of  sumac  (ground),  one  ounce  of  log- 
wood chips,  one  ounce  of  elder-bark, 
two  ounces  of  chipped  fustic.  A  larger 
quantity  of  ingredients  may  be  used,  but 
they  must  be  in  the  same  proportion  as 
mentioned  in  this  recipe.  When  these 
ingredients  have  boiled  half  an  hour, 
cool  your  copper  by  throwing  in  a  pint  of 
cold  water;  put  in  your  goods,  and  boil 
from  one  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half; 
take  them  out,  and  add  from  half  an 
ounce  to  one  of  green  copperas,  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  argol,  take  out 
your  goods,  and  rinse  them  in  one  or 
two  clean  waters,  and  hang  in  the  air 
to  dry;  send  them  to  the  press  to  be 
finished. 

DYE,  Scarlet. — For  one  pound  of 
cloth,  cream  of  tartar,  one  and  three- 
fourths  ounce ;  water,  q.  s. ;  boil  in  block- 
tin  vessel,  and  when  dissolved,  add  solu- 
tion of  tin  (made  by  dissolving  two 
ounces  of  grain  tin  in  a  mixture  of  one 
pound  each  of  nitric  acid  and  water,  and 
one  and  a  half  ounce  of  sal  ammoniac) 
one  and  three-fourths  ounce;  boil  for 
three  minutes,  then  introduce  the  cloth 
and  boil  it  for  two  hours ;  drain  and  cool. 
Next,  take  cream  of  tartar,  one-fourth 
ounce ;  water,  q.  s. ;  boil,  and  add  pow- 
dered cochineal,  one  ounce ;  boil  for  five 
minutes,  then  gradually  add  solution  of 
tin,  one  ounce,  stirring  well  all  the  time ; 
lastly,  put  in  the  goods  and  dye  as  quickly 
as  possible. 

FEATHERS,  to  Dye  and  Clean. — 
Feathers,  to  be  dyed,  must  first  be 
cleaned  by  passing  them  through  or  be- 
tween the  hands,  in  warm  soap  and 
water,  and  by  giving  them  fresh  liquors 
of  soap  and  water,  and  at  last  rinsing 
them  in  warm  water.  Previously  to  their 
being  dyed,  it  is  necessary  that  they 
should  be  soaked  in  warm  water  for  sev- 
eral hours.  The  same  degree  of  heat 
should  be  kept  up,  but  the  water  must  be 
but  little  more  than  blood-warm.  If  for 
yellows  or  reds,  they  must  be  alumed  in 
cold  alum  liquor  for  a  day  or  two,  ac- 
cording to  the  body  of  color  you  require 
the  feathers  to  imbibe;  then  immerse 
them  in  your  dye-liquor. 

The  only  difficulty  in  dyeing  feathers 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       571 


is  in  compounding  the  dyeing  materials, 
and  making  a  homogeneous  liquor  ot 
them,  so  as  to  produce  the  desired  shade, 
after  being  saddened  or  made  of  a  dark 
color  by  means  of  green  copperas,  which 
is  generally  used  to  darken  brown  grays, 
blacks,  slate  colors,  etc.  Sumach  and 
fustic,  or  sumach  alone,  is  the  general 
ground  of  browns ,  the  red,  as  I  have 
before  observed,  is  obtained  by  archil, 
and  the  black  hue  by  green  copperas  in 
warm  water;  after  the  feather  has  been 
put  into  the  copperas-water,  it  may  be 
returned  again  into  the  dye-water,  and 
back  again  into  the  copperas ;  but  care 
should  be  taken,  each  time,  that  the 
feather  is  rinsed  from  the  copperas-water 
before  it  is  again  returned  into  the 
dye  -  liquor,  otherwise  copperas  would 
spoil  it. 

The  same  preparation  as  would  dye  silk 
of  the  same  color  will  dye  feathers ;  in 
short,  feathers  as  well  as  silk,  being 
animal  substances,  are  more  alike  in 
nature  than  any  other  two  bodies,  either 
animal  or  vegetable.  You  must  remem- 
ber that  in  dyeing  silks  that  the  water  is 
used  hot,  or  on  the  simmer,  for  most 
colors;  but  feathers  must  always  be 
dyed  in  cold  liquors,  except  for  black,  the 
dyeing  materials  being  first  boiled,  and 
then  left  to  cool;  your  feathers  must 
then  be  put  in,  and  when  this  liquor  is 
exhausted,  add  a  fresh  one,  pouring  off 
the  old  liquor. 

Mordants  are  earthly  and  metallic  com- 
pounds, the  base  of  which  unites  both 
with  the  fibres  of  the  material  to  be 
dyed  and  the  coloring  matter.  In  calico 
printing  the  mordants  are  formed  into  a 
paste,  with  some  gum  or  other  thickening 
material,  and  printed  with  wooden  blocks 
on  the  cloth,  which,  after  being  dried, 
&c,  is  passed  through  the  liquid  dyes. 
The  coloring  matter  combines  with  the 
parts  so  printed,  but  is  easily  discharged 
from  the  other  parts.  The  principal 
mordants  are  the  following : 

Mordant,  Alum,  an  alum,  with  one- 
fourth  its  weight  of  tartar,  acetate  of 
alumina.  This  is  commonly  prepared  in 
a  solution  for  this  purpose ;  one  hundred 
and  fifty  parts  of  alum,  in  pyrolignite  of 
lime  of  twenty  degrees  density,  is  some- 
times employed. 

b.  A  solution  of  alum  with  crystallized 


carbonate   of  soda,  in  the  proportion  of 
one   ounce  to  each  pound  of  alum. 

c.  This  is  a  solution  of  alum  with 
sufficient  strong  solution  of  caustic  potash 
to  re-dissolve  the  precipitated  alumina, 
to  which  mixture  a  portion  of  linseed  oil 
is  added. 

d.  To  fifty  gallons  of  boiling  water 
add  one  hundred  pounds  of  alum;  dis- 
solve, and  add  slowly  ten  pounds  of  crys- 
tallized carbonate  of  soda.  When  the 
effervescence  is  over  add  seventy-five 
pounds  of  sugar  of  lead. 

MORDANT,  a  Protochloride  of  Tin. 
— a.  To  strong  muriatic  acid  add  grad- 
ually small  pieces  of  grain  tin  till  no  • 
more  is  dissolved.  It  may  be  obtained 
in  crystals  by  evaporation.  In  dissolving 
them,  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  the  water 
a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid. 

b.  Nitro-muriate,  or  perchloride  of  tin. 
Mix  one  measure  of  nitric  acid  with  four 
of  muriatic  acid,  and  add  tin  in  small 
quantities  as  long  as  any  is  dissolved.  Or 
mix  four  ounces  of  muriatic  with  one  of 
nitric  acid  and  one  of  water;  dissolve  in 
it,  by  small  portions  at  a  time,  two 
drachms  of  grain  tin. 

c.  Aquafortis  (or  equal  portions  of 
nitric  acid  and  water)  eight  parts;  sal 
ammoniac,  one  part ;  mix,  and  add  grad- 
ually one  part,  or  as  much  as  it  will  dis- 
solve, of  grain  tin. 

d.  Dr.  Bancroft's  murio-sulphate  of 
tin.  Digest  two  parts  of  tin  with  three 
of  strong  muriatic  acid  for  an  hour.  Add 
very  cautiously  one  and  one-half  part  of 
oil  of  vitriol.  Keep  up  the  heat  as  long 
as  hydrogen  is  evolved ;  on  cooling,  it 
crystallizes.  Dissolve  this  in  salt  and 
water,  so  as  to  form  a  solution  containing; 
one  part  of  tin  in  eight. 

e.  New  tin  crystals.  Add  three  pounds 
of  sal  ammoniac  to  a  gallon  of  solution 
of  tin ;  evaporate  and  crystallize. 

/.  Mordant  for  lac-dye.  Mix  twenty- 
seven  pounds  of  muriatic  acid  with 
one  and  one-half  pounds  of  nitric  acid 
(sp.  gr.  1.  19.),  put  into  a  stone  bottle, 
and  add  in  small  bits,  till  four  pounds  are 
dissolved. 

g.  Stannate  of  soda.  Digest  litharge 
thirty-six  parts,  or  minium  twenty-seven 
parts,  in  a  metallic  vessel,  with  a  soda 
lye  of  one  and  thirty-five  one  hundredths 
density;  when  dissolved,  eight  parts  of 
tin  in  grains  are  gradually   added.     The 


67- 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


lead  separates  at  once  in  a  spongy  state, 
and  the  solution  of  stannate  of  soda  may- 
be decanted. 

h.  Lac  Spirit,  used  as  solvent  for  lac- 
dye,  in  preference  to  muriatic  acid  alone, 
is  thus  made :  Add  gradually  three 
pounds  of  tin  to  sixty  pounds  of  muriatic 
acid.  Digest  three-fourths  of  a  pound 
of  this  solvent  on  each  pound  of  the  dye 
for  six  hours.  Plum  or  puce  spirit,  peach 
spirit,  and  grain  or  scarlet  spirit,  are 
names  given  by  dyers  to  different  solu- 
tions of  tin  employed  in  dyeing  these 
colors.  For  scarlet,  the  nitro-muriatic 
solutions  (Nos.  2  and  3,  above)  are 
used. 

/.  Iron  Liquor.  Scraps  of  iron  are 
placed  in  casks  or  other  vessels,  are 
covered  with  rectified  raw  pyroligneous 
acid.  There  are  usually  a  series  of  ves- 
sels, through  which  the  solution  is  suc- 
cessively passed  till  it  is  fully  saturated. 

FEATHERS,  To  Clean  and  Curl.— 
White  soap  must  be  used  (curd  will 
answer  best),  cut  into  small  pieces,  upon 
which  boiling  water  should  be  poured 
until  it  be  quite  dissolved,  a  small  quantity 
of  pearlash  being  added.  When  the 
latter  has  sufficiently  cooled  for  the  hand 
to  bear  its  temperature,  the  feathers  may 
be  drawn  through  it.  This  should  be  re- 
peated several  times,  and  the  feathers 
gently  pressed  with  the  hand,  or  carefully 
passed  between  the  fingers  a  few  times, 
so  that  the  dirt  may  be  squeezed  out  of 
them.  Another  lather  containing  less 
soap  must  now  be  prepared,  and  used  in 
the  same  manner.  On  removing  the 
feathers  from  this,  they  should  be  well 
rinsed  in  cold  water,  and  the  water  taken 
from  them  by  beating  them  against  the 
hand  or  a  clean  cloth,  and  then  waving 
them  backward  and  forward  in  the  air  a 
short  distance  from  the  fire.  Before  they 
are  quite  dry,  with  a  pen-knife  curl  each 
fibre  separately,  by  drawing  it  carefully 
over  the  edge  of  the  blade,  which  should 
be  a  blunt  one.  If  it  be  wished  that  the 
feather  should  be  flat,  it  may  be  pressed 
in  drying,  after  the  curl  is  given  to  the 
fluey  part.  This  process  may  be  used 
for  white  feathers  and  also  for  fawn- 
colored,  or  brown.  Black  ones  may  be 
cleaned  with  water,  adding  to  it  some 
gall,  and  following  the  above  directions 
in  all  other  respects.  Feathers  of  brighter 
colors  cannot  be  cleaned,  but  must  be  re- 


dipped,  as  they  usually  fade  very  much 
by  exposure  to  the  sun. 

FEATHER  BEDS,  to  Cleanse.— When 
feather  beds  become  soiled  and  heavy, 
they  may  be  made  clean  and  light  by 
being  treated  in  the  following  manner: 
Rub  them  over  with  a  stiff  brush,  dipped 
in  hot  soap-suds.  When  clean,  lay  them 
on  a  shed,  or  any  other  clean  place, 
where  the  rain  will  fall  on  them.  When 
thoroughly  soaked,  let  them  dry  in  a  hot 
sun  for  six  or  seven  successive  days,  shak- 
ing them  up  well  and  turning  them  over 
each  day.  They  should  be  covered  over 
with  a  thick  cloth  during  the  night;  if 
exposed  to  the  night  air  they  will  become 
damp  and  mildew.  This  way  of  wash- 
ing the  bed-ticking  and  feathers  makes 
them  very  fresh  and  light,  and  is  much 
easier  than  the  old  fashioned  way  of 
emptying  the  beds  and  washing  the 
feathers  separately,  while  it  answers  quite 
as  well.  Care  must  be  taken  to  dry  the 
bed  perfectly  before  sleeping  on  it.  Hair 
mattresses  that  have  become  hard  and 
dirty,  can  be  made  nearly  as  good  as 
new  by  ripping  them,  washing  the  tick- 
ing, and  picking  the  hair  free  from 
bunches  and  keeping  it  in  a  dry,  airy 
place  several  days.  Whenever  the  tick- 
ing gets  dry,  fill  it  lightly  with  the  hair, 
and  tack  it  together. 

FISH,  Cnltnre. — Fishes,  whether  in  the 
freedom  of  nature  or  in  artificial  recepta- 
cles, show  plainly  enough  the  approach 
of  spawning.  The  belly  of  the  female 
becomes  distended  and  yields  readily  to 
pressure.  There  is  a  fluctuation  under 
the  hand,  which  shows  that  the  eggs  are 
free  from  the  ovary  and  easily  displaced. 
This  being  the  case,  take  up  in  your  left 
hand  a  female  fish,  and  hold  it  suspended 
by  the  head  and  thorax  over  a  flat- 
bottomed  vessel  containing  clear  water. 
Then  with  the  right  hand  passed  from 
above  downward,  squeeze  the  loosened 
eggs  through  the  anal  opening.  A  male 
fish  is  then  taken,  and  the  milt  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  same  manner,  though  often 
it  flows  by  the  mere  act  of  suspending. 
This  substance,  white  and  cream-like, 
soon  gives  to  water  the  appearance  of 
whey.  To  insure  effectual  fecundation, 
the  mixture  in  this  state  should  be  gently 
stirred  with  the  hand  or  with  a  soft  brush. 
It  requires  but  a  few  minutes  to  accom- 
plish the  fecundation. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       57$ 


Build  your  ponds  according  to  the 
amount  of  water  you  have.  If  you  have 
but  little,  build  small.  The  water  should 
be  changed  every  twenty-four  or  forty- 
eight  hours,  and  the  oftener  it  is  changed 
the  better.  Your  trough  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  water  will  run  in  at 
about  twelve  feet  per  minute.  The  water 
should  be  filtered  by  running  through 
gravel  or  cloth  screens,  to  prevent  the 
sediment  from  reaching  the  spawn.  Mr. 
Seth  Green,  the  noted  fish  culturist,  states 
that  he  runs  about  one  inch  of  water 
over  his  spawn,  and  if  any  sediment  gets 
on  them,  that  it  will  surely  kill  them. 
Remove  all  sediment  with  the  bearded 
end  of  a  quill  by  agitating  the  water, 
without  touching  the  spawn. 

Large  troughs  with  but  little  water  get 
too  warm  in  summer  and  too  cold  in 
winter  for  trout  to  do  well.  It  is  detri- 
mental to  have  any  other  fish  with  trout. 
Any  kind  of  fish  or  fish  spawn  is  good 
for  feed.  The  young  should  be  fed  twice 
a  day  very  slowly — if  fed  fast,  the  feed 
sinks  and  befouls  the  trough,  and  the 
trout  sicken  and  die.  If  fed  regularly, 
and  the  trough  kept  clean,  with  a  good 
change  of  water,  and  not  kept  too  thick, 
they  will  live  and  do  well.  If  neglected, 
they  will  surely  die. 

The  sun,  sediment,  rats,  mice,  snails, 
crawfish,  and  many  water  insects  are 
death  to  spawn. 

Mr.  Green's  troughs  are  twenty-five 
feet  long  and  fifteen  inches  wide.  The 
water  that  feeds  each  trough  goes  through 
a  half-inch  hole  with  a  three-inch  head. 
Use  fine  gravel  that  has  no  iron  rust  in  it. 
His  troughs  are  three  inches  higher  at  the 
head. 

Trout  hatch  the  soonest  in  warm  water. 
The  average  temperature  of  the  water  is 
forty-five  degrees,  and  the  fish  hatch  in 
seventy  days.  Every  degree  colder  or 
warmer  will  make  a  difference  of  six  days 
in  hatching.  The  sack  of  their  bellies 
sustain  them  from  forty  to  forty-five  days 
after  hatching;  then  they  need  food. 
Beef  liver,  chopped  with  a  razor  or  sharp 
knife,  nearly  to  the  consistency  of  blood, 
is  good.  If  you  have  small  streams  or 
shallow  water  near  the  bed  of  your  pond, 
put  a  few  trout  in  a  place  in  the  stream 
and  pond,  and  they  will  take  care  of 
themselves  better  than  you  can.  The 
object  of  distributing  them  is  that  they 


will  get  more  food.  All  old  streams  and 
ponds  have  plenty  of  food  for  small  trout 
and  large,  which  you  will  find  by  examin- 
ing the  moss,- sticks  and  stones  in  your 
ponds  and  streams,  as  they  are  full  of 
water  insects. 

Trout  begin  to  spawn  the  first  of  No- 
vember, and  cease  the  first  of  March. 
Mr.  Green  furnishes  young  trout,  one 
inch  long,  for  forty  dollars  per  thousand, 
delivered  at  your  nearest  railway  statioa 
or  express  office.  They  ran  be  carried  in 
barrels  or  cans  any  distance  when  small, 
and  during  the  months  of  January, 
February,  and  March.  Impregnated 
spawn  can  be  had  from  November  1st  to 
March  1st,  for  ten  dollars  per  thousand, 
shipped  in  moss.  The  moss  box  is  placed 
in  a  tin  pail,  filled  with  saw-dust,  so  that 
the  spawn  will  not  feel  the  change  of 
heat  and  cold.  They  cannot  in  safety  be 
shipped  in  warm  weather. 

Pick  the  moss  carefully  off  the  top  of 
the  spawn.  Then  put  the  box  in  a  pan  of 
water  and  turn  it  nearly  bottom-side  up, 
and  pick  the  moss  out  very  carefully.  The 
spawn  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  you 
can  pick  the  moss  out  of  the  pan.  If 
there  is  a  little  left  in  it  will  do  no  harm. 
Then  pour  the  spawn  in  your  hatching- 
trough,  by  holding  the  edge  of  your  pan 
under  water,  and  place  them  without, 
touching  the  spawn,  by  agitating  the 
water  with  the  bearded  end  of  a  feather. 
The  dead  spawn  will  turn  a  milk-white 
color,  and  should  be  picked  out. 

A  few  hints  to  those  making  it  a  busi- 
ness may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  In 
selecting  a  site  for  fish  ponds  be  very 
sure  that  the  supply  of  water  is  unfailing. 
The  strength  of  a  chain  is  always  meas- 
ured by  the  strength  of  its  weakest  link. 
If  a  spring  should  give  twenty  inches  of 
water  most  of  the  time,  but  only  one  inch 
in  a  very  dry  season,  then  the  flow  of 
that  spring  is  one  inch.  It  has  more 
than  once  happened  that  a  would-be  fish 
breeder  has  found  his  ponds  without  wa- 
ter, and  his  beautiful  spring  dried  up. 
Then,  too,  it  would  be  exceedingly  con- 
venient, though  not  absolutely  necessary, 
to  have  such  a  fall  that  every  pond  could' 
be  drained,  and  the  pond  should  be  so 
situated  that  a  rising  and  overflow  of  the 
stream  should  not  overflow  the  ponds. 
This  cannot  be  arranged  very  well  it  the: 
ponds  are  made    as  has  been  often  re- 


374 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


commended,  by  dams  in  the  stream  it- 
self. They  should  be  made  at  one  side 
of  the  stream,  taking  all  the  water  if  re- 
quired, but  leaving  the  bed  of  the  stream 
itself  as  a  convenient  waste-gate  in  case 
of  overflow.  One  dam  across  the  stream 
will  turn  the  water  into  the  ponds,  and 
the  flow  can  be  made  even. 

The  distance  of  a  spring  from  a  market 
makes  but  little  difference  in  these  days 
of  railroads  and  refrigerator-cars.  But 
the  amount  of  water  and  shape  of  land 
make  much  difference.  It  is  also  well  to 
own  the  spring  itself,  if  possible,  in  order 
to  prevent  disputes  with  other  owners, 
■and  to  have  the  water  always  pure. 

Ponds  for  fattening  purposes  are  now 
generally  made  small — say  about  twelve 
feet  wide  by  twenty-four  feet  long,  either 
in  the  shape  of  a  square  or  of  an  oval. 
It  is  a  matter  of  fact  that  trout  will  "find 
more  natural  food  in  a  large  pond  than 
in  a  small  pond.  A  large  pond  has  also 
several  other  advantages  over  a  small 
pond.  For  instance,  it  is  more  economi- 
cal to  build  one  large  pond  than  two 
small  ones,  and  it  is  less  trouble  to  take 
care  of  one  race-way  and  one  set  of 
screens  than  of  two.  But  the  fatal  de- 
fect in  large  ponds  is  that  the  fish  can- 
not be  equally  fed.  The  larger  and  more 
voracious  will  follow  the  feeder  as  he 
moves  around  the  ponds,  and  drive  away 
the  smaller  and  weaker  fish.  But  in  a 
small  pond  the  food  can  be  thrown  all 
over  the  surface  at  once,  and  all  the 
fish  have  an  equal  chance. 

The  materials  of  which  ponds  should 
be  constructed  vary  with  the  nature  of 
the  soil.  In  heavy  clay  ground  embank- 
ments alone  are  necessary.  But  in  fact 
so  much  trouble  has  been  caused  by 
muskrats  perforating  embankments  and 
liberating  the  water,  that  we  are  tempted 
to  say  that  embankments  alone  should 
never  be  used.  In  most  soil  either  stone 
or  wood  should  be  used  in  construction. 
If  stone  is  used  it  should  by  all  means  be 
cemented  and  the  bottom  of  the  pond 
finished  in  grout,  or  large  flat  stones, 
with  the  interstices  filled  with  cement. 
In  order  to  clean  out  the  lime,  water 
should  be  run  through  the  pond  some 
weeks  before  putting  in  fish.  The. ce- 
ment and  stone  will  crack  and  in  time 
become  defaced  at  the  water-line.  This 
may  be  remedied  by  a  facing  of  board 


along  the  surface-line.  We  have  lately 
constructed  very  good  and  cheap  ponds 
of  rough  hemlock  boards  (our  cheapest 
lumber),  and  find  that  they  answer  ex- 
ceedingly well.  Thirty  feet  long,  four 
feet  wide,  and  six  inches  of  water  will  do 
very  well  for  race-ways  to  small  ponds. 

The  supply  of  water  necessary  to  raise 
trout  for  market  purposes  (making  it  a 
business)  should  not  be  less  than  thirty  or 
forty  inches,  and  would  be  better  if  larger. 
Adults  should  be  fed  regularly  once  each 
day.  The  only  rule  to  be  given  as  to 
quantity  is  to  feed  them  till  they  will  eat 
no  more.  It  is  economy  to  cut  the  feed 
finely  and  feed  slowly,  as  most  of  that 
which  is  not  eaten  at  once  will  be  wasted. 
A  little  water  should  be  mixed  with  the 
meat,  and  wetting  the  knife  or  cleaver 
often  makes  easier  chopping,  and  causes 
the  food  to  spread  evenly  when  thrown 
into  the  pond.  Cut  the  toughest  food 
for  the  largest  fish.  Keep  your  pans, 
chopping-block,  and  meat-house  clean, 
and  feed  your  meat  before  it  spoils.  It 
is  good  economy,  before  commencing  to 
build  ponds,  to  take  the  advice  of  some 
experienced  man,  and  also  to  read  all  ob- 
tainaole  works  on  the  subject.  On  the 
main  points  there  will  be  found  very  little 
difference  of  opinion,  and  on  those  com- 
paratively unimportant  everybody's  ex- 
perience will  help  you  to  form  a  sound 
judgment. 

A  few  hints  to  those  raising  trout  on  a 
small  scale,  that  is,  not  making  it  an  ex- 
clusive business :  There  are  many  per- 
sons who  have  trout  streams,  either 
wholly  or  in  part  on  their  farms,  which 
streams  bring  them  in  no  revenue,  ex- 
cept an  occasional  day's  amusement. 
Let  us  suppose  such  a  stream  to  be 
stocked  annually  with  five  thousand  trout- 
fry,  at  an  expense  of  $100.  In  about 
three  years  the  stream  will  be  in  full 
bearing.  Let  us  look  at  the  returns.  At 
the  lowest  estimate  three  hundred  pounds 
of  trout,  worth  one  dollar  per  pound  at 
present  prices,  may  be  taken  from  the 
stream  annually.  Then,  too,  there  is  al- 
ways a  demand  for  fishing  privileges,  and 
in  most  places  such  a  stream  could  be  let 
to  sportsmen  at  a  profitable  advance  on 
the  cost  ot  stocking.  Besides,  if  a  place 
is  to  be  sold,  a  well-stocked  trout-stream 
on  the  premises  will  add  several  dollars 
per  acre  to   the   value    of  the  ground. 


ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  FACTS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.       575 


Even  a  little  spring  rill,  across  which  a 
man  can  step,  if  stocked  yearly  with  a 
thousand  fry,  costing  twenty  dollars,  will 
yield  a  profitable  interest  on  the  money 
•expended.  The  labor  of  catching  them 
is,  of  course,  to  be  considered.  But  in 
most  cases  their  capture  is  thought  to  be 
3.  pleasure,  and  if  there  should  be  a  pro- 
prietor who  finds  no  enjoyment  in  trout- 
fishing,  he  will  find  enough  to  do  that 
work  for  him  without  wages.  It  must  be 
obvious  that  stocking  streams,  though 
limited  as  to  results,  is  yet  in  its  degree 
more  profitable  than  the  other  method  of 
fish-raising,  inasmuch  as  there  is  no  out- 
lay for  feed,  and  the  trout  require  no 
care. 

The  two  methods  may  often  be  com- 
bined with  advantage.  We  once  met  an 
old  farmer  who  was  taking  a  trout  to  the 
village  hotel  for  sale.  The  fish  weighed 
plump  four  pounds,  and  was  a  beauty. 
We  learned  that  he  was  in  the  habit  of 
bringing  such  fish  occasionally,  and  on 
questioning  him,  found  that  he  had  a  lit- 
tle spring  stream  of  water  running  through 
his  land,  and  that  in  its  course  he  had 
<lug  out  a  deep  hole — simply  a  hole  in 
the  ground,  without  screens  or  apparatus 
of  any  kind.  The  larger  trout  from  the 
stream  collected  in  this  hole,  and  he 
would  feed  them  with  scraps  from  his  ta- 
ble, refuse  meat  from  his  butchering,  etc. 
With  the  outlay  of  very  little  trouble,  and 
210  cash,  the  old  gentleman  must  have 
gathered  a  good  many  dollars  per  year 
from  his  hole-in-the-ground  trout-pond. 
As  a  hint  of  what  can  be  done  in  fish- 
raising  with  small  means,  his  example  is 
worthy  of  consideration. 

There  are  a  few  erroneous  impressions 
still  lingering  in  the  public  mind  which 
it  might  be  well,  if  possible,  to  correct. 
No  man  need  ever  expect  to  make 
a  more  rapid  fortune  in  this  business 
than  in  any  other.  The  same  qualities 
which  command  success  in  farming  or 
the  mechanic  arts,  will  command  suc- 
cess in  trout-culture.  He  who  fails  at 
■everything  else  will  not  succeed  in  rais- 
ing fish.  It  has  also  been  imagined  that 
trout  required  no  feed,  and  many  ingeni- 
ous estimates  as  to  the  profits  of  the 
business  have  left  this  item  out  of  account. 
Now,  when  "the  time  arrives  that  pigs  can 
De  fattened  without  feeding,  or  calves 
turned  into  beef  without  food,  then  trout 


may  be  grown  without  expense.  Food 
they  must  have  in  some  way.  In  a  na- 
tural trout-stream  a  limited  number  can 
forage  for  themselves;  but  trout  in  a 
pond  are  like  cattle  in  a  barn — they  must 
have  food  furnished  to  them  or  starve. 
In  other  words,  fish  cannot  live  on  wa- 
ter. 

PORK,  Cutting  Up  and  Curing.— Have 
the  hog  laid  on  his  back  on  a  stout,  clean 
bench;  cut  off  the  head  close  to  the  base. 
If  the  hog  is  large,  there  will  come  oft  a  con- 
siderable collar,  between  head  and  should- 
ers, which,  pickled  or  dried,  is  useful  for 
cooking  with  vegetables.  Separate  the 
jowl  from  the  face  at  the  natural  joint; 
open  the  skull  lengthwise  and  take  out 
the  brains,  esteemed  a  luxury.  Then 
with  a  sharp  knife  remove  the  backbone 
the  whole  length,  then  the  long  strip  of 
fat  underlying  it,  leaving  about  one  inch 
of  fat  covering  the  spinal  column. 

The  leaf  lard,  if  not  before  taken  out 
for  the  housewife's  convenience,  is  re- 
moved, as  is  also  the  tenderloin — a  fishy- 
shaped  piec?  of  flesh  —  often  used  for 
sausage,  but  which  makes  delicious  steak. 
The  middling  or  sides  are  now  cut  out, 
leaving  the  shoulders  square-shaped  and 
the  hams  pointed,  or  they  may  be  round- 
ed, to  your  taste.  The  spare-ribs  are  usu- 
ally wholly  removed  from  the  sides,  with 
but  little  meat  adhering.  It  is  the  sides 
of  small,  young  hogs  cured  as  hams  that 
bear  the  name  of  breakfast  bacon.  The 
sausage  meat  comes  chiefly  in  strips  from 
the  backbone,  part  of  which  may  also  be 
used  as  steak.  The  lean  trimmings  from 
about  the  joints  are  used  for  sausage,  the 
fat  scraps  rendered  up  with  the  backbone 
lard. 

The  thick  part  of  the  backbone  that  lies 
between  the  shoulders,  called  grisken  or 
chine,  is  separated  from  the  tapering, 
bony  part,  called  backbone  by  way  of 
distinction,  and  used  as  fresh.  The  chines 
are  smoked  with  jowls,  and  used  in  late 
winter  or  spring. 

When  your  meat  is  to  be  pickled  it 
should  be  dusted  lightly  with  saltpetre, 
sprinkled  with  salt,  and  allowed  to  drain 
twenty-four  hours;  then  plunge  it  into 
pickle,  and  keep  under  with  a  weight.  It 
is  good  policy  to  pickle  a  portion  of  the 
sides.  They,  after  soaking,  are  sweeter 
to  cook  with  vegetables,  and  the  grease 


576 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


fried  out  from  them  is  much  more  useful 
than  that  of  smoked  meat. 

If  your  meat  is  to  be  dry  salted,  allow 
one  teaspoonful  of  pulverized  saltpetre  to 
one  gallon  of  salt,  and  keep  the  mixture 
warm  beside  you.  Put  on  a  hog's  ear  as 
a  mitten,  and  rub  each  piece  of  meat 
thoroughly.  Then  pack  skin  side  down, 
ham  upon  ham,  side  upon  side,  strewing 
on  salt  abundantly.  It  is  best  to  put 
large  and  small  pieces  in  different  boxes 
for  the  convenience  of  getting  at  them  to 
hang  up  at  the  different  times  they  will 
come  into  readiness.  The  weather  has 
so  much  to  do  with  the  time  that  meat 
requires  to  take  salt  that  no  particular 
time  can  be  specified  for  leaving  it  in. 

The  best  test  is  to  try  a  medium-sized 
ham ;  if  salt  enough,  all  similar  and 
smaller  pieces  are  surely  ready,  and  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  the  saltness  in- 
creases in  drying. 

Ribs  and  steaks  should  be  kept  in  a 
cold,  dark  place,  without  salting,  until 
ready  for  use.  If  you  have  many,  or  the 
weather  is  warm,  they  keep  better  in 
pickle  than  dry  salt.  Many  persons  turn 
and  rub  their  meat  frequently.  We  have 
never  practiced  this,  and  have  never  lost 
any. 

When  the  meat  is  ready  for  smoking, 
dip  the  hocks  of  the  joints  in  ground 
black  pepper  and  dust  the  raw  surface 
thickly  with  it.  Sacks,  after  this  treat- 
ment, may  be  used  for  double  security, 
and  I  think  bacon  high  and  dry  is  sweeter 
than  packed  in  any  substance.  For  sugar- 
cured  hams  we  append  the  best  recipe  we 
have  ever  used,  though  troublesome. 

English  Recipe  for  Sugar- Curing  Hams. 
So  soon  as  the  meat  comes  from  the 
butcher's  hand  rub  it  thoroughly  with  fine 
salt.  Repeat  this  four  days,  keeping  the 
meat  where  it  can  drain.  The  fourth  day 
rub  it  with  saltpetre  and  a  handful  of 
common  salt,  allowing  one  pound  ot 
saltpetre  to  seventy  pounds  of  meat.  Now 
mix  one  pound  of  brown  sugar  and  one 
of  molasses,  rub  over  the  ham  every  day 
for  a  fortnight,  and  then  smoke  with 
hickory  chips  or  cobs.  Hams  should  be 
hung  highest  in  meat-houses,  because 
there  they  are  less  liable  to  the  attacks  of 


insects,  for  insects  do  not  so  much  infest 
high  places — unlike  human  pests. 

Fickle. — Make  eight  gallons  of  brine 
strong  enough  to  float  an  egg ;  add  two 
pounds  of  brown  sugar  or  a  quart  of 
molasses,  and  four  ounces  of  saltpetre; 
boil  and  skim  clean,  and  pour  cold  on 
your  meat.  Meat  intended  for  smoking 
should  remain  in  pickle  about  four  weeks. 
This  pickle  can  be  boiled  over,  and  with  a 
fresh  cup  of  sugar  and  salt  used  all  summer. 
Some  persons  use  as  much  soda  as  salt- 
petre. It  will  correct  acidity,  but  we  think 
impairs  the  meat 

WASHING  PREPARATION.— Take 

a  ^  of  a  pound  of  soap,  a  Jjf  of  a  pound 
of  soda,  and  a  ^  of  a  pound  of  quick- 
lime. Cut  up  the  soap  and  dissolve  it  in 
i  quart  of  boiling  water ;  pour  i  quart  of 
boiling  water  over  the  soda,  and  3  quarts 
of  boiling  water  upon  the  quicklime.  The 
lime  must  be  quick  and  fresh ;  if  it  is 
good  it  will  bubble  up  on  pouring  the  hot 
water  upon  it.  Each  must  be  prepared 
in  separate  vessels.  The  lime  must  settle 
so  as  to  leave  the  water  on  the  top  per- 
fectly clear ;  then  strain  it  carefully  (not 
disturbing  the  settlings)  into  the  washj 
boiler  with  the  soda  and  soap ;  let  it  scald 
long  enough  to  dissolve  the  soap,  then  add 
6  gallons  of  soap  water.  The  clothes 
must  be  put  in  soak  over  night,  after  rub- 
bing soap  upon  the  dirtiest  parts  of  them. 
After  having  the  above  in  readiness, 
wring  out  the  clothes  which  have  been- 
put  in  soak,  put  them  on  to  boil,  and  let 
each  lot  boil  half  an  hour ;  the  same  wa 
ter  will  answer  for  the  whole  washing. 
After  boiling  each  lot  half  an  hour  drain 
them  from  the  boiling  water,  put  them  in 
a  tub  and  pour  upon  them  two  or  three 
pailsful  of  clear,  hot  water;  after  this 
they  will  want  but  very  little  rubbing; 
then  rinse  through  two  waters,  blueing  the 
last.  When  dried  they  will  be  a  beautiftu" 
white.  After  washing  the  cleanest  part 
of  the  white  clothes,  take  2  pails  of  the 
suds  in  which  they  have  been  washed, 
put  it  over  the  fire  and  scald,  and  this 
will  wash  all  the  flannels  and  colored 
clothes  without  any  extra  soap.  The 
white  flannels,  after  being  well  washed 
in  the  suds,  will  require  to  be  scalded 
by  turning  on  a  teakettle  of  boiling  wa- 
ter. 


CONTENTS 


Abdominal  viscera  and  their 
appendages    in    horses, 

diseases  of. . . 87 

Accident  to  horses'  legs  and 

feet 117 

Accidents  and  injuries,  and 

how  to  meet  them. .  318 

Acetate  of  lead,  antidote  for  329 
Acetate  of  zine,  antidote  for  331 
Acid,  acetic,  antidote  for  ..  327 

Acetic  acid,  antidote  for 327 

Acid,  carbolic,  antidote  for   328 

Acid,  carbonic . 329 

Acid,  citric,  antidote  for...  327 
Acid,  hydrosulphuric,  anti- 
dote for 329 

Acids,  mineral,  antidote  for  326 
Acid,  muriatic,  antidote  for  326 
Acid,  nitric,  antidote  for  . .  326 
Acid,  oxalic,  antidote  for..  327 
Acid,  Prussic,  or  hydrocy- 
anic, antidote  for 327 

Acid,  sulphuric,  antidote  for  326 
Acid,  tartaric,  antidote  for.  327 
Acids,  vegetable,  antidotes 

for 327 

After-pains  in  sheep 199 

Ages  of  bees 317 

Age  to  breed  swine 230 

Age  of  cattle,  by  horns,  how 

to  tell 145 

Age  of  cattle,  how  to  tell..  145 
Age  of  horse,  by  teeth,  how 

to  tell 17 

Age,  horse,  average  ......     13 

Age,   horse,   how    to  dis- 
guise      x8 

Age  of  horse,  one  year,  how 

totell .-,     17 

Age  of  horse,  two  years, 

how  to  tell 17 

Age  of  horse,  three  years, 

how  to  tell .     17 

Age  of  horse,  four  years, 

how  to  tell 17 

Age   of  horse,  five  years, 

how  to  tell 17 

Age  of  horse,  six  years,  how 

totell 17 

Age  of  horse,  seven  years, 

how  to  tell 17 

Age  of  horse,  eight  years, 

how  to  tell 17 

Agreements — See  Contracts. 
Agreement  to  build  a  house  460 

37 


PAGI. 

Agreement   to  continue  a 

parnership...... ....  462 

Agreement  for  the  sale  and 

purchase  of  land. ...  460 

Agreement  to  sell  and  de- 
liver wood  ...... . ...  462 

Age  of  poultry 266 

Age,  profitable  in  poultry  .  253 
Age  of  sheep,  how  to  tell .  225 
Ague  in  breast..... ......  333 

Ague  and  fever...........  339 

Ague  mixture....  .... ....  333 

Ahdehyd  dye,  aniline 565 

Alcohol,    brandy,    liquors, 

antidotes  for 327 

Alkalies  and  their  salts,  anti- 
dotes for ..... 327 

Almonds,  bitter  oil  of,  anti- 
dote for 327 

Alum  burnt,  horses'  use  of.  243 

Alum  whey  for  cattle 248 

Alterative  drink  for  cattle ..  250 
Alterative  powder  for  swine  25 1 
Alterative  tonic  powders  for 

cattle 250 

Alteratives,  horse ....  240 

Alterative  horse  ball 240 

Alterative,     horse,    simply 

cooling .  240 

Alterative,   horse,   lor  de- 
fective secretions.. ......  240 

Alteratives,  horse,  for  dis- 
ordered state  of  the  skin.  240 
Alterative,  horse,  in  debil- 
ity of  the  stomach 240 

Amaurosis  in  horse 107 

Amber,  pale,  varnish 436 

Amber,  varnish 435 

Amber,  black,  varnish 435 

American  lackey  moth  ....  394 

American  Meromyza. . ....  373 

Ammonia,  antidote  for  ....  327 

Anaesthetics,  horse  .......  240 

Aniline  dyes 563 

Anasarca  in  horse ...   120 

Anatomy  of  back  of  horse  .  10 
Anatomy  of  body  of  horse .  10 
Anatomy  of  the  forequarter 

ofhorse 9 

Anatomy  of  hindquarter  of 

horse II 

Anatomy  of   the    neck   of 

horse 8 

Anatomy  of  middlepiece  of 
horse 10 

(577) 


feMB. 

Anatomy  of  head  of  horse .       S 

Anchylosis  in  horse 48 

Aconite,  antidote  for..- —   327 
Angle-berries,  cattle ..  . —    18c 
Animals     domestic,    medi- 
cines for 240' 

Animals  subject  to  epizoot.     73". 

Ankle,  sprained 333 

Anodyne,  ball  for  horse  ...  24r 

Anodynes,  horse 240 

Anodyne    ball,    for    horse 

colic - 240 

Anodyne  clyster,  horses,  in 

diarrhcea 244 

Anodyne  drench  for  horse 

in  superpurgation  ... —  241 
Anodyne  drench  for  horse 

in  chronic  diarrhcea. ....   24 1 
Anodyne  drench  for  horse 

in  diarrhoea.... 241 

Anodyne  drink  for  cattle  . .   248 
Anodyne  drink  for  lockjaw 

in  cattle 249 

Anodyne  horseball  for  colic  240 
Anodyne,  horse,  drench  for 

colic 240 

Annotto,  choice  of. 491 

Antacids,  horse 241 

Anthelmintics,  horse 241 

Antidotes  of  poisons 326 

Antimony,  antidote  for....  327" 

Antispasmodics 241 

Antispasmodic  drench    for 

horse 241' 

Antispasmodic,    horse, 

drench  for 241 

Antispasmodic,     horse,    in 

colic -  241' 

Antispasmodic,  horse,  clys- 
ter in  colic... 241 

Antimonial  wine,    antidote 

for 327- 

Ants,  to  destroy 36c 

Ants,  black,  to  destroy 35c* 

Ants  in  greenhouses*  to  de- 
stroy  •- 491 

Ants,  red,  to  destroy 350 

Aperient,  clysters,  horse...  244 
Aperient,  drink  for  calves.  -  250 

Aperients,  horse 241 

Apiary,  establishment  of  an  307 

Apoplexy. 332,  333 

Apoplexy  in  horse 104 

Apoplexy  in  poultry 257 

Apoplexy  in  swine 235., 


573 


CONTENTS. 


WJMM, 

Appetite,  loss  of,  in  sheep.  215 

Apple  butter 280 

Apple  butter,  Pennsylvania, 

to  make.... 280 

Apples,  crab,  preserved...  298 
A  pples,  canning  ..........  284 

Apple  curculio  .... .- 381 

Apples,  to  dry  ... . .  279 

Apples,  to  keep . 279 

Apple  orchard 488 

Apples,  preserved  . ...  298 

Apple  pruner .....  407 

Apples,  to  pack  in  barrels  .  279 
Apple-root,  plant-louse....  363 
Apple  trees,  blight,  to  pre- 
serve from 489 

Apple  tree  borer,  flat- 
headed 396 

Apple  tree  borer,  round- 
headed 355 

Apple  tree  bark  lice. . .  354 

Apple    trees,   diseased,   to 

cure 489 

Apple  trees,  old,  to  reno- 
vate  489 

Apple  trees,  canker  in,  to 

cure.... 489 

Apple  tree  roots,  to  graft  ..  528 

Apple  tree,  suckers 490 

Apple  tree,  tent  caterpillar.  394 
Apple  trees,  treatment  of. .  489 

Apple  trees,  planting 514 

Apple  trees,  training   and 

pruning 515 

Apple  twig  borer 407 

Apple  wine........ 305 

Apple  worms,   or  codling 

moth 357 

Apricots,  whole,  preserved   298 

Apricot  wine. 305 

Aquafortis,  antidote  for....  326 

Army,  fall  worm 394 

Army  worm,  or  grass 379 

Army  worm,  cotton 375 

Arnica,  charge  for  horse  . .  244 
Aromatic,   pot    and    sweet 

herbs,  culture  of 490 

Arsenic,  antidote  for 328 

Arsenic,  horse,  antidote  for    89 
Arsenical  wash  for  lice  in 

sheep 251 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem 490 

Artificial  honey,  to  make. . .  286 

Artificial  seton  for  cattle 148 

Artificial  swarming  of  bees 

v s.  natural 310 

Artificial  swarming  of  bees    311 

Ashes,  for  swine 229 

Asparagus,  culture  of 490 

Assignment  of  bond,  and 
mortgage  indorsed  on  in- 
strument....  . 459 

Assignment  of  bond  and 
mortgage,    as    collateral 

security.... 457 

Assignment,  general......  456 

Assignment  of  a  lease 456 

Assignment  of   bond   and 

mortgage 457 

.Assignment  of  a  lease,  in- 
dorsed ...... ..... 466 


PAO*. 

Assignment    of    a    patent 

.  right 456 

Asthma 333 

Asthma  in  dogs... 277 

Astringent  drink,  with  mut- 
ton suet,  for  cattle 248 

Astringent  drink  for  cattle .  248 
Astringent  drink  for  lambs.  250 
Astringents,  horse ........  242 

Astringent,       horse,       for 
bloody  urine.... .......  242 

Astringent,  horse,  for  dia- 
betes..................  242 

Astringent,  horse,  for  diar- 
rhoea  .......... ..  242 

Astringent  lotion  for  horses  242 
Astringent,  mild,  for  cattle  248 
Astringent    ointment,     for 

sore  heels  of  horses  . 242 

Astringent  powder,  caustic, 

for  foot-rot  in  sheep 25 1 

Astringent  powders,  horse, 
external,     for     ulcerated 

surfaces 242 

Astringent  powder  for  cattle  249 
Astringent  powder  for  sheep  251 
Astringent,  stimulating,  for 

cattle 248 

Attorney,  power  of 46  7 

Attorney,  power  of,  revoca- 
tion  467 

Avenues  and  roads,  planting  453 
Axle  grease 561 

Back  of  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine............ .....     20 

Back  lanes. 343 

Back-raking  in  horses 130 

Back  sinews,  horse,  strain 

ofthe 65 

Bad  breath  ........ ......  337 

Bag-worm...............  369 

Baldness,  cure  of. .....  333 

Ball,  anodyne,  for  horse...  241 
Ball,  alterative,  for  horse..  240 
Balls,  cordial,  for  horse ...  244 
Ball,  diuretic,  cooling,  for 

horses 245 

Ball,  diuretic,   stimulating, 

for  horses.. 245 

Ball,  expectorant,  for  horses  245 

Ball,  horse,  alterative 240 

Balls,  horses,  purging  with 

calomel 242 

Ball,  fever,  for  horses 246 

Balls,  horse,  physic 242 

Ball,  horse,  worms 241 

Ball,   laxative,   gentle,   for 

horses 242 

Balls,  physic,  for  horses. . .  242 
Ball,   physic,   warmer,   for 

horses..... 242 

Balls,  purging  with  calomel, 

for  horses 242 

Ball,  stomachic,  for  horses.  246 
Balls,    stomachic,    laxative 

for  washy  horses  . 232 

Ball,  tonic,  for  horse 247 

Ball,  worm,  for  horse 241 

Ball,  worm 390 

Balm  for  chilblains 334 


PAGE. 

Balusters,  measuring 423 

Bandages,  horse,  use  and 

application  of . . 37 

Bank,  notes  payable  at. 458 

Barbs  in  horses 88 

Barber's  itch 342 

Barberries,  pickled . . 295 

Bark  lice  of  the  apple  tree.  354 

Bark  louse 354 

Bark  louse,  oyster  shell  . . .  354 
Barley  seed,  to  select  .....  552 
Barley,  to  cultivate  .......  491 

Barley,  to  harvest ....  49 1 

Barnacles  for  the  horse  . 122 

Barrels,  to  pack  apples  in..  279 

Baulky  horse,  to  cure 134 

Basket  ware  varnish  ......  43 7 

Basket  worm 369 

Beans,  to  keep  fresh  in  win- 
ter   280 

Beans,  string,  dried. . 280 

Bean  weevil 386 

Bean  worm 390 

Beans,  to  cultivate ..... 492 

Beans,  castor  oil 492 

Beans,  Lima 492 

Beans,  pickled 295 

Beans  for  pigs. .......  . 229 

Beans,  to  shell  easy 571 

Beans,  common  yellow  . 383 

Bed  bugs,  to  destroy 350 

Beds,  feather,  to  clean 561 

Bed-ticks,  to  clean 561 

Beech  borer  . 397 

Bees,  ages  of 317 

Bee,  black,  to  destroy 350 

Bees,  common  or  black  vs. 

Italian 308 

Bee,  drones,  in  swarming  .  314 

Bees,  different  kinds  of 313 

Bees,  enemies  ofthe 309 

Bees,  feed  for 314 

Bees,  foul  broods 316 

Bee-hat 313 

Beehives,  position  of. 315 

Beehives,  the  best....... .  315 

Beehives,  common.. 315 

Bees,   Italian  vs.   common 

or  black 308 

Bee-keeper's  guide  ... 307 

Bee-keeping,  success  in 307 

Bee  miller,  to  destroy 313 

Bee  moth,  or  wax  worm. . .  309 

Beepasturage 307 

Bee  pasturage  in  spring 308 

Bee  pasturage  in  summer..  308 
Bee  pasturage  in  autumn  . .  308 
Bee  queen,  fertilization  of 

the 312 

Bee  queen,  supplying  with.  309 

Bee  queen,  rearing  of 316 

Bees,  sting  of 332 

Bees,     supplying    with    a 

queen 309 

Bees,  swarming  of 311 

Bees,  swarming,  artificial..  311 
Bees,  swarming,  to  prevent  309 
Bees,  swarms  going  to  the 

woods 309 

Bees,    swarming,    artificial 

vs.  natural 310 


CONTENTS. 


579 


PAGE. 

Bees,  wintering 313 

Bees,     woods,     swarming, 

going  to  the 309 

Belladonna,  antidote  for.. .  328 

Belly  wounds,  in  cattle 185 

Beef,  pickled 280 

Beets,  pickled 294 

Beet-root,  pickled ...  294 

Beetle,  black,  blister 362 

Beetle,  bogus,  Colorado  po- 
tato   380 

Beetle,  Colorado  potato 380 

Beetles,  to  destroy 351 

Beetle,  elm  tree 364 

Beetle  flea,  grape  vine 387 

Beetle,  j  umping  sumach . . .  406 

Beetle,  May 368 

Beede,  May 371 

Beetle,  margined  blister  .. .  362 

Beetle,  potato 380 

Beetle,  steel  blue 387 

Beetle,  smoke  tree 406 

Beetle,  striped  blister 362 

Beetle,  three-lined  lea! 362 

Beetle,  turnip  flea 395 

Big  head  in  horse 132 

Big  leg  in  horse 132 

Big  shoulder  in  horse 132 

Bilious  colic 333 

Bilious  complaints 333 

Bill,  due 458 

Bill  of  exchange... 458 

Bill  of  sale 458 

Birds,  to  preserve 281 

Bismarck  brown  dye,   ani- 
line  566 

Bites,  harvest  bug 318 

Bites  of  horse  by  gad  fly. . .   Ill 

Bites  of  insects .  326 

Bites  of  insects,  horse ill 

Bites  of  mad  dogs 318 

Bites  of  serpents. ..... . 318 

Bites  in  sheep 223 

Bites  and  stings  of  insects  .  318 
Bitter  almonds  oil,  antidote 

for 327 

Black  ants,  to  destroy 350 

Black  bee,  to  destroy 350 

Black  dye,  aniline 5°4 

Blackberry,  culture  of 493 

Blackberries,  canning 284 

Blackberry  bush  borer 406 

Blackberry  cordial 333 

Blackberry  wine 305 

Black  blister  beetle 362 

Black  leg  in  cattle  .. 1 70 

Black  quarter  in  cattle 1 71 

Black  rat  blister  beetle 362 

Black  teeth  in  swine 234 

Black  tongue  cattle 158 

Black  varnish 436 

Black  varnish  for  harness . .  44 1 
Black  varnish  for  iron  work  436 

Black  varnish  for  wood 436 

Black  water-in  cattle 158 

Bladders,  to  prepare 409 

Bladder,  cattle,  stone  in  the  147 
Bladder  of  dogs,  inflamma- 
tion of  the 278 

Bladder,    horse,    calculi  in 
the 100 


PAOB. 

Bladder  of  horse,  diseases  of 
the 99 

Bladder,  inflammation  of  in 

cattle,  drink  for 249 

Bladder,     inflammation    of 

the,  in  catde 175 

Blain  in  cattle 170 

Blanketing  horse 144 

Blast  in  sheep 205 

"  Blasting"  cattle 180 

Bleaching  lard 287 

Bleeding  from  the  bowels.  -  319 

Bleeding,  cattle,  to  stop 186 

Bleeding  cattle,  utility  of . .   145 
Bleeding  cattle,  when  neces- 
sary     145 

Bleeding  calves  from  navel 

string 193 

Bleeding  the  horse.. .-   123 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs  ...  319 
Bleeding  from  the  mouth..  319 

Bleeding  at  the  nose 310 

Bleeding  from  the  stomach.  319 
Bleeding  of  the  stomach  ...  346 

Bleeding  swine 234 

Bleeding  of  swine ...  237 

Bleeding      from      varicose 

veins 319 

Bleeding  of  wounds 319 

Blight  in  fruit  trees,  to  cure  493 
Blight  in  apple  trees,  to  pre- 
serve from 489 

Blight,  frozen,  pear  tree 546 

Blight,  leaf,  pear  tree 546 

Blight,  onion 538 

Blight  orange 540 

Blight,  rose  tree .  551 

Blight,  pear  tree .....  546 

Blight,  summer  pear  tree  ..  546 
Blight,  winter  pear  tree....  546 
Blindness  in  poultry  ......  268 

Blind  staggers  in  swine .  238 

Blisters 333 

Blister  beetle,  black- 362 

Blister  beetle,  margined...  362 

Blister  beede,  striped 362 

Blisters  for  horses 243 

Blister,  horse,  sweating  for 

ring-bone 243 

Blister,  horse,  sweating  for 

spavin 243 

Blister,  horse,  sweating  for 

splints 243 

Blister  ointment  for  catde. .  248 
Blister  ointment  for  horses .  243 
Blister,  sweating  for  horses  243 
Blister,  sweating  for  ring. 

bone  in  horse .  243 

Blister,  sweating  for  spavins 

in  horse 243 

Blister,  sweating  for  splints 

in  horses 243 

Blistering  fly,  antidote  for  .  328 

Blistering  horses 126 

Blood,  cattle 170 

Blood,  cattle,  quantity  to  be 

taken 146 

Blood,  how  to  stop 334 

Blood,  horse,  fullness  of...  132 
Blood  in  horse,  how  to  tell  25 
Blood  raising 333 


Blood  striking,  axxtle .  , .  M .     1 70 
Blood-vessels  of  th<  chest  of 
of  horse,  diseases  of. .....     87 

Blood-vessels  of  the  nose, 

diseases  of  the 87 

Bloody  urine,  astringent  for 

horse 242 

Bloody  urine,  horse,  astrin- 
gent for 242 

Blown  in  cattle....,, 167 

Blown  in  cattle,  to  prevent.   167 

Blown  in  sheep..... 205 

Blown  in  sheep,  phys'.c  for.  250 
Blue  spangled  peach  worm.  393 

Blue  dye,  aniline .. 563 

Blue  steel  beetle 387 

Bluestone,  antidote  for 328 

Blue  vitriol,  antidote  for . . .  328 

Board  measurement .  413 

Body  of  horse,  points  of 8 

Bog  in  horse,  how  to  tell . .     25 

Bog  spavin  in  horse 61 

Bogus      Colorado      potato 

beede .' 380 

Boils 1.  334 

Boilers,  measuring 418 

Bone-dust  for  swine 229 

Bones,  poultry,  to  pulverize 

for 266 

Bond,  common 459 

Bond,  to  execute  a  convey- 
ance  460 

Bond  and  mortgage,  assign- 
ment of,  indorsed  on  same  459 
Bond  and  mortgage,  assign- 
ment of. 457 

Bond  and  mortgage,  as  col- 
lateral security,  assign- 
ment of 457 

Bond  for  payment  of  money 

at  different  times 457 

Borer,  apple  twig 407 

Borer,  box  elder 397 

Borer,  apple  tree,  flat- 
headed 316 

Borer,  apple  tree,  round- 
headed 3551 

Borer,  beech 397- 

Borer,  blackberry  bush 406 

Borer,  cherry 397 

Borer,  cherry  twig 407 

Borer,  corn  cob 360 

Borers,  currant 408 

Borer,     flat-headed     apple 

tree 396 

Borer,  grape.  — 386 

Borer,  grape  vine  twig 407 

Borer,  hawthorn 355 

Borer,  hickory  twig .......  407 

Borer,  June  berry.. ......  355 

Borer,  legged  maple 401 

Borer,  linden 397 

Borer,  locust 395 

Borer,  mountain  ash 355 

•  Borer,  mountain  ash  ......   39  7 

Borer,  new,  grape  root 365 

Borer,  oak 397 

Borer,  peach 397 

Borer,  peach .  408 

Borer,  pear 355 

Borer,  pear 397 


58o 


CONTENTS. 


Borer,  pear  twig 407 

Borer,  plum 397 

Borer,  potato  stalk 360 

Borer,  quince...... 35? 

Borer,  quince 460 

Borer,  raspberry 406 

Borer,  tomato'  stalk 360 

Bots  in  horse 91 

Bottled  fruit 303 

Bowels,  bleeding  from  the.  319 

Bones  broken  in  horse 59 

Bowels,    horse,    inflamma- 
tion of  the 92 

Bowels,     inflammation  of, 

dogs 276 

Bowels,  inflammation  of  the, 

in  cattle,  with  costiveness.  169 
Bowels,  loose,  horse......   130 

Bowels,  swelled.. .....  334 

Box  elder  borer 397 

Brain,  cattle,  inflammation 

ofthe 153 

Brain,  inflammation  of,  in 

swine . . 235 

Brain,  in  sheep,  inflamma- 
tion of  the.............  204 

Bran  for  pigs...... .......  229 

Brandy,     alcohol,    liquors, 
antidote  for  ...... ......  327 

Brandy,  fruit  in 303 

Bread  and  milk  poultice 345 

Breaking  colts,  now  to  ....  31 
Breaking  down  in  horses  . .  66 
Breaking  horses........  .  138 

Breaking  oxen 190 

Breast  of  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine..  20 

Breast,  ague  in  the  . 333 

Breath,  bad 337 

Breeding  mares,  best  kind .  13 
Breeds,   poultry,   the  most 

popular..... 256 

Breeding  swine,  age  to....  230 

Breeds,  swine 230 

Brick  making,  hints  on ... .  430 
Brick  ovens,  how  to  make.  409 
Brick  work,  measuring....  416 

Broccoli,  pickled 295 

Broken  bones  in  horse  ....     59 

Broken  chilblains .........  335 

Broken  wind  in  horse. .....     85 

Broken  knee  of  horse 69 

Brood  mare,  general  man- 
agement of  the 28 

Brooded  eggs,  cooling  of..  273 

Bronchitis  in  catde ....   180 

Bronchitis,  horse 71 

Bronchitis,  chronic,  in  horse  72 
Broom  corn,  culture  of .. ..  506 

Bruises,  cattle 187 

Brushes,  varnish,  care  of..  435 
Buckeye  in  horse. ....  ....   108 

Buckskins,  to  tan 433 

Bug,  cabbage 377 

Bug,  chinch. 396 

Bug,  May 371 

Bug  poison,  antidote  for  . . .  329 

Bug,  potato. . 380 

Bug,  potato,  antidote  for. ..  328 

Bugrrose... 366 

Bug.  squash  .............  384 


MM. 

Bug,  Western  potato 380 

Bugs,  bed,  to  destroy 350 

Buildings      and      grounds, 

choosing  a  location  for. . .  444 
Buildings,  planting  near ...  454 

Building  site,  selecting  a 444 

Bull  burnt  in  cattle,  to  treat  191 
Bull  burnt  cattle,  lotion  for  250 
Bulling  in  cow,  to  produce .  191 

Bunion,  cure  for. 337 

Burns  and  scalds 320 

Burns  and  scalds  ....  .....  337 

Burns,  tea  leaves  for 337 

Bushes,     gooseberry,    mil- 
dew on 507 

Butter,  apple 280 

Butter,  apple,  Pennsylvania, 

to  make.... 280 

Butter,  hints  on  making 493 

Butter,   improved    coloring 

for 501 

Butter  making............  494 

Butter  making,  New  York 

factory 494 

Butter  making,  New  York.  496 
Butter  making,  Philadelphia  495 

Butter,  packing 280 

Butter,  preserving 280 

Butter,  to  preserve  fresh...  502 

Butter,  to  preserve .....  280 

Butter  making,  Vermont ..  495 
Butter,  rancid,  to  restore  . .  501 
Butter    making,     Western 

mode 496 

Butter,  winter..... 501 

Butter,  working  at. .  501 

Cabbage  bug 377 

Cabbage,  to  cultivate 502 

Cabbage,  to  keep.... 281 

Cabbage,  pickled 294 

Cabbage  plants,  caterpillars 

in - 493 

Cabbage  plants,  to  preserve 

from  fly 502 

Cabbage  plants,  enemies  of, 

to  destroy 502 

Cabbage  plants,  club  foot  in  502 

Cabbage,  red,  pickled 295 

Coxe's  hive  syrup 341 

Cakes,  yeast 292 

Callus  in  colt 143 

Calves,  aperient  drink .  250 

Calves,  bleeding  from  navel 

string 193 

Calves,  cows  slinking 161 

Calves,  costiveness  in 195 

Calves,  diarrhoea 194 

Calves,  diarrhoea  in 250 

Calves,  drink,  aperient,  for  250 

Calves,  hoose  in. 196 

Calves,  inflammation  of  the 

lungs 250 

Calves,  purging,  to  stop 250 

Calves,  young,  diseases  of..  193 
Calving,  cows,  before  and 

during,  treatment  of  the  .  160 
Calving,  treatment  of  cow 

after.... 163 

Camphorated  oil  for  cattle  .  247 

Cane,  grape,  gall  curculio. .  366 


FAOE. 

Cancer 337- 

Cancer  in  eye  of  cattle 1 78. 

Cancerous  ulcers  in  cattle. .   18& 

Canker  worms 399 

Canker  of  the  foot  in  horse.     55 
Canker  in  the  mouth,  cattle   189 

Canker  in  poultry 267- 

Canker  worm,  fail  ........  3991 

Canker  worm,  spring 399 

Canning  apples 284 

Canning  blackberries. .....  284 

Canning  cherries 284 

Canning  currants 284 

Canning  fruit 283 

Canned  fruit,  to  keep 284 

Canning  fruit,  wax  for. ....  444 

Canning  huckleberries. 284 

Canning  meat 287 

Canning  peaches. 288. 

Canning  peaches. 284 

Canned  peaches,  by  the  cold 

process 303 

Canning  pears  ......  .....  284 

Canning  pie  plant 284 

Canning  plums ...........  284 

Canning  quinces. .........  284 

Canning  rhubarb  .........  284 

Canning  strawberries 284 

Canning  tomatoes 292 

Canning  tomatoes 284 

Cantharides,  antidote  for. . .  328- 

Caponizing  poultry 269 

Capped  elbow  in  horse 63 

Capped  hock  in  horse 63 

Carbonic  acid,  antidote  for.  329 
Carbolic  acid,  antidote  for. .  328 

Card  work,  varnish  for. .  437 

Care  of  lambs 199, 

Care    and    management  of 

lambs 225 

Care    and    management  of 

sheep 22c. 

Caries  of  the  jaw  in  horse. .     $o- 
Caries,     or     ulceration    in 

horse 48 

Carpenter's  work,  hints  on.  420 
Carpenter's  work,  measur. 

ing.. 42a 

Carpets,  moths  in,  to  kill ..  352 
Carpets,  ink  spots  on..... .  561 

Carpets,  spots  on ... 561 

Carpets,  to  wash 561 

Carpets,  to  clean 561 

Carriage  turns  and  gates. . .  452 
Carrots,  to  cultivate. ......  502 

Carrot  fly 385 

Cartilage,  horse,  diseases  of    61 
Casting  of  the  horse .......  122. 

Castor  oil  bean,  to  cultivate  492 
Castor  oil  emulsions. ......  33 7 

Castor  oil,  to  disguise 337 

Castor  oil  mixture ....  337 

Castration  of  horse ........   127 

Castration,    horse,   French 

plan 128 

Castration  of  pigs 229 

Castration,  sheep 199 

Cataract  in  eye  of  horse ....   107 

Catarrh 337 

Catarrh  in  cattle 149 

Catarrh,  horse 70- 


CONTENTS. 


58» 


Mm. 

Catarrh  in  poultry 259 

Catarrh  in  sheep. .........  226 

•Catarrh  in  swine. .........  238 

Cat,  catching  chickens 273 

Catechu  brown  dye,  aniline  568 
Caterpillar,  apple  tree  tent.  394 
•Caterpillar  in  cabbage  plant, 

to  destroy 

Caterpillar,  cotton 375 

Caterpillars,  to  destroy....  351 
Caterpillar  tent  of  the  forest  392 

'Catsup,  tomato 292 

Cattle 145 

Cattle,   age  by  the  horns, 

how  to  tell 145 

Cattle,  age  of,  how  to  tell. .  145 

Cattle,  alterative  drink 250 

Cattle,      alterative,      tonic 

powders 250 

'Cattle,  alum  whey 248 

Cattle  angle  berries  .......  189 

Cattle,  anodyne  drink 248 

Cattle,    anodyne   drink  for 

lockjaw 249 

Cattle,  astringent  drink 248 

Cattle,     astringent     drink, 

with  mutton  suet 248 

Cattle,  astringent,  mild 248 

Cattle,  astringent,  powder  .  249 
Cattle,  astringent,  stimulat- 
ing  248 

Cattle,  belly,  wounds  in 185 

Cattle,  black  leg 170 

Cattle,  black  quarter  in .   171 

Cattle,  black  tongue 1 58 

Cattle,  black  water  in 158 

'Cattle,   bladder,   inflamma- 
tion of  the 175 

•Cattle,   bladder,   inflamma- 
tion of  the,  drink  for 249 

Cattle,  blain  in 170 

•Cattle,  "blasting" 180 

Cattle,  bleeding,  to  stop 186 

Cattle,  bleeding,  utility  of. .   145 
'Cattle,  bleeding,  when  ne- 
cessary  145 

■Cattle,  blister  ointment ....  248 

Cattle,  blood 170 

Cattle,  blood,  quantity  to  be 

taken 146 

•Cattle,  blood  striking 1 70 

Cattle,  blown  in 167 

Cattle,  bowels,  inflammation 

of  the,  with  costiveness..  169 
Cattle,  blown  in,  to  prevent  167 
Cattle,  brain,  inflammation 

of  the 153 

Cattle,  bronchitis  in 1 80 

■Cattle,  bruises 187 

Cattle,  bull  burnt,  to  treat .  191 
Cattle,  bull  burnt,  lotion  for  250 
Cattle,  camphorated  oil  for.  347 

Cattle,  cancer  in  eye 1 78 

Cattle,  cancerous  ulcers....  188 
Cattle,  canker  in  the  mouth  189 
Cattle,  care  and  management  145 

Cattle,  catarrh,  in 149 

Cattle,  charge  for  lameness.  249 
Cattle,  charge  for  old  strains  249 
Cattle,     chest,     cavity    of, 
wounds  in 185 


rxax. 
Cattle,  chine  felon  ........  151 

Cattle,  chokinf 178 

Cattle,  cleansing  ointment .  247 

Cattle,  clue-bound 189 

Cattle,  colds  and  coughs...  148 
Cattle,  colic  in. ...........  166 

Cattle,  cordial  drink. ......  247 

Cattle,  cordial  drink. ......  249 

Cattle,  cough  and  cold 148 

Cattle,  cow-pox 191 

Cattle,  cow-pox,  lotion  for .  250 

Cattle,  cud  in,  loss  of 158 

Cattle,  diarrhoea  or  purging  146 
Cattle,  discutient  lotion ....  249 
Cattle,  diseases  and  reme- 
dies  145 

Cattle,  diuretic  drink 248 

Cattle,  drink,  alterative....  250 

Cattle,  drink,  anodyne 248 

Cattle,    drink,     astringent, 

with  mutton  suet 248 

Cattle,  drink,  astringent...  248 

Cattle,  drink,  cordial 248 

Cattle,  drink,  cordial 249 

Cattle,  drink  for  cough  and 

fever 247 

Cattle,  drink,  diuretic 258 

Cattle,  drink  for  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bladder 249 

Cattle,  drink,  expectorant..  247 

Cattle,  drink,  physic  . .  248 

Cattle,  drink,  purgative....  248 

Cattle,  drink,  purging 247 

Cattle,  drink,  rheumatic  ...  247 
Cattle,     drink,     stimulant, 

warm 248 

Cattle,  drink,  stimulating..  247 
Cattle,  drink,  stimulating..  248 
Cattle,  drink,  sulphur,  purg- 
ing  247 

Cattle,  drink,  tonic 247 

Cattle,  drink,  tonic 248 

Cattle,  drink,  tonic,  for  mur- 
rain  249 

Cattle,  drink,  turpentine,  for 

worms 247 

Cattle,  drink,  for  the  yellows  247 

Cattle,  dysentery 155 

Cattle,  embrocation  for  bite 

of  serpents 249 

Cattle,  embrocation,  rheum- 
atic...   247 

Cattle,      embrocation      for 

strains 249 

Cattle,  epizoot.  in 74 

Cattle,  expectorant  drink. . .  247 

Cattle,  eye,  cancer  in 188 

Cattle,  eye,  disease  of  the..  176 
Cattle,  eye,  inflammation  of 

the .' 177 

Cattle,  eyelids,  warts  on...  177 
Cattle,  eye  lotion,  sedative.  249 
Cattle,  eye,  ulcer  on  the  lid  1 77 
Cattle,  eye,  ulceration  in. . .   1 78 

Cattle,  fardel-bound 189 

Cattle,  fractures 1 88 

Cattle,  feet,  wounds  in .   185 

Cattle,  fleam,  use  of. 146 

Cattle,  fumigation. ..  249 

Cattle,     garget,     mercurial 
ointment  for 248 


MM, 

Cattle,  gargyse 170 

Cattle,  glands,  inflammation 
of 175 

Cattle  hawks 170 

Cattle,  healing  ointment . . .  247 

Cattle,  hollow  horn  in 1 74 

Cattle,  hoose 148 

Cattle,  hoove  in. 167 

Cattle,  hoove  in,  to  prevent   167 

Calves,  hoove  in 250 

Cattle,  hoove,  to  prevent...  167 

Cattle,  hoven  in ....   167 

Cattle,  horn,  ail  in........   174 

Cattle,  hornets,  sting  of....  184 

Cattle,  hydrophobia 1 92 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

bladder 17$ 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

brain  in 153 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

bowels,  with  costiveness .   169 
Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

eye I7T 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

glands 175 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

larynx 182 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

liver 151, 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

lungs 149 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

pharynx 189 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

throat 182 

Cattle,  inflammation  of  the 

trachea 180 

Cattle,  influenza  in ....... .   149 

Cattle,  iodine  ointment 248 

Cattle,  jaundice,  or  yellows 

in 152 

Cattle,  joint  felon,  or  rheum- 
atism  .  150 

Cattle,  lameness,  charge  for  249 
Cattle,  larynx,  inflammation 

of  the 182 

Cattle,  leeeh  bites 184 

Cattle,  leg  amputated 188 

Cattle,  lice,  mercurial  oint- 
ment for 250 

Cattle,  liniment ....... .  249 

Cattle,  live,   measuring  to 

estimate  weight  .... 415 

Cattle,   liver,    inflammation 

ofthe 151 

Cattle,  lockjaw 179 

Cattle,     lockjaw,     anodyne 

drink  for 249 

Cattle,      lockjaw,       physic 

drink  for 249 

Cattle,  lotion  for  bul}.  burnt.  250 
Cattle,  lotion  for  cow-pox..  250 

Cattle,  loss  of  cud  in 158 

Cattle,  lotion,  discutient....  249 
Cattle,  lotion,  disinfectant..  248 
Cattle,  lotion  for  the  eyes, 

strengthening 249 

Cattle,  lotion  lor  vermin 250 

Cattle,  madness  in 192 

Cattle,     management     and 

care  of 145 


5S2 


CONTEN T 


PAGE 

Cattle,  mange 181 

Cattle,  mange  ointment....  249 
Cattle,  mercurial  ointment 

for  garget 248 

Cattle,  mercurial   ointment 

for  vermin 250 

Cattle,  mild  astringent 248 

Cattle,  mouth,  canker  in...  189 

Cattle,  murrain 173 

Cattle,  murrain,  drink  for . .  248 
Cattle,  mutton  suet,  astrin- 
gent drink  with 248 

Cattle,  ointment,  blister 248 

Cattle,  ointment,  cleansing.  247 
Cattle,  ointment,  healing. . .  247 

Cattle,  ointment,  iodine. 248 

Cattle,  ointment  for  mange.  249 
Cattle,  ointment,  mercurial, 

garget 248 

Cattle,  ointment,  mercurial, 

for  vermin 250 

Cattle,   ointment    for    sore 

teats 248 

Cattle,  pestilential  fever 173 

Cattle,  pharynx,  inflamma- 
tion of  the 189 

Cattle,  phrenitis . . . .  .... ..   154 

Cattle,  physic  drink 248 

Cattle,    physic    drink,    for 

lockjaw 249 

Cattle  plague 154 

Cattle  pleurisy. ...... 150 

Cattle,  pleuro-pneumonia..   181 

Cattle  poisons 183 

'Cattle,  purging,  or  diarrhoea  146 

Cattle,  purging  drink 247 

Cattle,  quarter  evil  in......  170 

Cattle  rabies 192 

Cattle,  red  water  in  . .  156 

Catde,   remedies    and  dis- 
eases  , 145 

Cattle,  rheumatism,  or  joint 

felon 150 

Cattle,  rinderpest 158 

Cattle,  rheumatic  drink 2"» 

Cattle,  rheumatic  embroca- 
tion   247 

Cattle,  seton,  artificial 148 

Catde,  seton,  mode  of  in- 
serting a 148 

Cattle,  scouring  rot  in 155 

Cattle,    serpents,    embroca- 
tion for  bites  of 249 

Cattle,  slimy,  flux 155 

Cattle,  sore  mouth  in 154 

Cattle,  sore  teats,  ointment 

for 248 

Cattle,  snakes,  bites  of,  em- 
brocation for 249 

Cattle,  staggers I<54 

Cattle,    stimulating    astrin- 
gent    248 

Cattle,  stimulating  drink. . .  247 
Cattle,  stimulating  drink...  248 

Cattle,  sting  of  hornets 184 

Cattle,  stone  in  the  urinary 

passages,  or  bladder 147 

Cattle,  sting  of  wasps 1 84 

Cattle  strains 187 

Cattle  strains,   embrocation 
for 249 


PAGE. 

Catde,  strains,  old,  charge 
for 249 

Catde,  sulphur  purging 
drink 247 

Catde,  swimming  in  the 
head 154 

Cattle,  teats,  sore,  oint- 
ment for 248 

Catde,  throat,  inflammation 

ofthe 182 

Cattle,  thrush 158 

Cattle,  tonic  drink . 247 

Cattle,  tonic  powders,  alter- 
ative  250 

Cattle,  tonic,  strong  . 249 

Cattle,  true  red  water  in 157 

Cattle,  turpentine,  drink  for 

worms 247 

Cattle,  ulcer  on  eyelid 177 

Cattle,  ulcers,  cancerous 188 

Cattle,  ulceration  in  eye....   170 

Cattle,  vermin  in 166 

Cattle,  vermin,  lotion  for  ..   250 
Cattle,    vermin,    mercurial 

ointment  for. 250 

Cattle,  warbles 166 

Cattle,  warm  drink,  stimu- 
lant  248 

Cattle,      warm      stimulant 

drink 248 

Cattle,  warts  on  eyelids ... .   177 

Catde,  wasps,  sting  of. 184 

Cattle,  whey  alum 248 

Cattle  worms. 149 

Cattle    worms,    turpentine 

drink  for 247 

Cattle,  wounds  in  belly. 185 

Cattle,  wound  in  cavity  of 

chest 185 

Cattle,  wounds  in  feet 185 

Cattle,   wounds,   treatment 

of 186 

Cattle, -wounds 184 

Cattle,     the      yellows,     or 

jaundice 152 

Cattle,  yellows,  drink  for..   247 
Cattle,  young,  inflammation 

of  the  lungs 150 

Cauliflower,  to  cultivate 502 

Cauliflower,  to  keep 281 

Cauliflower,  pickled... 295 

Cauteries 243 

Caustic  astringent  powder, 

for  foot-rot  in  seeep 251 

Caustic,  for  corns 335 

Caustic  potash,  antidote  for  327 

Caustics,  horse 243 

Caustic,  lunar,  antidote  for.  329 

Ceiling  joists 421 

Celery,  culture  of 503 

Celery,  to  keep 281 

Cellars,  to  keep  from  freez- 
ing  5°3 

Cement,  for  china 409 

Cement,  for  crockery 409 

Cement,  egg 410 

Cement,  for  glass. ........  409 

Cement,  Indian .. 409 

Cement,  for  leather...... .  410 

Cement,  for  marble 410 

Cement,  measuring 419 


PAGK. 

Cement,  for  metals  .......  409 

Cement,  for  wood 409- 

Chapped  hands 334 

Chapped  heels  in  horses ...  m 

Chapped  lips 342. 

Charcoal,  for  swine 229 

Charcoal,  for  turkeys 2  72 

Charge,  arnica,  horse 244 

Charges,  horse 244 

Charges,  horse,  arnica 244 

Charge,    for    lameness    in 

cattle 249 

Charge   for  old    strains    in 

cattle 249 

Chattel  mortgage,  to  secure 

a  money  demand 458 

Chattel  mortgage,  to  secure 

note 459 

Cheese,  to  make 504 

Chemic  blue  dye,  aniline. . .  568 

Chemic  green  dye,  aniline  .  568 

Cherries,  canning 284 

Cherries,  dried 281 

Cherries,  pickled 294 

Cherries,  preserved 300 

Cherry  borer 397 

Cherry,  culture  of 516 

Cherry  twig  borer 407 

Chest,    blood-vessels   of  in 

horse,  diseases  ofthe... .  87 
Chest,    cattle,     cavity    of, 

wounds  in 185 

Chest  of  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine    20- 

Chest  of  horse,  water  in  the 

cavity. 85 

Chesnut  pruner 407 

Chickens — See  Poultry. 

Chickens,  age  of 266 

Chickens,  age,  profitable...  253 

Chickens,  apoplexy 257 

Chickens,  the  best  breeds..  256 

Chickens,  best  for  eggs ....  256 

Chickens,  best  for  the  table  256 

Chickens,  blindness  in 268- 

Chickens,  cats  catching. 273 

Chickens,  canker  in 267 

Chickens,  caponizing  in  . . .  269 
Chicken  cholera,  remedy  for  272 

Chickens,  consumption  in . .  261 

Chickens,  costiveness  . 268- 

Chickens,  cholera,  to  cure  .  273 

Chickens,  cramp  in......  .  265 

Chickens,  crop  -bound.. 262 

Chickens,  croup  in 267 

Chickens,  diarrhoea  in 262 

Chickens,  diseases  of 256 

Chickens,  drinking  and  feed- 
ing    253 

Chickens,  droppings  of . 255 

Chickens,  eggs,  eating  their  265 

Chickens,  epizoot.  in......  274 

Chickens,  epilepsy..  . 257 

Chickens,  fattening  . 2kj 

Chickens,  fattening  coops . .  267 
Chickens,    feathers,    eating 

their 267- 

Chickens,      fumigation     of 

houses 255 

Chickens,  gapes  in. . 259 

Chickens,  giddiness  in 258 


CONTENTS. 


583. 


PAGE. 

Chicken  houses,  to  clear  of 

vermin 256 

Chickens,    inflammation    of 

the  oil- vessel  in 268 

Chickens,    inflammation   of 

the  stomach 265 

Chickens,  lice  on 264 

Chickens,  management  of. .  272 

Chickens  for  market 266 

Chickens,  megrims  in 265 

Chicken  mites 272 

Chickens,  paralysis  in 258 

Chickens,  pip  in 258 

Chickens,  rheumatism  in . ..  265 

Chickens,  room  for 252 

Chickens,  roots  for. .......  252 

Chickens,  roup  in 260 

Chickens,  rump  root  in 268 

Chickens,  ulcers  in 266 

Chickens,  vermin  in 264 

Chickens,  vertigo  in 258 

Chickens,  white  comb  in...  264 

Chilblains 334 

Chilblains 337 

Chilblain  balm 334 

Chilblains,  broken 335 

Chilblains,  cure  for 334 

Chilblains,    itching,    lotion 

**;•- 334 

Chilblain  lotion 334 

Chilblain  ointment 334 

Chilblains,  Russian  remedy 

for 344 

Children 334 

Children,  worms  in 349 

Children,  diseases  in 336 

Children,  swelled  bowels  in  334 

Chills 339 

Chill  in  turkey  chicks 272 

Chimneys,  how  to  measure.  41 7 

Chinch  bug ...  396 

Chine  felon  in  cattle 151 

China,  cement  for 409 

Chinese  varnish 43  7 

Chinese  vermillion,  antidote 

for 329 

Chloride  of  tin,  antidote  for  331 
Chloride  of  zinc,  horse,  use 

of 243 

Chloride  of  zinc,  horse,  use 

of-: - 344 

Chlorine,  antidote  for 329 

Chloroform,  horse,  use  of  .   121 

Chockered  sheep 207 

Choking.. ............  320 

Choking,  cattle 178 

Choking  in  swine 234 

Cholera,    chicken,    remedy 

for.... 272 

Cholera,  chicken,  to  cure..  273 

Cholera  in  hogs 234,  533 

Cholera,  remedy  for. ......  335 

Cholera  remedy  ..........  336 

Cholera  in  swine 234 

Chopped  pickles ......  294 

Chromos,  varnish  for......  438 

Chronic  diarrhoea 338 

Chronic  diarrhoea  in  horse, 

anodyne  drench  for 241 

Cider  vinegar . ....  293 

Cider,  how  to  keep  sweet. .  281 


PAG*. 

Cions,  to  cut  and  preserve. 

Cisterns,  how  to  build 411 

Citric  acid,  antidote  for....  327 

Citron  melon,  preserved 298 

Clarifying  tallow 292 

Clatting  of  sheep  .........   198 

Cleaning  feathers .........  572 

Cleaning  the  hair ... 341 

Cleansing  ointment  for  cat- 
tle  . 247 

Cleansing    of    wounds     in 

sheep .. . 224 

Clicking  in  horse 131 

Clipping  horse 32 

Cloth,  cleaning  and  scour- 
ing  561 

Cloth,  renovating  of. 562 

Cloth,  black,  to  revive  the 

color  of 562 

Clothing  on  fire 325 

Clothing,    moths,    to    pre- 
serve from ......  352 

Clover  hay  worm...... 400 

Club-foot  in  cabbage  plants   502 

Clue-bound  cattle 189 

Clyster,  aperient,  horse 244 

Clyster,  anodyne,  horse,  in 

diarrhoea 244 

Oyster,  horse,  how  to  use.   130 
Clyster,  purgative,  for  horse  242 

Coachmakers'  varnish 437 

Coagulation     of    milk     in 

lambs 200 

Cocks— See  Poultry. 

Codling,  grape.... 367 

Codling    moth,    or    apple 

worm 357 

Codling  moth,  to  trap 537 

Codlins,  pickled . 295 

Coffin  joint,  horse,  strain  of    65 

Cold 337 

Cold  and  cough  in  cattle. ..   148 

Cold,  horse 70 

Cold,  sheep,  and  discharge 

from  the  nose 206 

Colic 321 

Colic,     antispasmodic,     in 

horse .  241 

Colic,  antispasmodic  clyster, 

for  horse  . ..........  241 

Colic,  bilious 333 

Colic  in  cattle 166 

Colic,  flatulent,  in  horse.. .    94 

Colic  in  horse.... 93 

Colic,  horse,  anodyne  ball 

for 240 

Colic,      horse,       anodyne 

drench  for 240 

Colic,  horse,  antispasmodic 

for 241 

Colic,  horse,  antispasmodic 

clyster  for  .......... 241 

Colic,  painters. 345 

Colic,  spasmodic,  in  horse..     94 

Colic  in  swine 233 

Collars,  horse,  how  to  fit  -  -   134 
Collateral     security,     bond 
and  mortgage  assignment 

of 457 

Coloring,  measuring......  419 

Colorless,  varnish 437 


PAGX. 

Colorado      bogus      potato 
beetle 380 

Colorado  potato  beetle 380 

Colorado  potato  bug 380 

Coloring  butter,   improved 

process 501 

Colts — See  Horses. 

Colts,  breaking,  how  to  .. .     31 

Colt  distemper  ....  .......     88 

Colt,  callus  in 143. 

Colts,    care    and    manage- 
ment of 143. 

Colts,  feed  for 32^ 

Colt,  to  prevent  from  jump- 
ing    143 

Common  yellow  bean 383 

Complaints,  bilious 333 

Complaint,  liver 343 

Complaints,  venereal 349 

Composition  roofing,  meas- 
uring  423 

Congestion  of  the  lungs  in 

horse 81 

Concentrated  lye,   antidote 

for 327 

Conium,  antidote  for......  329 

Consumption 336 

Consumption  in  poultry 261 

Convulsions. 321 

Convulsions  in  ducks 273, 

Convulsions  in  horse......   101 

Contracts 451 

Contracts—.?**  Agreements. 
Contract  of  copartnership .  -  46 1 

Contract  with  lunatic 487 

Contract  with  minors 487 

Contraction  of  horse's  foot-     24 

Contractor's  Hen 467 

Conveyances 457* 

Conveyance,  bend,  to  exe- 
cute  - 460M 

Cooling  drench  for  horse  ..  242: 
Cooling  drench  for  horse  . .  246' 
Cooling     fever    drink    for 

sheep... 250 

Cooling  powder  for  mash  for 

horse........... 246 

Coops,  poultry,  for  fattening  267 

Copal  blue  varnish 437 

Copal  green  varnish .......  441 

Copal  pearl  grey  varnish. ..  441 
Copal  purple  varnish ......  443 

Copal  red  varnish.........  442 

Copal  varnish  ...... ......  439 

Copal  varnish,  to  dissolve  in 

alcohol 438 

Copal  varnish,  to  dissolve  in 

turpentine.... 438 

Copal    white    varnish,    to 

make 443 

Copal  yellow  varnish  ... 443 

Copartnership  contract.....  461 

Corallin  dye,  aniline.......  564 

Cordial  balls  for  horse.....  244 

Cordial,  blackberry  . 333 

Cordial  drink  for  cattle  ....  247 
Cordial  drink  for  cattle  ....  248 

Cordial  drink  for  cattle 249 

Cordial  drench  for  horse...  244 
Cordial  and  expectorant  for 
horse 244. 


584 


CONTENTS. 


RIM) 

Cordials,  horse 244 

Corn,  broom,  culture  of. . .  506 

Corn  cob  borer 360 

Corncobs 505 

Corn    cribs,    rat-proof    to 

make 410 

Corn,  culture  of 505 

Corn  maggot 371 

Corn,  to  prevent  being  de- 
stroyed     when      newly 

planted 505 

Corn  seed  worm.... 370 

Corn  seed,  to  select 551 

Corn  stacks,  to  prevent  rav- 
ages of  mice  in.........  505 

Corn  worm 390 

Corns . 337 

Corns,  caustic  for 335 

Corns,  cure  for . 335 

Corns,  false,  in  horse 54 

Corns,  in  horse 54 

Corns    on    horse,    how  to 

tell 24 

Corns,  to  relieve 335 

Corns,  remedy  for 335 

Corns,  solvent 335 

Corns,  soft 335 

Corns,  tender 335 

Cornices,  how  to  measure. .  417 
Corrosive  sublimate,  horse, 

use  of 243 

•Corrosive  sublimate,  horse, 

antidote  for 89 

•Corrosive    sublimate,    anti- 
dote for 329 

Cough,  chronic,  in  horse. . .  76 
Cough,  horse,  how  to  make  15 
Cough,  common,  in  horse  .  75 
Cough  and  cold  in  cattle. ..  148 
Cough  and  fever  drink  for 

cattle 247 

Cough  of  horse,  to  judge  by     15 

Cough  mixture 337 

Cough,  whooping 349 

Costiveness  in  calves 195 

Costiveness  in  horse  ......     76 

Costiveness  in  lambs 20 1 

Costiveness  in  poultry 268 

Costiveness  hvswine 238 

Costiveness,    with    inflam- 
mation of  the  bowels,  in 

cattle 169 

Cotton,  army  worm 375 

Cotton,  caterpillar 375 

Cdtton,  cultivation  of 500 

Cotton,  louse...... ......  386 

Cotton,  planting 506 

Cotton,  rotation  of  crops. . .  506 
Covenant  in  mortgage,   to 

insure 463 

Cow,    bulling  in,   to  pro- 
duce    191 

Cows— See  Cattle. 

Cows,  calves,  slinking 161 

Cows,    before    and  during 

calving,  treatment  of  the.    160 
Cows,  calving,  treatment  af- 
ter     163 

Cows,   downfall  in  the  ud- 
der of 159 

Cow,  drop  164 


PAM. 

Cows,  to  dry  of  milk 181 

Cow  fever,  milk 164 

Cows,  fever,  puerperal....  158 

Cows,  foot-rot  in 181 

Cows,  garget  in 159 

Cows,  holding  back  milk..  181 

Cowhouses,  to  clean 174 

Cows,  mercurial  garget  oint- 
ment   159 

Cows,  milk  fever 164 

Cows,  milk  mirror  in 166 

Cows,  ointment,  mercurial 

garget 159 

Cow-pox,  in  cattle 191 

Cow-pox,  cattle,  lotion  for  .  250 

Cows,  puerperal  fever....  158 

Cows,  slinking  calves 161 

Cows,  sore  teats 160 

Cows,  teats,  sore 160 

Cows,    udder,    downfall  of 

the,  in 159 

Cows,   weeds 160 

Crab  apple,  preserved 298 

Crab  apple,  sweet  pickled.  295 

Crab,  gauger 371 

Cracked  hoof  in  horses ... .  131 

Cracks  in  stoves,  to  mend.  414 

Cramp 321 

Cramp  in  poultry 265 

Cranberry,  culture  of.  ....  507 

Cranberry  curculio 3 73 

Crape,  to  restore 562 

Cream,  glycerine 339 

Creosote,  antidote  for 328 

Crib-biter   horse,    how    to 

tell 18 

Crib-biting,  horse,  how  to 

prevent 40 

Cribs,   corn,  rat-proof,    to 

make 410 

Crickets,  to  destroy .......  351 

Cricket,  tree 367 

Crimson,  dye,  aniline.....  566 

Crockery,  cement  for 400 

Crop-bound  in  poultry....  262 

Crossing  of  swine 230 

Croup 336 

Croup  in  poultry.  ........  207 

Crystal  varnish... 438 

Cucumber,  culture  of 506 

Cucumber  moths 384 

Cucumbers,  pickled... 294,  295 
Cucumbers,    preserved    to 

imitate  ginger 298 

Cud,  loss  of  in  cattle 1 58 

Culture  of  apples 514 

Culture  of  artichoke ......  490 

Culture  of  aromatic  herbs . .  490 

Culture  of  asparagus 490 

Culture  of  barley 49 1 

Culture  of  blackberry 493 

Culture  of  beans 492 

Culture  of  cherry 516 

Culture  of  Lima  beans 492 

Culture  of  castor  oil  beans.  492 

Culture  of  cabbage 502 

Culture  of  cauliflower 502 

Culture  of  carrots 502 

Culture  of  celery 503 

Culture  of  corn 505 

Culture  of  currants 519 


MAE 

Culture  of  broom  corn....  506 

Culture  of  cotton 506 

Culture  of  cucumber 506 

Culture  of  cranberry 507 

Culture  of  egg-plant 510 

Culture  of  fig 510 

Culture  of  fruit 513 

Culture  of  garlic 508 

Culture  of  grapes 517 

Culture  of  gooseberries 519 

Culture  of  Hyacinth 512 

Culture  of  horse  radish 533 

Culture  of  oats 537 

Culture  of  onions 538 

Culture  of  parsnips 539 

Culture  of  parsley 537 

Culture  of  peach  trees 516 

Culture  of  plum  trees 516 

Culture  of  pot  herbs 490 

Culture  of  quinces 516 

Culture  of  raspberry 518 

Culture  of  strawberry .....  517 

Culture  of  sweet  herbs 490 

Culture  of  pear 543 

Culture  of  peanut. ........  549 

Culture  of  peas 546 

Culture  of  pepper. ........  541 

Culture  of  sweet  potatoes . .  547 

Culture  of  radishes 547 

Culture  of  rhubarb 551 

Culture  of  rye 551 

Culture  of  sage 551 

Culture  of  sorghum 552 

Culture  of  spinach 552 

Culture  of  squash 552 

Culture  of  tobacco 554 

Culture  of  tomatoes 553 

Culture  of  turnip 559  < 

Curb,  in  horse 67 

Curb,  horse,  how  to  tell. . .  25 

Curculio,    apple . 381 

Curculio,  cranberry 3  73 

Curculio,  four-humped....  381 

Curculio,  gall,  grape  cane.  366 

Curculio,  peach  tree 372 

Curculio,  pear  — 379 

Curculio,  plum.. 372 

Curculio,   quince...... 379 

Curing  green  hides 41 1« 

Curing  hams 285 

Curing  hams,  Lease's   re- 
cipe  285 

Curing  hams,  Potts' recipe.  285 

Curing  meat 287 

Curing  rabbit  skins .... 434 

Curing    sheep   skins    with 

the  wool  on.  .. .. 434 

Curing  and  stretching  small  t 

skins 432 

Curling  Feathers 572 

Currant  borers..... 40S 

Currants,  canning 284 

Currant,  culture  of. 519 

Currants,   preserved 299 

Currant  wine 306 

Currant  worm 374 

Curing  and  cutting  hay 528 

Custard,  jelly 304 

Cuts 321 

Cut  worms 358 

Cutter,  in  horse,  how  to  tell  25 


CONTENTS. 


585 


PAQK. 

Cuttings,  to  choose 509 

Cutting  dons. ...........  504 

Cutting  and  curing  hay....  528 
Cutting  horse,  remedy  for.     44 

Cuttings,  to  manage 509 

Cuttings,  to  protect 509 

Cyanogen,  antidote  for..... 329 
Cyanide  of  potassium,  anti- 
dote for..... 327 

Dammar  varnish 440 

Damsons,  preserved......  300 

Dandruff 336 

Deadly  night-shade,    anti- 
dote for 328 

Deafness 338 

Death,  how  to  distinguish.  322 
Death,  sheep,   to  examine 

after 208 

Debility,  general,  in  swine.  233 

Debility  in  sheep 222 

Debility,  tonic  drink  for,  in 

sheep 251 

Deed,  quitclaim 462 

Deed,  warranty .......  462 

Deer  skins,  to  dress 410 

Demand  note 458 

Demulcent    drench,    for 

horse 244 

Demulcents,  horse. 244 

Dewberries,  preserved 300 

Diabetes,     astringent    f o  r 

horse .  o\>. 

Diabetes  in  horse 99 

Diabetes,  horse,  astringent 

for 242 

Diaphoretic,    drench    for 

horse 244 

Diaphoretics,  horse 244 

Diaphragm,  spasm  of  the, 

in  horse 86 

Diarrhoea  in  calves 194,  250 

Diarrhoea,  cattle 146 

Diarrhoea,  chronic 388 

Diarrhoea,    chronic,    in 
horse,    anodyne    drench 

for 241 

Diarrhoea  in  horse 95 

Diarrhoea    in  horse,    ano- 
dyne drench  for 241 

Diarrhoea,     horse,    astrin- 
gent for 242 

Diarrhoea,  mild  remedy  for.  229 

Diarrhoea  in  poultry 262 

Diarrhoea,    or    purging  in 

sheep 222 

Diarrhoea,  remedies  for 338 

Diarrhoea,  sheep,  or  purg- 
ingin. ............ ....  222 

Diarrhoea  in  swine .......  238 

Digestives,  horse — 245 

Digestive    ointment  for 

horse 245 

Digitalis,  antidote  for.....  328 

Diphtheria.... 336 

Diseases  in  children 336 

Diseases  of  the  eye,  in  cat- 
tle    176 

Diseases  of  geese 274 

Diseases  of  horses,  general 
remarks 48 


TASK. 

Diseases  of  kidneys .......  343 

Diseases  of  poultry .......  256 

Diseases  of  sheep 197 

Diseases  of  young  calves..   193 
Discharge  from  the  nose  in 

sheep,  and  cold 206 

Discutient,  lotions  for  cat- 
tle   249 

Disinfectant,  lotion  for  cat- 
tle   248 

Dislocations. 323 

Dislocation  of  hip  joint  in 

horse 68 

Dislocation,  horse 68 

Dislocation    of    patella   in 

horse 68 

Displaced  womb  in  sheep . .   199 

Distemper  in  colts ...     88 

Distemper  in  dogs 275 

Diuretic,   cooling  ball,  for 

horses 245 

Diuretic  drink  for  cattle. ..  240 

Diuretics,  horse 245 

Diuretic  powder  for  mash, 

for  horse 245 

Diuretic  stimulating  ball  for 

horses 245 

Dizziness  in  sheep 223 

Docks,  to  eradicate 510 

Docking,   horse... 128 

Dogs,  asthma  in.. 277 

Dogs,    bladder,   inflamma- 
tion of  the 278 

Dogs,    bowels,     inflamma. 

tionofthe 276 

Dogs  and  their  diseases —  275 

Dogs,  distemper  in 275 

Dogs,  dropsy  in 277 

Dogs,  ear,  internal  abscess 

in - 276 

Dogs,    ear,     ulceration    of 

the 276 

Dogs,  eyes,  weak  in 278 

Dogs,  fits 275 

Dogs,  fleas  in 278 

Dogs,  hydrophobia  in....  278 

Dogs,  ophthalmia  in 277 

Dogs,  piles  in 277 

Dogs,  scalds  in 277 

Dogs,  sore  ears  in ...  277 

Dogs,  sore  feet  in 277 

Dogs,  sore  throat  in 277 

Dogs,  sprains  in 277 

Dogs,  mad. ..........  278 

Dogs,  mad,  bites  of......  318 

Dogs,  mange  in 276 

Dogs,  vermin  in 278 

Dogs,  worms  in......  ....  276 

Dogs,  wounds  in 277 

Domestic    animals,     medi- 
cines for 240 

Draft,  at  sight 458 

Draining 509 

Drench,  anodyne  for  horse, 

in  diarrhoea 241 

Drench,  horse,  anodyne  for 

superpurgation 241 

Drench,  anodyne  for  horse, 
in  chronic  diarrhoea .....   24 1 

Drench,  cooling  for 246 

Drench,  cooling,  for  horse.  242 


TAG*. 

Drench  cordial,  for  horse..  244 
Drench,     diaphoretic,     for 

horse 244 

Drench,      demulcent,     for 

horse 244 

Drench,  horses,  mild  laxa- 
tive  for.. .......... ....  242 

Drench,  horse,  mild  open- 
ing for 242 

Drench,  laxative  for  horse.  242 
Drench,   mild  laxative  for 

horse..... 242 

Drench    marshmallow    for 

horses 244 

Drench,  mild  opening  for 

horse 242 

Drench,  mild,  for  worms  in 

horse 241 

Dressing  deer  skins 410 

Dried  fruit,  to  protect  from 

worms 284 

Drink,  alterative  for  cattle.  250 
Drink,  anodyde  for  cattle . .  248 
Drink,  astringent,  for  cat- 
tle   248 

Drink,  anodyne  for  lockjaw 

in  cattle 249 

Drink,  aperient  for  calves  .  250 
Drink,  astringent  for  lambs.  250 
Drink,    astringent,     with 
mutton  suet  for  cattle...  248 

Drink,  cattle,  anodyne 248 

Drink,    cattle,     for    cough 

and  fever 247 

Drink,  cattle,  for  fever  and 

cough 247 

Drink,  cattle,  tor  purging.  247 
Drink,    cooling    fever,  for 

sheep 250 

Drink,  cordial,  for  cattle...  247 
Drink,  cordial,  for  cattle. . .  249 
Drink,  cordial,  for  cattle...  248 
Drink,  cough  and  fever,  for 

cattle. 247 

Drink,  diuretic  for  cattle..  248 
Drink,  expectorant,  for  cat- 
tle  247 

Drink,  fever  and  cough,  for 

cattle 247 

Drink  for  inflammation  of 

the  bladder,  for  cattle  ...  249 
Drink,  murrain,  for  cattle.  248 
Drink,  physic,  for  cattle...  248 
Drink,  physic  in  lockjaw  in 

cattle 249 

Drink,  purgative  for  cattle.  258 
Drink,  purging  for  sheep..  250 
Drink,  rheumatic,  for  cattle  247 
Drink,  stimulating,  for  cat- 
tle  .' 248 

Drink,    strengthening,   for 

sheep 250 

Drink,  tonic,  for  cattle 247 

Drink,  tonic,  for  cattle 248 

Drink,  tonic,  for  debility  in 

sheep 251 

Drink,  tonic,    general,   for 

sheep 250 

Drink,  tonic,  for  murrain  in 

cattle 249 

Drink,  tonic,  for  sheep 250 


586 


CONTENTS. 


rxax. 
Drink,    turpentine,    cattle, 

for  worms 247 

Drink,  warm  stimulant,  for 

cattle 248 

Drink,  for  yellows,  for  cat- 
tle  247 

Drinking  and  feeding  poul- 
try  253 

Driving,  horse,  abuse  of..     S1 
Drones,  bee,  in  swarming.  314 

Drop,  cow..--. .  .- 164 

Drop  worm -. 369 

Drops  for  headache .......  34 1 

Droppings  of  poultry 255 

Dropsy. 338 

Dropsy  in  dogs......  ....  277 

Dropsy  in  swine — .  238 

Drowned    persons,   to  re- 
store....  823 

Drowned,   to  restore  per- 
sons apparently 323 

Drunkenness,  cure  for 338 

Dry  apples 279 

Dry  picking  in  poultry — .  268 

Drying  cherries 281 

Dryinj  eggs .........  281 

Drying  herbs.. ..........  286 

Drying  gooseberries......  284 

Drying  peaches 288 

Drying  pumpkins........  289 

Drying  string  beans 280 

Dry    white  lead,    antidote 

for :---*. 329 

Ducks,  convulsions  in 273 

Ducks,  to  fatten....... 273 

Due  bill 458 

Dyes,  aniline,  rules  for .  563 

Dyes,  aniline,  quantity....  563 
Dye,  aniline  blue .........  530 

Dye,  aniline  black 564 

Dye,  aniline  orange.......  564 

Dye,  aniline  corallin  ......   564 

Dye,  aniline  red ..........  564 

Dye,  aniline  fuchsine ......  564 

Dye,  aniline  yellow.......  565 

Dye,  aniline  aldehyd..  ....  565 

Dye,  aniline  green  powder.  565 
Dye,  aniline  night  green ...  565 
Dye,  aniline  bismarck brown  566 
Dye,  aniline  crimson ......  566 

Dye,  aniline  Hoffman's  vio- 
let   566 

Dye,  aniline  purple 566 

Dye,  aniline  iodine  green. .  566 
Dye,  aniline  new  atlas  green  566 
Dye,  aniline  napthaline....  567 

Dye,  aniline  picric  acid.. ..  567 

Dye,  aniline  saffronine  ....  567 

Dye,  aniline  scarlet .......  567 

Dye,  aniline  catechu  brown.  568 
Dye,  aniline  chemic  blue. . .  568 
Dye,  aniline  chemic  green.  568 
Dye  colors,  to  discharge. ..  568 
Dye,  compound  colors. ....  568 

Dye,  crimson,  a  shawl  ....  568 

Dye,  gray 569 

Dye  stains  on  hands. ......  569 

Dye,  indigo  blue  for  yarn. .  569 

Dye,  red 570 

Dye,  red-brown 570 

Dye,  scarlet 570 


MM. 
Dyeing 562 

Dyeing  drab  colors 567 

Dyeing  green 567 

Dyeing  yellow. 567 

Dyeing  cotton  with  madder.  569 

Dyeing  feathers 57° 

Dyeing  kid  gloves 569 

Dysentery,  cattle 1 55 

Dysentery,  cures  for 338 

Dysentery  in  horse 95 

Dysentery  in  sheep 222 

Dyspepsia 338 

Dyspepsia,  horse 90 

Earache 339 

Ear,  horse,  diseases  of  the.  105 
Ear,  dogs,  ulceration  of  the.  276 

Ear,  foreign  bodies  in 325 

Ear,  insects  in  the 325 

Ear,  internal  abscess  in  dogs  276 

Ears,  sore,  in  dogs 277 

Ears,  sore,  in  swine. ...  —  238 
Ear  wax,  hardened,  to  re- 
move.   . ...  325 

Eggcement 410 

Eggs,  brooded,  cooling  off.  273 
Eggs,  to  choose  for  hatch- 
ing   273 

Eggs,  to  dry 281 

Eggs,  to  keep 282 

Eggs,  hens  eating  their  ....  265 

Eggs,  to  make  hens  lay. 270 

Eggs,  pickled 282 

Egg  plant,  culture  of 510 

Eggs,  poultry  best  for 256 

Eggs,  poultry  eating  their. .  265 
Eggs,  poultry,  great  layers.  256 
Eggs,    poultry,    layers    of 

small 256 

Eggs,  poultry,  layers  of  me- 
dium   256 

Eggs,    poultry,    layers    of 

large 256 

Eggs,  sex  of 273 

Eggs,  soft  shell. 273 

Eggs,  storing 281 

Elm  tree  beetle.......  ....  364 

Elm  trees,  ulcers  in,  to  cure  510 

Elm  tree  worms 364 

Emaciation,  swine... 233 

Embrocation,    cattle,    for 
bites  of  serpents.. ......  249 

Embrocations,  horse......  245 

Embrocation,  mustard,  for 

horse..... 345 

Embrocation,  rheumatic,  for 

cattle 247 

Embrocation,    stimulating 

for  horse..... 245 

Embrocation  for  strains  of 

cattle 249 

Embrocation,  sweating,  for 

horse..... 245 

Embrocation,  sweating,  for 

windgalls  in  horse 245 

Emetic,  tartar,  antidote  lor.  327 

Emulsions,  castor  oil 337 

Emulsion  for  horse. . . .  245 

English  Vermillion,  antidote 

for 329 

Engraving  on  glass,  varnish  440 


KMB. 

Engravers  stopping  out  var- 
nish  44° 

Engraving,  varnish  for 440- 

Enemata,  horse 244 

Enemies  of  the 309 

Epizoot  in  cattle..... 74 

Enteritis  in  horse 93 

Epizoot  in  chickens 74 

Epizoot  in  sheep 74 

Epizoot  in  swine 74 

Epizoot,  animals  subject  to.  73 
Epizootic  apthae  in  horse. . .     yz 

Epilepsy  in  horse 101 

Epilepsy  in  poultry. . 25 7 

Epilepsy  in  sheep 212 

Epilepsy,  swine 233 

Eruption,  red,  in  swine 238 

Erysipelas 339 

Erysipelas,  sheep 22 1 

Etching,  varnish ...  - 440 

Exchange,  Bill  of 458 

Exemption,  waiver  of. 464 

Executors,  power  of,  to  con- 
vey real  estate 469 

Eye,  bad  in  horse,  how  to 

tell 15 

Eye,  cattle,  diseases  of  the.   176 

Eye,  cattle,  cancer  in 1 78 

Eoe,  cattle,  inflammation  of 

the 177 

Eye,  cattle,  ulceration  in. . .    1 78 

Eye,  cure  for  stye  in 339 

Eye,  foreign  bodies  in 325 

Eye,  horse,  cataract  in  the.  107 
Eye,    inflammation   of,    in 

horse 105 

Eye,  lotion  for  cloudinees, 

in  sheep 251 

Eye    lotion,    sedative,    for 

cattle 249 

Eye,    strengthening   lotion 

for,  in  cattle 249 

Eyes,  granular  inflammation  339 
Eyes  of  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine       26 

Eyes,  horses,  lotion  for  the.  246 

Eyes,  inflamed 339 

Eyes,  inflammation,  granu- 
lar   339 

Eyes,  weak,  in  dogs 278 

Eyes,  weeping 339 

Eye-lid,  cattle,  ulcer  on  ...   177 
Eye-lids,  cattle,  warts  on  ..   177 
Eye-lids,  oxen,  warts  on.  - .   177 
Examining  a  horse ........   146 

Examining  sheep  after  death  208 
Excavations,  measuring. —  415 

Exostosis  in  horse 48 

Expectorant  and  cordial  for 

horse 244 

Expectorant  ball  for  horses.  245 
Expectorant  drink  for  cattle  247 
Expectorants,  horse. 245 

Fainting 325 

False  quarter  in  horse .....  113 
Fall  array  worm..........  394 

Fall  canker  worm. 399 

Fall  webb  worm... ..  392 

Farcy  in  horse. ...  * 121 

Fardel  bound,  cattle 1 89 


CONTENTS. 


587 


Farm,  lease  for 466 

Farmers  should  be  mechan- 
ics  444 

Farrow  sows,  time  to 230 

Farrowing,    near,    sows, 

treatment  of. 239 

Fattening  coops  for  poultry.  267 

Fattening  pigs . 231 

Fattening  pigs,  bad  practice  232 

Fattening  poultry 267 

Fatten  sheep,  for  winter...  226 

Feather  beds,  to  clean 572 

Feathers,  to  clean 5  72 

Feathers,  to  curl 5  72 

Feathers,  to  dye 5  70 

Feathers,    poultry    eating 

their 263 

Feathers,  poultry,  loss  of..  263 

Febrifuges,  horse 246 

Feed  for  bees ......  314 

Feeding  and  drinking  poul- 
try  253 

Feeding   horses,    directions 

for 14 

Feeding  nettles    to    laying 

hens 270 

Feeding  pigs,  how  to 23 1 

Feeding  turkeys 271 

Feet,  horse,  accidents  to...  117 
Feet,  horse,  dryness  of,  how 

to  prevent 38 

Feet,  horse,  fever  of  the. ..     53 
Feet,  horse,  management  of    38 
Feet,  horse,  scaling  in  sum- 
mer   no 

Feet,  sore,  in  dogs 277 

Feet,  swine,  soreness  of  the  236 

Feet,  wounds  in  cattle 185 

Felons,  to  cure 339 

Fence,  fire-proof  wash  for..  522 

Fences  and  hedges 450 

Fence  posts,  to  preserve 522 

Fence  law 470 

Fence  law,  Maine 470 

Fence  law,  Massachusetts. .  470 

Fence  law,  Vermont 470 

Fence  law,  New  Hampshire  470 

Fence  law,  Connecticut .  470 

Fence  law,  New  York.....  470 
Fence  law,  New  Jersey. . ..  470 
Fence  law,  Pennsylvania...  471 

Fence  law,  Delaware 471 

Fence  law,  Maryland 471 

Fence  law,  Virginia 471 

Fence  law,  West  Virginia. .  471 
Fence  law,  North  Carolina.  471 
Fence  law,  South  Carolina.  471 

Fence  law,  Georgia 471 

Fence  law,  Florida. 471 

Fence  law,  Alabama 471 

Fence  law,  Mississippi....  471 

Fence  law,  Texas 472 

Fence  law,  Arkansas 472 

Fence  law,  Tennessee 472 

Fence  law,  Kentucky 472 

Fence  law,  Missouri  ......  472 

Fence  law,  Illinois 472 

Fence  law,  Indiana 472 

Fence  law,  Ohio 472 

Fence  law,  Wisconsin.....  472 
Fence  law,  Michigan..  ....  473 


PA.QX. 

Fence  law,  Minnesota.....  473 

Fence  law,  Iowa 473 

Fence  law,  Kansas. .......  473 

Fence  law,  Nebraska. 473 

Fence  law,  California. 474 

Fetlock  joint  of  horse,  how 

to  examine 21 

Fetlock  of  horse,  stain  of 

the 65 

Fever  and  ague 339 

Fever  ball  for  horses 246 

Fever    cooling    drink    for 

sheep ........  2$o 

Fever    and    cough,    cattle, 

drink  for. . .........  247 

Fever  of  the  feet  of  horse . .  53 
Fever  medicine  for  swine..  251 

Fevers  in  horses 119 

Fever,  milk,  in  cows 1 64 

Fever,  pestilential,  in  cattle  173 
Fever,  puerperal,  in  cows..  158 

Fever,  simple,  in  horses 120 

Fever  sores 339 

Fever,  typhoid,  in  horses..    120 

Fidia,  grape  vine ....  366 

Field  mice 401 

Fig  culture. ...  510 

Figs,  drying 510 

Firing  in  horse..... 125 

Fire,  clothing  on 325 

Fish  culture 572 

Fish,    poisonous,    antidote 

for 330 

Fissures  in  horse,  how  t? 

tell 25 

Fistula  of   the  withers   of 

horse 57 

Fits. 325,  339 

Fits  in  dogs 275 

Fits  in  sheep 228 

Fits  in  swine 233 

Flat  headed  apple  tree  borer  396 

Flat  headed  beech  borer 397 

Flat  headed  box  elder  borer  397 
Flat  headed  cherry  borer. . .  397 
Flat  headed  linden  borer. ..  397 
Flat  headed  mountain  ash 

borer 397 

Flat  headed  oak  borer 397 

Flat  headed  peach  borer. ..  397 
Flat  headed  pear  borer.. ..  397 

Flat  headed  plum  borer. 397 

Flatulent  colic  in  horse .     94 

Flea  beetle,  grape  vine .  387 

Flea  beetle,  turnip 395 

Fleam,  cattle,  use  of ......   146 

Fleas 388 

Fleas,  to  destroy 351 

Fleas  in  dogs ^..  278 

Fleas,  to  get  rid  of 351 

Fleshworms.  ...i 340 

Flies,  to  destroy 351 

Flies,  house 398 

Flies,  to  keep  from  horse..  131 
Flies,  sheep,  troubling  of..  219 
Fly,  blistering,  antidote  for.  328 
Fly,  cabbage,  to  destroy...  502 

Fly,  carrot 385 

Fly,  green...... 368 

Fly,  hessian. . . . 389 

Fly,  meat  to  protect  from..  287 


PAGK. 

Fly,  onion 385 

Flypaper 352 

Fly  powder,  antidote  for. ..  328 

Fly,  radishes 385 

Fly,  saw 374 

Fly,  Spanish,  antidote  for .  328 

Fly  powder  for  sheep 251 

Fly,  turnip.... 385,  522 

Fuchsine,  dye,  aniline 564 

Fumigation,  cattle 249 

Fumigation    of  poultry 

houses 255,  268 

Furniture  varnish 440 

Furniture  varnished 4 1  o> 

Fur  skins,  to  tan 433 

Furring  of  walls,  measuring  422 
Fused  potass,  horse,  use  of  243 
Foal,  mare,  early  treatment 

of  the 30- 

Foal,  mare,  treatment  when 

in 29 

Foaling,    mare,    treatment 

after 29 

Foal,    mare,    wearing    and 

after  treatment  of  the 3 1 

Food  for  pigs 229 

Food,  steaming  cheaply 521 

Foot,   inflammation  of  the 

soft  tissues  in  horse 53 

Foot,  internal  contraction  of 

in  horse,  how  to  tell 24 

Foot,  diseased,  horse,  how 

to  tell 16 

Foot,  horse,  canker  of 55 

Foot,  horse,  contraction  of 

the 24 

Foot,  horse,  contraction  of, 

remedy  for 57 

Foot,  horse,  diseases  of. 49 

Foot,  horse,  diseases  of. 114 

Foot  of  horse,  appearance  of    23 
Foot  of  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine       23, 

Foot  of  horse,  frog,  how  to 

examine 24 

Foot,  horse,  section  of  the.  23 
Foot,  lame,  horse,  how  to 

conceal 18 

Foot  rot  in  cows i8x 

Foot  rot  in  sheep ;  —  213 

Foot  rot  in  sheep,  caustic 

astringent  powder  for. 251 

Foot  rot  in  sheep,  preven- 
tives   215 

Foot,  weak,  in  horse,  how 

to  tell 24 

Foreign  bodies  in  ear 325 

Foreign  bodies  in  eye 325 

Foreign  bodies  in  throat —  332 
Fore  quarter  of  horse,  points 

of. 7 

Forest  tent,  caterpillar  of  the  392 

Foul  brood,  bees 316 

Founder  in  horse 52,  132 

Foundering  in  sheep . 225 

Four-humped  curculio 381 

Fowler's  solution,  antidote 

for 328 

Fox  glove,  antidate  for....  328 

Fractures 325 

Fracture  of  bones  of  horse.     6c 


588 


CONTENTS. 


*AGB. 

Fracture  of  carina  bones  of 
horse. 6b 

Fractures,  cattle.-.- 188 

Fractures  of  the   head  of 
horse. 59 

Fractures  in  horse. — -  .  48,     59 
Fracture  of  lower  jaw  of 
horse. ..............     6b 

Fracture  of  pelvis  of  horse.     59 
Fracture  of  ribs  of  horse ...     59 
Fracture   of  pasterns    of 
horse..................    60 

Fractnre  of  skull  of  horse  - .     60 
Fractures  in  sheep ........  223 

Fractures  of  spine  of  horse.     59 

Frenzy  in  swine 238 

Freckles  .'. 340 

Frog  of  the  foot  of  horse, 

how  to  examine 24 

Frostbite 325 

Fruit,  bottled..... 303 

Fruit  in  brandy. 303 

Fruit,  canning. ...........  283 

Fruit,  canned,  keeping....  284 

Fruit,  canning,  wax  for....  444 

Fruit  culture 513 

Fruit,  dried,  to  protect  from 

worms 284 

Fruit,  to  keep  fresh  in  jars.  303 

Fruit  in  jelly.... 304 

Fruit,  preparation  of  soil. . .  513 
Fruit,  preparation  for  mar- 
ket   520 

Fruits,     preserve,    without 

self-sealing  cans.. 297 

Fruit,  selection  of  trees....  514 
Fruit,  small,  how  to  culti- 
vate . 517 

Fruit,    small,    preserving 

without  cooking 297 

Fruits,  preserved  by  syrups 

without  heat 298 

Fruits    preserved    without 
sugar  or  vinegar ........  298 

Fruit  trees,  insects  injurious 

to. 408 

Fruit  trees,  to  cure  blight  in  493 
Fruit  trees,  to  protect  from 

rabbits 511 

Fruit  trees,  to  prevent  ants 
from  injuring. ..........  521 

Fruit  trees,  to  destroy  moss 

on.... 521 

Fruit    trees,    insects    and 

mice,  to  preserve  from. . .  521 
Fruit  trees,   blight  on,   to 

cure 521 

Fruit  trees,  blossom  on. 521 

Fruit  trees,  coating  for  am- 
putated   branches  and 

wounds  in .. 521 

Fruit  trees,  over-bearing 522 

Fruit,  time  to  gather 521 

•Gad  fly,  sheep,  to  protect 
from ...... ............  226 

Gadfly,  horses,  bites  of...    Ill 
Gallsecola,  type  or  gall  in- 
habiting............ 402 

Gall  curculio,  grape  cane  . .  366 
>Galls,  harness  in  horse 1 10 


rwi. 
Galloping,  horse  to  judge  by  19 
Gall  inhabiting  or  type  gal. 

lsecola. ........ ........  402 

Gall,  lambs..............   199 

Gall  louse,  grape. ........  402 

Gapes  in  poultry. . ....  259 

Garden  spiders,  to  destroy.  508 
Garget  in  cows  ...........  159 

Garget,  mercurial  ointment 

for  in  cattle. 248 

Garget,  mercurial  ointment 

forcow 159 

Gargle  in  geese...........  274 

Gargyse,  cattle...........   170 

Garlic,  culture  of. ........  508 

Garlic,  pickled 295 

Gases,  antidote  for  ........  329 

Gases,  suffocation  from....  332 

Gastritis  in  horse 89 

Gates  and  carriage  turns. ..  452 

Gauging. 414 

Geese,  diseases  of  ....  ....  274 

Geese,  gargle  in. 274 

Geese,  glander  in.........  274 

Geese,  to  manage. ........  2 73 

Geese,  roup  in 274 

Gelatine,  jelly  with 304 

Generative  organs  in  horse, 

diseases  of  the. 101 

Gestation  in  sow 229 

Gestation  in  sow. . 230 

Gherkins,  pick  led 295 

Giddiness,  sheep 203 

Ginger,  green,  pickled 295 

Ginger,  green,  preserved  . .  300 
Ginger,  mock,  preserved. ..  301 
Ginger,  preserved,  to  imitate  299 
Girdler,  twig.............  408 

Glanders  in  geese. ........  2 74 

Glanders  in  horse 1 20 

Glands,    inflammation,    in 

cattle 175 

Glass,  cement  for.... 409 

Glass,  varnish. .....  ......  441 

Glaziers'    work,     measure- 

mentfor 412 

Gleets 339 

Glycerine,  cream 339 

Glycerine,  lotion 340 

Glycerine,  ointment). 344 

Gold  varnish 440 

Gonorrhoea........ 340 

Gonorrhoea  injection 340 

Gonorrhoea,  treatment  of..  340 
Gooseberry  bushes,  mildew 

on 507 

Gooseberry,  culture  of. 520 

Gooseberries,  dried 284 

Gooseberries,  green,  pickled  295 

Gooseberries,  preserved 300 

Gooseberries,  red,  to  keep.  285 
Gooseberry  maggot .......  406 

Gooseberry  midge 406 

Gooseberry  wine 306 

Gooseberry  worms 395 

Goslings,  management  of..  274 

Gouger  crabs 372 

Gouger  plum 371 

Grafting 527 

Grafting  root,  apple  trees . .  528 
Grafting  grape 523 


r-AGE 

Grafting  wax 508 

Grafting  wax,  liquid. . 508 

Graining........... ......  423 

Granular  inflammation  eyes  339 

Grape  cane  gall  curculio 366 

O rape  codling 367 

Grape,  culture  of.........  517 

Grape  gall  louse ..........  402 

Grape  grafting. 523 

Grape  leaf  folder. .........  383 

Grapes,  to  keep  ..........  285 

Grape  phylloxera 402 

Grapes,preservedinbunches  299 
Grapes,  preserved  in  vinegar  300 

Grape  root  borer,  new 365 

Grape  root  borer 386 

Grape  root  louse 404 

Grape  vine  fidia 366 

Grape  vine  flea  beetle 387 

Grape  vine  hopper ........  398 

Grape  vine  plume 367 

Grape  vine  twig  borer 407 

Grape    vine    worm,    pyra- 
midal   385 

Grape  wine.... 306 

Grass  or  army  worm 379 

Grasshoppers. 378 

Gravel 341 

Gravel,  horse  ... 132 

Gray  dye 569 

Grease,  axle 561 

Grease  in  horses.... ......   112 

Grease,  molten  in  horse 96 

Greasing  wagons 569 

Green  powder  dye,  aniline.  565 

Green  copal  varnish 441 

Greenfly 368 

Green  gages,  preserved....  300 

Green  ginger,  pickled 295 

Green  ginger,  preserved —  300 
Green  gooseberries,  pickled  295 

Green  hides,  to  cure 411 

Green  houses,  ants  in,   to 

destroy 491 

Green  house  insects  and  lice  377 
Gieen  peas,  to  preserve.  —  289 
Green  tomatoes,  pickled —  297 
Green,  transparent  varnish.  443 
Grindstones,  measuring. . . .  414 
Ground    glass,   varnish    to 

imitate.... 441 

Grub  in  the  head  in  sheep.  223 

Grubs  in  horse... no 

Grub,  white 368,  371,  520 

Guardian,  appointment  of..  469 

Guinea  fowls ... 273 

Gums  and  teeth,  wash  for. .  347 

Gun  shot  wounds 326 

Gutta  percha  varnish 442 

Hsematurea  in  horse  ......     99 

Hair,  cleaning  the ....  341 

Hair,  loss  of,  in  horse 133 

Hair  restorative 341 

Hair  varnish .. 442 

Hair,  wash  for 341 

Harlequin  cabbage  bug 377 

Halter,  horse,  slipping  the.     45 

Halter  pulling  in  horse 133 

Hams,  to  cure,  Lease's  re- 
cipe   285 


CONTENTS. 


58* 


rxax. 

Hams,  to  care. 285 

Hams,  to  cure,  Pott's  recipe  285 
Hams,  smoked,  to  keep...  286 

Hands,  to  soften. 341 

Hands,  stains  to  remove...  341 
Hands,  to  whiten.........  342 

Hanging,  apparent  death 
from  ............ ......  326 

Hardy  breeds  of  poultry...  256 

Hard  soap,  to  make 390 

Harness,  black  varnish  for.  441 

Harness,  galls  in  horse 1 10 

Harness  for  horse 135 

Harness,  varnish  for 441 

Hartshorn,  antidote  for. .. .  327 

Harvest  bug,  bites  of. 318 

Hat,  bee 313 

Hatching,  eggs  to  choose  for  273 

Hawthorne  Dorer 355 

Hawkes,  cattle 170 

Hawk  moth,  tobacco 387 

Hay,  clover,  management  of  520 
Hay,  cutting  and  curing  ...  528 
Hay,  measuring,  weight  to 

be  estimated 415 

Hay  stacks,  to  ventilate. . ..  528 

Hay  worm,  clover 400 

Headache. 341 

Headache  drops.. 341 

Headache,  sick 341 

Head,  big,  in  horses 132 

Head,  grub  in,  in  sheep...  223 
Head  of  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine.  20 

Head  of  horse,  points  of . . .       7 

Head,  scurf  in 342 

Head,  sheep,  sore... 215 

Head,  swimming  in  the,  in 

cattle 154 

Head,  water  in  the,  sheep.  203 
Healing  ointment  for  cattle.  247 

Healing  salve  . 346 

Heaped  measure. 414 

Heartburn 341 

Heart,  diseases  of,  in  horse    87 

Heat,  apoplexy .  332 

Heaves  in  horse 131 

Heaving  in  sheep 199 

Hedges  and  fences 450 

Hedges  and  hedge  plants..  530 
Hedges,  seed  for  planting. .  533 
Heels,  chapped  in  horses . .   1 1 1 
Heels,  sore,  horses,  astrin- 
gent ointment  for 242 

Hellebore,  antidote  for 329 

Hemlock,  antidote  for 329 

Hemorrhoid  ointment 344 

Hemp  worm 390 

Hens — See  Poultry. 

Hens,  eggs,  eating  their...  265 

Hens,   feeding   nettles   to 

laying .............  270 

Hens,  good  sitters 256 

Hens,  houses —  270 

Hens,  how  to  choose  a  good 

one 270 

Hens,  to  make  lay 270 

Hens,  how  to  make  lay  in 

winter 271 

Hens,  nests  for 253 

Hens'  nests,  treatment  of..  270 


MM, 

Hen  roost,  vermin  in ...  270 

Hens  setting,  how  to  prevent  270 

Henbane,  antidote  for 329 

Herbs,  to  dry 286 

Herbs,  pot,  to  cultivate. . . .  490 
Herbs,  sweet,  to  cultivate. .  490 
Hernia,  horse,  reduction  of.  129 

Hessian  fly 389 

Hiccough....... 342 

Hickory  twig  borer 407 

Hickory  pruner. ..........  407 

Hide-bound,    diaphoretic 

horse 244 

Hides,  green,  to  cure  .....  411 

Hide-bound  in  horse 108 

High  blowing  in  horse 80 

Hind    quarter    of  horse, 

points,of 8 

Hints  on  preserving 297 

Hip  joint,  horse,  dislocation 

in 68 

Hip  joint,  horse,  strains  of.     67 

Hive  syrup,  boxes 341 

Hives,  bee,  the  best 315 

Hives,  bee,  common 315 

Hives,  bee,  position  of 315 

Hoarseness 342 

Hoarseness,  remedies  for..  342 
Hobbles  for  the  horse. ....  122 
Hock,  horse,  strains  in....  67 
Hock  of  horse,    diseased, 

how  to  tell 25 

Hoffman's  violet  dye,  aniline  566 

Hog  cholera 234,  533 

Hog— See  Pig. 
Hog — See  Swine. 

Hogs,  time  to  kill. 529 

Hollow  horn  in  cattle 1 74 

Homestead,  public  lands  ..  485 

Honey — .  310 

Honey,  artificial,  to  keep..  286 

Honey,  to  keep 286 

Honey,  to  take  without  dis- 
turbing the  bees 316 

Hoof  bound  horse ........  133 

Hoof,  cracked,  in  horse  ...  131 

Hoose  in  calves .  196 

Hoose,  cattle. . . ... .  148 

Hoove  in  calves..........  250 

Hoove  in  cattle 167 

Hoove  in  cattle,  to  prevent.  167 
Hopper,  grape  vine .......  398 

Horn  oil  in  cattle 175 

Horn  blower,  tobacco 387 

Hornets,  cattle,  sting  of...  184 
Horns,  age  of  cattle,  how  to 

tell  by  the 145 

Horse,  abdominal  viscera 
and  their  appendages,  dis- 
eases of. 87 

Horse,  age,  average 

Horse,  age  one  year,  how 

to  tell 

Horse,  age  two  years,  how 

to  tell 

Horse,  age  three  years,  how 

to  tell 

Horse,  age  four  years,  how 

to  tell 

Horse,  age  five  years,  how 
to  tell 


PACK. 

Horse,  age  six  years,  how 

to  tell 17- 

Horse,    age    seven    years, 

how  to  tell 17 

Horse,  age  eight  years,  how 

to  tell xi 

Horse,   age    of,   by   teeth, 

how  to  tell 17 

Horse,    age,   how  to    dis- 
guise      ig 

Horse,  alteratives 24a. 

Horse,  alterative  ball 240 

Horse,  alterative  in  debility 

of  the  stomach 24ft, 

Horse,  alterative  for  defec- 
tive secretions 240 

Horse,  alterative  for  disor- 
dered state  of  the  skin. . .  240  • 
Horse,    alterative,    simply 

cooling 240 

Horse,  amaurosis 107 

Horse,  anaesthetics 240 

Horse,  anatomy  of  back.. .     10 

Horse,  anatomy  of  body 1© 

Horse,  anasarca...... .   120- 

Horse,    anatomy    of    fore 

quarter.... 9 

Horse,  anatomy  of  the  head      \. 
Horse,    anatomy  of  hind 

quarter... . n 

Horse,  anatomy  of  middle 

piece 10 

Horse,  anatomy  of  the  neck      8- 
Horse,  anchylosis  in......     48 

Horse,  anodynes 240 

Horse,  anodyne  ball 241 

Horse,    anodyne    ball    for 

colic 240 

Horse,  anodyne  clyster  in 

diarrhoea 244- 

Horse,  anodyne  drench  for 

colic 24c 

Horse,  anodyne  drench  in 
chronic  diarrhoea .......  241 

Horse,  anodyne  drench  in 

diarrhoea 241 

Horse,  anodyne  drench  in 

superpurgation 241 

Horse  antacids..... 241 

Horse,  anthelmintics 241 

Horse,  antispasmodics 241 

Horse,  antispasmodic  clyster 

in  colic 241 

Horse,    antispasmodic    in 

colic 241 

Horse,  antispasmodic  drench  241 
Horse,  antidote  for  poisons    89  - 

Horse,  aperients 241 

Horse,  aperient  clysters 244 

Horse,  apoplexy  in.......   104 

Horse,  arnica  charge 244 

Horse,  arsenic,  antidote  for    89 

Horse,  astringents 242  - 

Horse,  astringent  for  bloody 

urine 242 

Horse,  astringent  for  dia- 
betes   242 

Horse,  astringent  for  diar- 
rhoea.   242 

Horse,  astringent  ointment 
for  sore  heels 242- 


59° 


CONTENTS. 


FAGX. 

Horse,  astringent  lotions..  242 
Horses,  back,  how  to  ex- 
amine  20 

Horse,  back  raking I30 

Horse,  back  sinews,  strains 

ofthe 65 

Horse,  bad  habits  and  out- 
door vices 42 

Horse,  ball,  cooling  diuretic  245 

Horse,  ball,  fever 246 

Horse,  ball,  expectorant...  245 
Horse,    ball,-  stimulating 

diuretic 245 

Horse,  ball,  tonic 247 

Horse,  bandages,  use  and 

application  of. . 37 

Horses,  barbs 88 

Horse,  ball,  stomachic 246 

Horse,  barnacles  for 122 

Horse,  baulky,  to  cure 134 

Horse,  baulky,  to  make  a 

good  pulling 45 

Horse,  big  head 132 

Horse,  big  leg 132 

Horse,  big  shoulder 132 

Horse,  bites  of  the  gad  fly.   1 1 1 

Horse,  bite  of  insect 1 1 1 

Horse,  biting  and  kicking. .  42 
Horse,  to  put  black  spots 

on  white  horse 46 

Horse,  bladder,  diseases  of 

the 99 

Horse,  bladder,   calculi  in 

the 100 

Horse,  blanketing ........   144 

Horse,  bleeding..... 123 

Horse,  blisters 243 

Horse,  blister  ointment. 243 

Horse,  blister,  sweating 243 

Horse,  blister,  sweating  for 

ringbone 243 

Horse,  blister,  sweating  for 

spavins 243 

Horse,  blister,  sweating  for 

splints 243 

Horse,  blistering 126 

Horse,  blood  in,  how  to  tell  25 
Horse,  blood,  fullness  of..  132 
Horse,  blood  vessels  of  the 

chest,  diseases  of  the 87 

Horse,  blood  vessels  of  the 

nose,  diseases  of  the 87 

Horse,  body,  points  of 8 

Horse,  bog,  how  to  tell.. .     25 

Horse,  bog  spavin 61 

Horse,  bone,  structure  ofthe    46 

Horse,  bots  in 91 

Horse,   bowels,    inflamma- 
tion of  the 92 

Horse,  bowels,  loose 130 

Horse  breaking 138 

Horse,  breaking  down 66 

Horse,  breast,  how  to  ex- 
amine .................     20 

Horse,  broken  bones 59 

Horse,  broken  knee 69 

Horse,  broken  wind 85 

Horse,  bronchitis 71 

Horse,  bronchitis,  chronic.     72 

Horse,  buck  eye 108 

Horse,  burnt  alum,  use  of.  243 


faoz. 

Horse,  canker  of  the  foot. .  55 

Horse,  capped  elbow 63 

Horse,  capped  hock 63 

Horse,  caries  of  the  jaw 58 

Horse,  caries  or  ulcerations  48 
Horse,  cartilage,  diseases  of  61 
Horse,  cartilage,  ulceration 

of. 51 

Horse,  casting  of. 122 

Horse,  castration 127 

Horse,   castration,    French 

plan 128 

Horse,  cauteries 243 

Horse,  caustics 243 

Horse,  catarrh 70 

Horses,  chapped  heels in 

Horse,  charges 244 

Horse,  charge,  arnica 244 

Horse,  chest,  how  to  ex- 
amine   20 

Horse,  chest,  water  in  cav- 
ity of. 85 

Horse,  chloride  of  zinc,  use 

of. 243 

Horse,  chloride  of  zinc,  use 

of. 244 

Horse,  chloroform,  use  of. .  121 

Horse,  clicking 131 

Horse,  clipping 32 

Horse,  clysters,  how  to  use  130 

Horse,  clyster  purgative 242 

Horse,  coffin  joint,  strain  of 

the 65 

Horse,  cold 70 

Horse,  colic,  flatulent 94 

Horse,  colic  in 93 

Horse,  colic,  spasmodic. ...  94 

Horse  collars,  how  to  fit. . .  134 
Horses — See  Colts. 
Horse,   congestion    of  the 

lungs  in 81 

Horse,  confining,   methods 

of. 122 

Horse,  convulsions 101 

Horse,  cooling  diuretic  ball.  245 

Horse,  cooling  drench 242 

Horse,  cooling  powder  for 

mash 246 

Horses,  cooling  solution  for 

external  inflammation 246 

Horse,  cordials 244 

Horse,  cordial  balls 244 

Horse,  cordial  drench 244 

Horse,  cordial  and  expecto- 
rant   244 

Horse,  corns 54 

Horse,  corns,  false 54 

Horse,  corns,  how  to  tell . .  24 
Horse,  corrosive  sublimate, 

antidote  for 89 

Horse,  corrosive  sublimate, 

use  of 243 

Horse,  cough,  chronic  in. . .  76 

Horse,  cough,  common. 75 

Horje,  cough,  to  judge  by.  15 

Horse,  cough,  how  to  make  15 

Horse,  costiveness 76 

Horse,   crib  biter,  how  to 

tell 18 

Horse,  crib  biting,  how  to 

prevent 40 


FAGS 

Horse,  curbs 67 

Horse,  curb,  how  to  tell ...  25 
Horse,  cutter,  how  to  tell . .  25 
Horse,  cutting,  remedy  for.     44 

Horse,  demulcents 244 

Horse,  demulcent  drench..  244 

Horse,  diabetes  in 99 

Horse,  diaphoretics 244 

Horse,  diaphoretic  drench.  244 
Horse,  diaphoretic  in  hide 

bound 244 

Horse,   diaphragm,    spasm 

ofthe 86 

Horse,  diarrhoea 95 

Horse,  diet  for  the 32 

Horse,  digestives 245 

Horse,  digestive  ointment. .  245 
Horse,    diseases,    general 

remarks 48 

Horse,  dislocation 68 

Horse,   dislocation   of   hip 

joint 68 

Horse,  dislocation  of  patella  68 
Horse,  to  disguise  lameness    45 

Horse,  distemper 70 

Horse,  diuretics 245 

Horse,  diuretic  ball,  cooling  245 
Horse,  diuretic  ball,  stimu- 
lating    245 

Horse,  diuretic  powder  for 

a  mash 245 

Horse,  docking. 128 

Horse,  drench,  anodyne  in 

superpurgation 241 

Horse,  drench,  cooling 242 

Horse,  drench,  cooling 246 

Horse,  drench,  demulcent.  244 
Horse,  drench,  diaphoretic.  244 
Horse,  drench,  laxative. ...  242 
Horse,  drench,  marshmal- 

low 244 

Horse,  drench,  mild  laxative  242 
Horse,  drench,  mild  open- 
ing    242 

Horse,  driving,  abuse  of. ..     51 

Horse,  dysentery 95 

Horse,  dyspepsia 90 

Horse,  ear,  diseases  ofthe.  105 

Horse  eating  the  litter 42 

Horse,  embrocations 245 

Horse,  embrocation,  sweat- 

.  ing 245 

Horse,  embrocation  sweat. 

ing  for  windgalls  in 245 

Horse,  emulsion 245 

Horse,  enemata 244 

Horse,  enteritis 93 

Horse,  epilepsy 101 

Horse,  epizootic  apthre 72 

Horse,  how  to  examine .     16 

Horse,  when  to  examine. . .  14 
Horse,  where  to  examine..     14 

Horse,  exostosis 48 

Horse,  expectorants 245 

Horse,  expectorant  ball 245 

Horse,  expectorant  and  cor- 
dial  244 

Horse,  external  astringent 
powders  for  ulcerated  sur- 
faces   242 

Horse,  eye,  bad,  how  to  tell     15 


CONTENTS. 


591 


PAGE. 

■Horses,  external  inflamma- 
tion, cooling  solution  for.  246 
Horse,  eye,  cataract  in  the.   107 
Horse,  eyes,  how  to  examine    26 
Horse,  eye,  inflammation  of 

the 105 

Horse,  eyes,  lotion  for  the..  246 

Horse,  false  quarter 113 

Horse,  farcy  in 121 

Horse,  febrifuges 246 

Horse,   feeding,    directions 

for 14 

Horse,  feet,  accident  to  the.  117 
Horse,  feet,  dryness  of,  how 

to  prevent 38 

Horse,  feet,  management  of    38 
Horse,  feet,  scaling  in  sum- 
mer     119 

Horse  fevers 119 

Horse,  fever  ball 246 

Horse,  fever  of  the  feet. ...     53 

Horse,  fever,  simple 120 

Horse,  fetlock  joint,  how  to 

examine 21 

Horse,  fetlock,  strain  of  the    65 

Horse,  firing 125 

Horse,  fissures,  how  to  tell.  25 
Horse,  fistula  of  the  withers  57 
Horse,  flies  to  keep  from. .  131 
Horse,  foot,  appearance  of.  23 
Horse,  foot,  contraction  of.  24 
Horse,  foot,  diseases  of. . . .  1 14 
Horse,  foot,  diseased,  how 

to  tell 16 

Horse,  foot,  diseases  of 49 

Horse,  good  points  of 19 

Horse,  gravel .... 132 

Horse,   foot,  internal  con- 
traction, how  to  tell 24 

Horse,  foot,  contraction  of, 

remedy  for 57 

Horse,  foot,  how  to  examine  23 
Horse,  foot,  inflammation  of 

the  soft  tissues  of 53 

Horse,  foot,  lame,  how  to 

conceal 18 

Horse,  foot,  section  of  the.  23 
Horse,  foot,  weak,  how  to 

tell 24 

Horse,  founder 52 

Horse,  founder,  to  cure. . . .  132 

Horse,  fractures 48,     59 

Horse,  fracture  of  bones ...  60 
Horse,    fracture   of  canna 

bones 60 

Horse,  fractures  of  the  head  59 
Horse,  fracture  of  lower  jaw  60 
Horse,  fracture  of  pasterns.     60 

Horse,  fracture  of  pelvis 59 

Horse,  fracture  of  ribs 59 

Horse,  fracture  of  skull 60 

Horse,  fracture  of  spine 59 

Horse,  fused  potass,  use  of  243 
Horse,  frog  of  foot,  how  to 

examine 24 

Horse,  galled  back,  lotion 

for 246 

Horse,  galled  shoulders,  lo- 
tion for 246 

Horse,  galloping,  to  judge 
by 19 


TA.QU. 

Horse,  gastritis 87 

Horse,   generative  organs, 

diseases  of  the 101 

Horse,    gently    generative 

ball 242 

Horse,  glanders  in 1 20 

Horse  grease 112 

Horse  grubs Iio 

Horse,  hematuria 99 

Horse,  hair,  loss  of 1 33 

Horse,  halter  pulling 1 33 

Horse,  harness  for 135 

Horse,  harness  galls no 

Horse,  head,  how  to  exam- 
ine      20 

Horse,  heart,  diseases  of  the    87 

Horse,  heaves  in 131 

Horse,  hernia,  reduction  of  129 

Horse,  hidebound 108 

Horse,  hidebound,  diaphor- 
etic  244 

Horse,  high-blowing 80 

Horse,  hindquarter,  points 

of 

Horse,  hobbles  for 1 22 

Horse,  hip-joint,  strains  of.  67 
Horse,  hock  diseased,  how 

totell 25 

Horse,  hock,  strains  in... .     67 

Horse,  hoof-bound 133 

Horse,  hoof-cracked 131 

Horses,  how  to  save  from 

burning  barns 131 

Horse,  hydrophobia 1 02 

Horse,  hydrothorax  in 85 

Horse,      inflammation      of 

stomach 89 

Horse,  inflammation  of  the 

soft  tissues  of  the  foot 53 

H^rse,  influenza 70 

Horse,  itch 134 

Horse,  interfering 119 

Horses,  how  to  judge  and 

select 14 

Horse,  joint  evil 62 

Horse,  jugular  veins,  how 

to  examine.. 20 

Horsekeeper's  guide 7 

Horse,  kickers,  remedy  for  43 
Horse,  kicking,  how  to  tell  15 
Horse,  kicking  in  stall,  how 

to  prevent 41 

Horse,  kicking  and  biting. .     42 
Horse,  kidneys,  diseases  of    98 
Horse,  kidneys,  inaction  of     99 
Horse,  knees,  how  to  ex- 
amine....      20 

Horse,  knees,  strain  of  the.     64 
Horse,  knees,  wounds  of . .     69 
Horse,  knee-pan  displaced-   119 
Horse,  lame,  to  make  ap- 
pear as 45 

Horse,  laminitis 51 

Horse,  laminitis,  acute....     52 

Horse,  laminits,  chronic 52 

Horse,  laminitis,  sub-acute     53 

Horse,  lampas 88 

Horse,  laryngitis  in 76 

Horse,  laryngitis,  acute....  77 
Horse,  laryngitis,  chronic  .  77 
Horse,  laxative  ball,  gently  242 


PAG«. 

Horse,  laxative  drench 242 

Horse,  laxative,  for  staggers  242 
Horse,  legs,  accident  to  the  117 
Horse,  leg,  to  examine ....  21 
Horse,  legs  inflamed,  lotion 

for 246 

Horse,  lice  on no 

Horse,  ligament,  diseases  of    60 

Horse,  liver,  diseases  of 97 

Horse,  lockjaw 103 

Horse  lotions 246 

Horse  lotion,  astringent 242 

Horse,  lotion  for  the  eyes  -  246 
Horse,  lotion  for  foul  ulcers  246 
Horse,  lotion  for  galled  back  146 
Horse,  lotion  for  inflamed 

legs 246 

Horse,    lotion    for    galled 

shoulders 246 

Horse,  lunar  caustic,  use  of  243 
Horse,    to    cover    up    the 

heaves 45 

Horse,  madness  in........   102 

Horse,  mad  staggers IOI 

Horse,  to  make  him  refuse 

food 45 

Horse,  to  make  appear  as 

badly  foundered 45 

Horse,  to  make  appear  as  if 

he  had  the  glanders 45 

Horse,  to  make  appear  as 

lame 45 

Horse,  to  make  a  crib  or 
sucking  wind  horse  ap- 
pear sound 45 

Horse,  to  make  him  follow 

you 137 

Horse,  to  make  him  sit  on 

his  haunches 137 

Horse,  to  make  an  old  one 

appear  young  . 46 

Horse,  to  make  a  star  on  . .  45 
Horses — See  Marks. 

Horse,  mallenders  in 1 10 

Horse,  mange  in 109 

Horse,  mangy,  how  to  tell  a     15 
Horse,  marshm allow  drench  244 
Horse  mash,  cooling  pow- 
der for 246 

Horse  mash,  diuretic  pow- 
der for 245 

Horse,  maturity ..........     12 

Horse,  megrims 102 

Horse,  mental  development     13 

Horses,  metastasis 53 

Horse,  middlepiece,  points 

of 8 

Horse,    mild     drench    for 

worms 241 

Horse,  mild  laxative  drench.  242 
Horse,  mild  opening  drench.  242 

Horse,  molten  grease 96 

Horse,  moor-ill 120 

Horse,  molting 13 

Horse,  mouth,  diseases  of 

the 87 

Horse,   mucosas,    inflamed 

bursa; 62 

Horse,  muriate  of  antimony, 

use  of 243 

Horse,  muscles,  diseases  of    60 


59* 


CONTENTS. 


Horse,   mustard    embroca- 
tion  34| 

Horse,  narcotics..........  240 

Horse,  nasal  gleet,  or  run- 
ning at  the  nose.... 134 

Horse,  navicular  disease ...  1 14 
Horse,  to  nerve  a  lame  one    45 

Horse,  nephritis. .. . 98 

Horse,  neck,  to  examine  ..     20 

Horse,  nicking. .......  128 

Horse,  nostrils,  how  to  ex- 
amine . .. .....     16 

Horse,  nymphomania 101 

Horse,  ointment,  astringent, 

for  sore  heels ....  242 

Horse,  ointment  blister  ...  243 
Horse,  ointment,  digestive.  245 
Horse,  organs,  classification 

of  the  various 46 

Horse,   ossification  of  the 

lateral  cartilages 49 

Horse,  osteo  sarcoma 59 

Horse,  over-reaches. ......   1 19 

Horses,  pace,  learning  to . .  136 
Horses,  palsey  in  .........  131 

Horses,  paps 88 

Horses,  paralysis 104 

Horses'  pasterns,  how  to  ex- 
amine      22 

Horses,  periostitis........     51 

Horses,  peripneumonia. Si 

Horse,  peritonitis 93 

Horse,  phrenitis 101 

Horse,  physic,  how  to  use.  130 

Horse,  physic-balls 242 

Horse,  physic-balls,  warm- 
ers  242 

Horse,  piper,  how  to  tell ..     19 
Horse  piping...... .......     80 

Horse,  pleurisy  in  ....  ....     84 

Horse,  pleurodynia  in 85 

Horse,  plunging...... ....     43 

Horse,  pneumonia 81 

Horse,  pneumonia,  acute..     83 

Horse,  points  of..... 7 

Horse,  points  of  the  fore- 
quarter 7 

Horse,  points  of  the  head. .  7 
Horse,  points  of  the  neck..  7 
Horse,  poison,  antidote  for.     89 

Horse,  poll  evil 58 

Horse,  poor,  how  to  fatten.  144 
Horse  powder,  diuretic,  lor 

amash 245 

Horse,  pricking 129 

Horse,  pricks  in  shoeing...   119 

Horse,  proportions  of 8 

Horses,  proportions  of  vari- 
ous points  .............     12 

Hcrse  puffs ..........    62 

Horse,  pumice  foot .......     56 

Horse,  purgative  clyster...  242 
Horse,  purging  balls,  with 

calomel ?|? 

Horse,  phthisis  in 85 

Horse,  quittor 54 

Horse,  rabies  in 102 

Horse-radish,  culture  of . . .  533 

Horse-radish,  to  keep 286 

Horse  rearing,  how  to  man- 
age      43 


Horse,  refrigerants  .......  246 

Horse,  respiration,  to  judge 

by 15 

Horse,  rheumatic 56 

Horse,  rheumatism,  chronic    61 
Horse,  rheumatic  inflamma- 
tion     60 

Horse,  ringbone..........     50 

Horse,  ringbone,  remedies.  133 
Horse,  ringbone,  sweating 

blister  for...... 243 

Horse,  roarer,  how  to  tell .  •  20 
Horse,  roaring  in,  remedy 

for 76 

Horse,  rolling 43 

Horse,  running  away 44 

Horse,  rupture.... 96 

Horse,  sallenders  in 1 10 

Horse,  sand-crack,  how  to 

tell 24 

Horse,  sand-crack,  remedy 

for 56 

Horse,  scars  about  the  head  20 
Horse,  scar  on  the  knee,  to 

examine 21 

Horse,  scratches 133 

Horse,  scratching  the  ear, 

how  to  prevent .....     41 

Horse,  sedatives..... 246 

Horse,  seedy  toe  .........  114 

Horse,  setons  and  rowels..  126 
Horse,  shank,  to  examine  .     21 

Horse  shaving 35 

Horse,    sheaths,     inflamed 

tendons .     62 

Horse,  shelly  foot,  how  to 

tell 23 

Horse,  shoulders  galled,  lo- 
tion for 246 

Horse's  shoulder,   how  to 

examine. 20 

Horse,  shoulder,  lameness.  57 
Horse,  shoulder,  strain  of 

the 64 

Horse,  shouldering .......     44 

Horse  shoe,  loss  of 39 

Horse  shoes,  removal  of...    39 

Horseshoeing 135 

Horse  shoeing'in  winter 134 

Horse,  shying 42 

Horse,  side-bone .........     51 

Horse,  side-line  for 122 

Horse,  singeing..... 35 

Horse,  sit-fasts no 

Horse,  skeleton,  number  of 

bones  of 48 

Horse,  sleepy  staggers ....  105 
Horse,  slipping  the  halter  .     45 

Horse,  small  stomach 13 

I lorsr,  smal1  tumors 6 1 

Horse,  snowballing,  to  pre- 
vent    119 

Horse,     solution    of    blue 

vitriol,  use  of 244 

Horse,  solution  of  nitrate  of 

silver,  use  of 243 

Horse,  sore  throat 70 

Horse,  sore  throat,  remedy 

for 88 

Horse,  spavin 51 

Horse,  spavin,  how  to  tell.     25 


FA«B. 

Horse,  spavins,  sweating 
blister  for 243 

Horse,  spine,  diseases  of, 
how  to  tell 25 

Horse,  splint 50- 

Horse,  splints,  how  to  ex* 
amine 21- 

Horse,     splints,     sweating 

blisterfor 243, 

Horse,  stimulants 246 

Horse,  stomachics 246' 

Horse,  stomachic  ball 246 

Horse,  stifle,  strain  of 67 

Horse,  stimulating  diuretic 

ball 245 

Horse,  stimulating  embro- 
cation     245 

Hor.se,    staggers,     laxativt 

for.... 242 

Horses,  stables  for 143 

Horse  stables,  to  deodor- 
ize     144 

Horse  stables,  treatment  of     39 
Horse,  stifle  diseases......     25 

Horse,  sting  of  insects  ....   in 

Horses,  stubborn 45 

Horse    stomachic,   laxatiW 

balls  for  washy  horses . . .  242 
Horse,  stomach  staggers  ..     89. 

Horse,  stone  bruises. .     54 

Horse,  strains 63. 

Horse,  strain  of  the  back..  63 
Horse,  strain  of  the  loins..  63 
Horse,    strangles,    remedy 

for 88. 

Horse,  strangulation......     95 

Hoose,  string-halt 105 

Horse,  stumbling,  how  to 

tell 19 

Horse,  stumbling,  remedy 

for 44 

Horse,  styptics 247 

Horse,    sugar,    powdered, 

white,  use  of .  243 

Horse,  suspensory  liga- 
ments, strain  of  the 65 

Horse,  surfeit ioo- 

Horse,  Sulphate  of  copper, 

use  of 243 

Horse,  sweating  blister  for 

sprains 243 

Horse,  sweating  blister....  243 
Horse,  sweating  blister  for 

splints 243 

Horse,  sweating  embroca- 
tion for  windgalls .......  245 

Horse,  sweeny 133 

Horse,  sweating  embroca- 
tion  245 

Horse,  sweating  blister  for 

ringbone 243 

Horse,  swelled  legs in 

Horse,  synovial  membrane, 

diseases  of 61 

Horse,  synovial  membrane, 
inflammation  of  the  .....     61 

Horse-taming 138 

Horse,  to  teach  him  to  pick 

up  a  handkerchief. 137 

Horse,  teaching  him  to 
stand 137 


CONTENTS. 


593 


MM 
Horse,  tearing  the  clothes 

off 42 

Horse,  tendon,  diseases  off     60 

Horse,  tetanus 103 

Horse,  time  of  sending  mare 

to 28 

Horse,  thick-winded,   how 

totell 19 

Horse,  throat  sore,  remedy 

for 88 

Horse,  throat,  diseases  of 

the 87 

Horse,  thoroughpin 61 

Horse,  thoroughpin,  how  to 

tell 25 

Horse,  thrush. 54 

Horse,  thrush,  how  to  tell.  24 
Horse,  thrush,  to  prevent .  38 
Horse,  thoracic  organs  and 

their    appendages,     dis- 

ease»of..... 70 

Horse,  tonics.............  247 

Horse,  tonic  ball. 247 

Horse,    tongue,   lolling  of 

the 132 

Horse,    tongue,    sore,    to 

cure 132 

Horse  training 136 

Horse,  trevis  or  break  for..  122 
Horse,  tricks  of  dealers ....     45 

Horse  trimming 35 

Horse,  trot,  learning  to 136 

Horse,  trotting  to  judge  by      19 

Horse,  trumpeting 81 

Horse,  tumors,  how  to  ex- 
amine for ... ._ 20 

Horse,  the  twitch  for 122 

Horse,  typhoid  fever 120 

Horse,    ulceration    of    the 

cartilages 51 

Horse,  unsoundness,  signs 

of 20 

Horse,  unnerving .....ri29 

Horse,  urine,  retention  of..  100 
Horse,   vein,   inflammation 

of 125 

Horse,  verdigris,  use  of . . .  243 

Horse,  vermifuges 247 

Horse,  vesicants 243 

Horse,  vicious,  to  tie ..... .     45 

Horse,  vives 88 

Horse,  walking,  to  judge  by     18 

Horse,  warts  on  nose 134 

Horse,   water  in  cavity  of 

chest 85 

Horse,  water  farcin 134 

Horse,  water  for 135 

Horse,  warts  on 113 

Horse,  warbles..... no 

Horse  washes 246 

Horse,    washy,    stomachic 

laxative  balls  for 242 

Horse,  weak  foot,  how  to 

tell 24 

Horse,  weaving 42 

Horse  wen,  to  cure 134 

Horse,  wheezing 81 

Horse,  when  unsound 134 

Horse,  whistling,  how  to  tell  19 
Horse,    whistling,    remedy 

for 76 

38 


TAGS. 

Horse,  when  and  how  to 

examine 26 

Horse,  wind  thick  in 86 

Horse,  wind  in,  to  improve  134 

Horse,  windgalls —     02 

Horse,  windgalls,  sweating 

embrocation  for 245 

Horse,  worm  ball 241 

Horse,  worms  in ......     96 

Horse,  worm  medicine....  247 
Horse,  wounds  of  joints...  69 
Horse,     yellow    orpiment, 

use  of 243 

Hot-beds,  varnish  for  frames 

of ^44° 

Hot-beds,  to  make 529 

House,  agreement  to  build.  460 
House,  choice  of  color  for  .  41 1 

House,  cow,  to  clean 174 

House  flies 398 

Houses,  hen 270 

House,    ice,    extemporane- 
ous  411 

Houses,  lease  of 464 

Houses,  poultry,  to  clear  of 

vermin ..........  256 

House  for  poultry 252 

House,  poultry,  fumigation  255 
Houses,   poultry,   to  fumi- 
gate  268 

Hoven  in  cattle 167 

Hove  in  cattle,  to  prevent .  167 
Huckleberries,  canning....  284 
Huckleberries,  preserved..  300 

Humors 342 

Hyacinth  culture 512 

Hyacinth,  to  grow  in  pots  .  512 
Hyacinth,  to  grow  in  glasses  512 
Hydrocyanic  or  Prussic  acid, 

antidote  for 327 

Hydrophobia 392 

Hydrophobia  in  horse 102 

Hydrophobia  in  dogs 278 

Hydrosulphuric  acid,  anti- 
dote for 329 

Hyoscyamus,  antidote  for. .  329 

Hydrothorax  in  horse 85 

Hysterics 342 

Ice  house,  arrangement  of .  445 
Ice  house,  extemporaneous   441 
Influenza  in  cattle  ........   149 

Influenza  in  horse  ........     70 

Influenza  in  sheep 207 

In-growing  nails ... 344 

Injuries  and  accidents,  how 

to  meet  them 318 

Injurious    insects    to    fruit 

trees 408 

Indian  cement 499 

Indian  poke,  antidote  for. . .  329 
India  rubber,  varnishes  for   441 

Insect  bites 325 

Insect,  bite  of  in  horse III 

Insects,  bites  and  stings  of.  318 

Insects  in  the  ear 325 

Insects,  expelling  them  — .  352 
Insects    injurious    to    fruit 

trees 408 

Insects    and     lice    of    the 

greenhouse 377 


TA.OM. 

Insects,  to  destroy 535 

Insects,  sting  of  in  horses. .  Ill 
Insure,   covenant  for  with 

mortgage 4°3 

Instalment  note 45» 

Internal  contraction  of  loot 

of  horse,  how  to  tell 24 

Inflamed  eyes 339 

Inflammation  ot  the  bladder 

of  dogs 278- 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder 

in  cattle --   175- 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder 

in  cattle,  drink  for 249- 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels 

in  cattle,  with  costiveness  169- 
Inflammation  of  the  bowels 

of  dogs 276 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels 

in  horse --     9* 

Inflammation  of  the  brain  in 

horse -.  153- 

Inflammation  of  the  brain  in 

sheep '204 

Inflammation  of  the  brain  in 

swine -  -  235 

Inflammation  of  the  eye  in 

cattle :-   177 

Inflammation  of  the  eye  in 

horse --   i°5 

Inflammation  of  glands  in 

cattle 175 

Inflammation  granular  eyes,  339  * 
Inflammation  of  kidneys  in 

sheep 21* 

Inflammation  of  the  larynx 

in  cattle 182 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 

in  calves 150 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 

in  cattle 149 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 

in  sheep 204 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 

in  swine 237 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 

in  young  cattle 150' 

Inflammation  of  the  liver  in 

cattle 15* 

Inflammation  of  the  oil  ves- 
sel in  poultry 268 

Inflammation  of  the  pharynx 

in  cattle 199* 

Inflammation,   sheep,    kid- 
neys of 21* 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach 

of  horse .........     89 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach 

in  poultry.... 265 

Inflammation  of  trachea  in 

cattle 180 

Inflammation  of  the  throat 

in  cattle 182 

Inflammation  of  the  veins  in 

horse 125 

Ink  spots  to  remove 561 

Interest  on  note 487 

Iodine,  antidote  for 329 

Iodine,  green  dye,  aniline. .  566; 
Iodine  ointment  for  cattle..  248 
Iron,  varnish  for 442. 


594 


CONTENTS. 


PAOK. 

Irrigation 529 

Isinglass  jelly. 304 

Itch,  barber's 342 

Itching,    chilblains,    lotion 

for 334 

Itch,  horse 134 

Itch  ointment 342 

Itch  ointment 344 

Itch,  seven  year 343 

Itch  in  sheep 221 

Itch  in  swine 238 

Interfering  in  horse 119 

Ivy  poison,  antidote  for....  331 

Jam 304 

Jars,  fruit,  to  keep  fresh  in.  303 
Jam,  to  put  up  while  hot  . .  304 
Jamestown  weed,  antidote 

for 331 

Japan,  black  varnish 442 

Jaundice 343 

Jaundice  in  sheep. 205 

Jaundice  in  swine 239 

Jaundice  or  yellows  in  cat- 
tle    152 

Jelly 3°4 

Jelly,  to  color 304 

Jelly  custard 304 

Jelly,  fruit  in 304 

Jelly  with  gelatine.. 304 

Jelly,  isinglass 304 

Jelly,  to  preserve  with  mold  304 

Jerusalem  artichokes 490 

Joiners'  work,  measuring..  422 

Joint  evil  in  horse 62 

Joint  felon  in  cattle 150 

Joint  promissory  note 458 

Joints,  stiffened 343 

Joints,  wounds  of,  in  horses    69 

Joists,  ceiling 421 

Joists,  measurement 413 

Judge    and    select    horses, 

how  to 14 

Judgment,  assignment  of  a.  457 
Jugular  veins  in  horse,  how 

to  examine 29 

Jumping  sumach  beetle. ...  406 
June  berry  borer 855 

Kalsomine 443 

Kerme's  mineral,  antidote 
for 327 

Ketchup,  tomato 292 

Xicking  and  biting  horse  ..     42 
Kicking  horse,  how  to  tell.     15 
.Kicking  horse,  how  to  pre- 
vent     41 

Kickers,  horse,  remedy  for     43 

Kidneys,  diseases  of 343 

Kidneys,  horse,  diseases  of    98 
Kidneys,  horse,  inaction  of.     99 
Kidneys,  sheep,  inflamma- 
tion of  the 212 

Kidney  worms  in  swine  .. .  238 

Killing  knots,  painting 423 

Killing  poultry 266 

Knee,  broken,  in  horse ....     69 
^Knee-pan  displaced,  in  horse  119 
.Knees,  horse,  strain  ot  the.     64 
JCnees  of  horses,  how  to  ex- 
amine      SO 


FAOI. 

Knees,  wounds  of,  in  horse    69 

Knots,  killed,  painting 423 

Kraut,  sauer,  to  make.....  291 

Lackey  moth,  American . . .  394 

Lakes,  water 451 

Lambs,  astringent  drink  for  250 

Lamb,  care  of 199 

Lambs,   care  and  manage- 
ment/^   225 

Lambs,  coagulation  of  the 

milk 200 

Lambs,  costiveness  in 201 

Lambs,  diarrhoea 200 

Lambs,     drink,     astringent 

for 299 

Lambs,  gall  lambs 199 

Lambs,     management    and 

care  of 225 

Lambs,  milk,  coagulation  of 

the 200 

Lambs,  staggers  in 202 

Lambing  season,  sheep 197 

Lame  back 343 

Laminitis,  acute  in  horse. ..  52 
Lameness,    cattle,     charge 

for 249 

Laminitis,  chronic  in  horse .     52 

Laminitis,  horse 51 

Laminitis,       sub-acute      in 

horse 53 

Lampas  in  horses 88 

Land,  measuring 426 

Lard,  to  bleach 287 

Lard,  to  keep  sweet 286 

Lard,  to  keep  from  molding  286 

Lard,  making 287 

Lard,  to  try  out 287 

Large  breeds  of  poultry ....   256 
Laryngitis,  acute  in  horses.     77 
Larynx,    cattle,    inflamma- 
tion of  the 182 

Laryngitis,      chronic       in 

horses. 77 

Laryngitis,  horse 76 

Laudanum,  antidote  for. 329 

Laurel  water,  antidote  for..  327 

Law 456 

Law,  acts  of  partners 487 

Law,  agreement,  what  is..  487 

Law,  business 487 

Law,  ignorance  of. . ...  487 

Law,  signature,  lead  pencil  487 

Law,  stock 475  to  483 

Lawns,  formation  and  man- 
agement of 440 

Laxative    ball,    gentle,    for 

horses 242 

Laxative  drench  for  horse..  242 
Laxative  medicine  for  sheep  250 
Laxative,  mild,  for  sheep..  251 
Laxative,    for  staggers    in 

horse 242 

Laxative,    stomachic    balls 

for  wasby  horses 242 

Lead,   acetate    of,  antidote 

for 329 

Lead,  antidote  for 329 

Lead,   dry   white,   antidote 

for 329 

Lead,  red,  antidote  for 329 


PASS. 

Lead,  sugar  of,  antidote  for  329 
Lead  in  pickles,  antidote  for  329 
Lead   in  vinegar,    antidote 

for 329 

Lead  in  wine,  antidote  for.     329 

Leaping,  sheep 223 

Leaf  beetle,  three-lined 362 

Leaf,  strawberry  roller .   368 

Lease,  agreement  of  a 456 

Lease,    assignment    of   in- 
dorsed   466 

Lease  of  house.... ...... .  464 

Lease,  farm . 466 

Leather,  cement 410 

Leather  tanning 434 

Leach  bites,  cattle 184 

Leg,  amputated,  cattle 188 

Leg,  big,  m  horse 132 

Leg  of  horse  to  examine 21 

Legs,    horse,    accidents   to 

the 117 

Legged  maple  borer. . .  401 

Legs,  swelled  in  horse. 111 

Lemons,  pickled 295 

Lettuce,    snails    to  protect 

from 535 

Lettuce  in  winter 536 

Lice,  arsenical  wash  for  in 

sheep 251 

Lice,  bark  of  the  apple  tree  354 
Lice,  mercurial  ointment  for  250 

Lice  on  chickens 264 

Lice,  how  to  destroy  in  hen 

roosts 270 

Lice  on  horses no 

Lice    and    insects    of    the 

greenhouse. ...... ......  377 

Lice,  to  kill 343 

Lice,  mercurial  wash  for  in 

sheep 251 

Lice,  plant 377 

Lice  on  poultry 264 

Lice  on  sheep.. 219 

Lice  on  swine,  how  to  de- 
stroy   229 

Lice  on  swine 233 

Lien,  contractor's 467 

Lien,  law . 467 

Lien,  mechanics  .. 467 

Lien,  workman 467 

Ligament,   horse,    diseases 

of. 60 

Lightning     rods,     how    to 

erect 412 

Limes,  pickled 295 

Linden  borer. . ........  397 

Lines  for  windows ........  43 1 

Liniment,  cattle 249 

Liniment,  rheumatic 343 

Liniment,  sore  throat 343 

Liniment,  wonderful......  343 

Linseed  poultice 345 

Lips,  chapped 342 

Lips,  sore 343 

Liquors,    alcohol,    brandy, 

antidote  for 327 

Litharge,  antidote  for 329 

Liver  complaint 343 

Liver,  inflammation  of  the, 

in  cattle 151 

Liver,  horse,  diseases  of...     97 


CONTENTS. 


595 


Lobelia,  antidote  for 329 

Lockjaw. 344 

Lockjaw,  anodyne  drink  for 

in  cattle 249 

Lockjaw,  cattle 179 

Lockjaw  in  horse 103 

Lockjaw,   physic  drink    in 

cattle 249 

Locust  borer 395 

Locust,  Rocky  Mountain..   378 

Locust,  Western 378 

Loose  bowels  in  horse 1 30 

Lotion    for    bull    burnt    in 

cattle 250 

Lotion,  astringent,  for  horses  242 

Lotion  for  chilblain 334 

Lotion  lor  cloudiness  on  the 

eye  in  sheep 251 

Lotion  for  cow  pox  in  cattle  250 
Lotion, discutient  for  cattle..  249 
Lotion,  disinfectant  for  cat- 
tle   248 

Lotion  for   foul    ulcers    in 

horses 246 

Lotion   for   galled  back  in 

horses 246 

Lotion,   glycerine 340 

Lotion  for  galled  shoulders 

in  horses 246 

Lotions  for  horses ...  246 

Lotion  for  inflamed  legs  in 

horses 246 

Lotion  for  itching  chilblains .  334 
Lotion,    sedative,    eye,    for 

cattle 249 

Lotion,  strengthening  for  the 

eye  for  cattle 249 

Lotion  for  vermin  in  cattle.   250 

Louse,  bark 354 

Louse,  bark,  oyster  shell. . .  354 

Louse,  cotton 386 

Leaf,  folder,  grape 402 

Louse,  gall,  grape 402 

Louse,  plant 368 

Louse,  plant,  apple-root...  363 
Lucifer    matches,    antidote 

for 330 

Lunar  caustic,  antidote  for.  329 
Lunar  caustic,  horse,  use  of  243 
Lungs,  bleeding  from  the..  319 
Lungs,    congestion    of    in 

horses 81 

Lungs,  inflammation  of  the, 

in  calves .   150 

Lungs,  inflammation  of  the, 

in  young  cattle 150 

Lungs,  inflammation  of  the, 

in  cattle 149 

Lungs  in  sheep,  inflamma- 
tion of  the 204 

Lungs,  swine,  inflammation 

of  the 237 

Lye,  concentrated,  antidote 

for 327 

Lye,  woodash,  antidote  for.  327 

Mad  dogs 278 

Mad  dogs,  bites  of. 318 

Mad  staggers  in  horse 101 

Madness  in  cattle 192 

Madness  in  horse 102 


TAGS. 

Maggot,  onion 385 

Maggot,  corn 371 

Maggot,  gooseberry 406 

Maggots  in  sheep 221 

M  ahogany ,  varnish 442 

Making  brick 430 

Mallenders  in  horses no 

Management    and    care    of 

sheep 225 

Management    and    care    of 

lambs 225 

Management  of  chickens.. .  372 

Management  of  geese 273 

M  anagement  of  poultry ....  252 

Management  of  sheep 197 

Mange  in  dogs . 276 

Mange  in  cattle 181 

Mange  in  horse 109 

Mange  ointment  for  cattle..  249 

Mange  in  swine 235 

Mangy  horse,  how  to  tell..  15 
Manure,  garden  refuse  as..  535 

Manure,  hen 535 

Manure,  leaves  as 535 

Manure  pile,    management 

of 534 

Manure,  to  shelter 534 

Maps,  varnish  for 440 

Maps,  varnish  for 438 

Maple  borer,  legged 401 

Maple  trees,  to  tap 536 

Maple  sugar  making ..  536 

Marble,  cement  for 410 

Mares,  best  kind  to  breed 

from 13 

Mare,  brood,  general  man- 
agement of  the 28 

Mare,  foal,   early  treatment 

ofthe 30 

Mare,  foal,  treatment  when 

in 29 

Mare,    foal,    weaning    and 

after-treatment  of  the ....     31 
Mare,     foaling,     treatment 

after 29 

Mare,    time  of  sending  to 

horse 28 

Mares — See  horses. 

Margined  blister  beetle 362 

Marketing  poultry........  266 

Marmalade 304 

Marshmallow    drench      for 

horse 244 

Mash,  cooling  powder  for 

horse. 246 

Mash,  diuretic  powder  for 

horse 245 

Mason's  work,  to  measure.  415 
Mats,    to    prepare    sheep- 
skins for 432 

Maturity  of  horse.........     12 

May  beetle 368,  371 

May  bug 381 

Meadow    saffron,     antidote 

for 329 

Measles  in  swine 235 

Measure  hay,  weight  to  be 

estimated 415 

Measure,  joists 413 

Measure,  live  cattle  to  esti- 
mate weight 415 


FA.QZ. 

Measure,  plank 413 

Measure,  scantling 413 

Measuring  balusters 423 

Measuring  boards 413 

Measuring  boilers 418 

Measuring  brickwork 416 

Measuring  carpenter's  work  420 

Measuring  cement  work 419 

Measuring  chimneys 417' 

Measuring  coloring 419 

Measuring  composition  roof- 
ing--  .- 423 

Measuring  cornices 417 

Measuring  excavations 415 

Measuring  or  gauging 414 

Measurement  glazier's  work  412 

Measuring  grindstones .  414 

Measuring,  heaped 414 

Measuring    the     height    of 

trees, 413 

Measuring  joiner's  work 422 

Measuring  land 426 

Measuring  mason's  work..  415 

Measuring  ovens 418 

Measuring  painter's  work. .  423 
Measuring  paper  hanging. .  431 

Measuring  partitions 422 

Measuring  pavements 418 

Measuring  plasterer's  work  419 
Measuring  plumber's  work.  414 

Measuring  sewers 418 

Measuring  shingles 423 

Measuring  skylights 422 

Measurement  of  slater's  and 

tiler's  work 412 

Measuring  staircases 422 

Measuring  timber 418 

Measuring    timber    in    the 

trees 414 

Measuring  vaults 418 

Measuring  whitening 419 

Measuring  woodwork 420 

Meat,  to  cure 287 

Meat,  to  keep  fresh  in  win- 
ter   287 

Meat,  mince. 288 

Meat,  pickle 288 

Meat,  preserving  in  cans. . .  287 
Meat,  to  protect  from  fly. . .  287 

Mechanical. 409 

Mechanics,  farmers  should 

be 444 

Mechanic's  hen 467 

Medicines  for  domestic  ani- 
mals    240 

Medicine  fever,  for  swine..  2jji 
Medicines  for  pigs  —  See 

Swine 251 

Megrims  in  horse. ........   102 

Megrims  in  poultry 265 

Melon,  citron,  preserved..  298 

Melons,  pickled 295 

Melon,  preserved  like  gin- 
ger   299 

Mercury,  antidote  for 329 

Mercurial  garget  ointment 

for  cows 159 

Mercurial  ointment  for  gar- 
get in  cattle 248 

Mercurial  ointment  for  scab 
in  sheep 251 


596 


CONTENTS, 


PAGE. 

Mercurial  ointment  for  ver- 
min in  cattle 250 

Mercurial  wash  for  lice  in 

sheep 251 

Meromyza,  American 373 

Metals,  cement  for 409 

Metastasis  in  horse 53 

Mice,  to  destroy 352 

Mice  in  corn  stacks 505 

Mice,  field 401 

Middlepiece  of  horse,  points 

of 8 

M  idge,  gooseberry 406 

Mild  astringent  for  cattle. .  -  248 

Mildew  on  roses 537 

Mildew      on       gooseberry 

bushes 5°7 

Mildew,  sulphur  for 536 

Mildew  in  wheat 56° 

Milk^and  bread  poultice...  345 
Milk,  coagulation  of  the,  in 

lambs 200 

Milk  cows,  to  dry 181 

Milk,  to  deodorize ........  537 

Milk  fever  in  cow 164 

Milk,  to  keep 288 

Milk  mirror  in  cow ....   166 

Milk  room,  charcoal  in....  537 

Milk  for  pigs. .........  229 

Miller,  bee,  to  destroy. 313 

Mincemeat 288 

Minced  pickles 296 

Mineral  acids,  antidote  for.  326 
Mineral,   Kerme's,  antidote 

for 327 

Mirror,  milk  in  cows 166 

Mites  in  chickens 272 

Mixed  piccalilli,  pickled 295 

Mixing  oil  colors  in  paint..  426 

Mixture,  castor  oil 337 

Mixture  for  cough 337 

Mock  ginger,  preserved...  301 
Molten  grease  in  horse.. ..  96 
Molding,  lard,  to  keep  from  286 
Monkshood,  antidote  for...  327 

Moor-ill,  in  horse 1 20 

Morphine,  antidote  for 330 

Mordants 571 

Mordant,  alum 571 

Mordant,  protochloride    of 

tin 571 

Mortgage  and  bond,  assign- 
ment^  457 

Mortgage  and  bond,  assign- 
ment of,  indorsed  on  in- 
strument  459 

Mortgage  and  bond  as  col- 
lateral security,  assign- 
ment of 457 

Mortgage,  chattel,  to  se- 
cure a  money  demand 458 

Mortgage,  chattel,  to  se- 
cure a  note 459 

Mortgage,  with  covenant  to 

insure 463 

Mortgage      for      purchase 

money 464 

Mortgage  to  secure  notes . .  464 
Mosquitoes,  to  drive  away.  352 

Moth,  American  lackey. 394 

Moths  in  carpets,  to  kill.. .  352 


PAGE. 

Moth,    codling     or    apple 
worm.... 357 

Moths,  codling,  to  trap.. ..  537 

Moth,  cucumber 384 

Moth  patches,  to  remove  ..  342 
Moth,      Lussock,        white 

marked 369 

Moths,  to  preserve  clothing 

from 352 

Moulting  of  horses 13 

Mountain  ash  borer 355 

Mountain  ash  borer.. 397 

Mouth,  bleeding  from  the. .  319 
Mouth,  cattle,  canker  in...  189 
Mouth,   horse,   diseases  of 

the 87 

Mouth,  sore,  in  cattle 154 

Mucosae,  inflamed  bursa;  in 

horse 62 

Mulching  pear  trees 543 

Mule,  splint  on 142 

Mules  —  See  Horses. 

Mumps 344 

Murrain  in  cattle. 173 

Muriatic  acid,  antidote  for. .  326 
Muriate  of  antimony,  horse, 

use  of 243 

Murrain  drink  for  cattle 248 

Murrain    tonic    drink    for 

cattle 249 

Muscles  of  horses,  diseases 

of. 60 

Mushrooms,  pickled 295 

Mushrooms,  poisonous,  an- 
tidote for 330 

Mushrooms,  to  preserve 301 

Muskrats     skins,     tanning 

with  the  fur  on 434 

Mustard    embrocation    for 

horse 245 

Mustard  plaster.... ......  345 

Mutton  suet,  with  astringent 

drink  for  cattle 248 

Nails,  care  of 342 

Nails,  in-growing.........  344 

Nails,  size  of..... 431 

Nails,  to  whiten 344 

Narcotics,  horses 246 

Napthaline  dye,  analine 567 

Nasal   gleet,  or  running  of 

the  nose  in  horse 134 

Navel  string  of  calves,  bleed- 
ing from ...   193 

Navicular  disease  in  horse. .   114 
Neck  of  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine      20 

Neck,  point  of  horse 7 

Nephritis  in  horse 98 

Nests  for  hens 253 

Nests,  hens,  treatment  of. .  270 

Neuralgia,  cure  for 344 

New  atlas  green  dye,  aniline  566 

New  grape-root  borer 365 

New  York  weevil 374 

Nicking,  horse. 128 

Night  planting 553 

Night-green  dye,  aniline —  565 
Nipples,  sore,  ointment  for  344 

Nipples,  sore,  in  sheep 212 

Nitrate  of  potash,antidote  for  331 


PAGE. 

Nitrate  of  silver,   antidote 
for 330 

Nitrate  of  silver,  solution  of, 

horse,  use  of 243 

Nitric  acid,  antidote  for 376 

Nose,  bleeding  at  the 319 

Nose,  blood-vessels  of  the, 

in  horse,  diseases  of  the.     87 
Nose,  running  at,  or  nasal 

gleet  in  horse 134 

Nose,  sheep,  discharge  from 

and  cold 206 

Nostrils   of  horse,  how  to 

examine 16 

Notes,  endorsed,  released.  487 
Note,  joint  promissory....  458 

Note  made  on  Sunday 487 

Note  of  minors 487 

Note,  mortgage  to  secure. .  464, 

Note,  not  negotiable 458 

Notes  obtained  by  fraud 487 

Note,  payable  at  bank 458* 

Note,  payable  on  demand. .  458 
Note,    payable    by    instal- 
ments  4581 

Note,  what  is  required  ....  487 
Note,  with  security.......  458) 

Note,  promissory 458 

Nux  vomica,  antidote  for. . .  331 
Nymphomania  in  horse....   101 

Oak  borer. .... 397 

Oak  pruner 407 

Oak  trees 553 

Oak  varnish 442 

Oats,  to  cultivate 537 

Oats,  seed,  to  select 551 

Oil  cake  for  pigs 229) 

Oil,  castor,  mixture 337 

Oil  paintings,  varnish  for..  442; 
Oil  vessel,  poultry,  inflam- 
mation of. 268 

Oil  of  vitriol,  antidote  for..  326' 
Ointment,     astringent,    for 

sore  heels  of  horses 242 

Ointment  blister  for  horses,  243 
Ointment  blister  for  cattle..  24s- 

Ointment  for  chilblain 334 

Ointment,     cleansing,     for 

cattle 247 

Ointment,     digestive,      for 

horse 245; 

Ointment/ glycerine 344 

Ointment,  healing,  for  cattle  247 
Ointment  for  hemorrhoids.  344 
Ointment,  iodine,  for  cattle.  248: 

Ointment  for  itch 342 

Ointment  for  itch 344 

Ointment  for  mange  in  cattle  249. 
Ointment,     mercurial,     for 

garget  in  cattle 248 

Ointment,**  mercurial,     for 

scabs  in  sheep 251 

Ointment,     mercurial,    for . 

vermin  in  cattle. ....  . 250 

Ointment,  mild,  for  scab  in 

sheep 251 

Ointment,  powerful,  for  scab 

in  sheep 251 

Ointment  for  sore  head  in 

sheep 2511 


CONTENTS 


597 


PAOE 

Ointment  for  piles 344 

Ointment  for  sore  nipples . .  344 
Ointment  for  sore  teats  in 

cattle, 248 

•Ointment,  sulphur........  344 

Onion,  culture  of 538 

Onion,  blight  and  smut  in. .  538 

Onion  fly 385 

Onions,  to  keep 288 

Onion  maggots  ...........  385 

Onions,  pickled .......  296 

Ophthalmia  in  dogs ..  277 

Ophthalmia,  swine 233 

Opium,  antidote  for.......  330 

Orange  blight .. .  540 

Orange  peel,  preserved....  301 
Oranges,  to  preserve  whole  299 

Orange  dye,  aniline 564 

Orchard,  apple 488 

Orchards,  pear 541 

Ossification  of  the  lateral  car- 
tilages in  horses ........     49 

Ostes  sarcoma  in  horse....     59 

Outbuildings,  stables,  etc., 

arrangement  of 4 

Ovens,  brick,  how  to  make  409 

Ovens,  measuring... .  418 

Overreaches,  horse ....  119 

Oxalic  acid,  antidote  for....  327 

Oxen,  breaking. ......  ....   190 

Oxen,  eye-lids,  warts  on...   167 
Oxen,  warts  on  eye-lids. ...   177 

Oxide  of  tin,  antidote  for..  331 
Oxide  of  zinc,  antidote  for.  331 

Ox-yoke,  how  to  make 433 

Oyster  shell  bark  louse 354 

Pace,  horse  learning  to 136 

Packing  apples  in  barrels..  279 

Packing  butter 280 

Pains 344 

Painkiller 345 

Paint,  cheap,  for  fences. 424 

Painters' colic 345 

Painting 425 

Painters'  work,  measuring.  423 

Painting,  graining 423 

Painting,  hints  on 423 

Painting,  knots  killed 423 

Paint,  mixing  oil  colors. 426 

Painting,  priming  color 423 

Painting,  sanding  424 

Paintings,  varnish  for 438 

Paintings,  varnish  for 442 

Pale  carriage  varnish 437 

Palsy  in  horses 131 

Paper,  fly 352 

Paper  hanging,  measuring.  431 

Paps  in  horses 88 

Paralysis  in  poultry 258 

Paralysis  in  horse 104 

Parasites,  to  destroy  .. .  538 

Paregoric,  antidote  for 330 

Parsnips,  to  keep 288 

Parsnips,  to  raise 539 

Parsley,  culture  of . .  539 

Partitions,  measuring    .  422 

Partnership,    agreement  to 

continue  a 462 

Pisterns,    horse,     how    to 

examine 22 


Msa. 
Partnership..... 467 

Pastures,  salting,  for  sheep.  211 
Patches,  moth,  to  remove. .  342 
Patella,  horse,  dislocation  of  68 
Patent  right,  assignment  of  a  456 
Paving,  measuring........  418 

Peach  borer 357,  397,  408 

Peaches,  canning.. 284 

Peaches,  to  can 288 

Peaches,    canning   by    the 

cold  process 303 

Peaches,  to  dry 288 

Peach,  pickled ...........  296 

Peach,  preserved.........  301 

Peach pruner. ... .  407 

Peach  tree  curculio. .......  372 

Peach  tree,  culture  of 516 

Peach  trees,  management  of  539 
Peach  trees,  mildew  on ... .  540 

Peach  trees,  to  save 540 

Peach  worm,  blue  spangled  393 

Peach,  yellows 539 

Peanut,  culture  of. 549 

Peanut,  harvesting. 549 

Peanut,  seed 550 

Peanut,  soil  for 548 

Peanut,  varieties 55° 

Pear  borer,  i 355 

Pear  borer 397 

Pears,  canning 284 

Pear,  culture  of. 543 

Pear  curculio. ........  379 

Pear,  diseases  of. 540 

Pear    orchards,    sites    and 

shelter  of 541 

Pear  orchards,  soil  for.....  542 

Pears,  preserved 30 1 

Pear  slug 377,  541 

Pear  tree  blight 546 

Pear  tree  frozen,  or  winter 

_  blight 546 

Pear  tree,  leaf  blight 546 

Pear  tree,  mulching .  543 

Pear  tree,  pruning 543 

Pear  tree,  planting 542 

Pear  tree,  stocks  on 545 

Pear  tree,  summer  blight..  546 

Pear  twig  borer 407 

Pear  worm 358 

Pear,  culture  of. 546 

Peas,  green,  to  preserve 289 

Peas,  pickled 295 

Peas  for  pigs 229 

Peasforsoed 382 

Peaweevil 382 

Pearl  grey  copal  varnish. . .  441 
Pear  tree,  culture  and  prun- 
ing   SI<5 

Pear  tree,  culture  of. 515 

Pear  tree,  soil  for 515 

Pear  tree,  training.. 515 

Pelidnota,  spotted 389 

Pennsylvania  apple  butter, 

to  make 280 

Pepper,  culture  of 541 

Peppers,  pickled. .........  296 

Periostitis,  horse 51 

Peri toritis  in  horse 93 

Peripneumonia  in  horse. ...  81 
Pestilential  fever  in  cattle..  173 
Phrenitis,  cattle 1 54 


PAG  e  . 

Phrenitis  in  horse. ....  ....  101 

Pharynx,  cattle,  inflamma- 
tion of  the 189 

Phosphorus,  antidote  for  ..  330 

Phylloxera,  grape 402 

Physic  balls  for  horse — . .  242 
Physic  ball,    warmer,    for 

horse..................  242 

Physic  for  blown  in  sheep. .  250 

Physic  drink  for  cattle 248 

Physic  drink  for  lockjaw  in 

cattle 249 

Physic,  horse,  how  to  use. .  130 
Piccalilli,  Indian  method . . .  289 
Piccalilli,  mixed,  pickled. . .  295 

Pickling  beef. 280 

Picking  dry  poultry .......  268 

Picking  poultry. 266 

Pickled  barberries 295 

Pickled  beans 295 

Pickled  beets 294 

Pickled  beet  root. ........  294 

Pickled  broccoli 295 

Pickled  cabbage.... 294 

Pickled  cauliflower 295 

Pickled  cherries 294 

Pickles,  chopped 294 

Pickled  codlins 295 

Pickles,  to  color  green 296 

Pickled  crab  apple,  sweet..  295 

Pickled  cucumbers —  294 

Pickled  cucumbers 295 

Pickled  garlic 295 

Pickled  gherkins 295 

Pickled  green  ginger 295 

Pickled  green  gooseberries.  295 
Pickled  green  tomatoes .  —  297 

Pickled  lemons 295 

Pickled'limes. . .  .  - 295 

Pickled  melons 295 

Pickles,  minced 296 

Pickled  mixed  piccalilli 295 

Pickled  mushrooms 294 

Pickled  onions 296 

Pickled  plums,  sweet 296 

Pickled  peach 296 

Pickled  peas 295 

Pickled  peppers 296 

Pickled  radish  pods 295 

Pickled  red  cabbage. . 295 

Pickled  roots 296 

Pickled  samphires 295 

Pickled  tomatoes 297 

Pickled  tomatoes,  green...  297 

Pickled  walnuts 295 

Pickles 293 

Pickles,  sweet. . 296 

Pickles,  sweetened  by  lead, 

antidote  for 329 

Pickling  eggs 282 

Pickling  meat 288 

Picric  acid  dye,  aniline 567 

Pictures,  varnish  for 442 

Pieplant,  canning........  284 

Pigging  m  swine 236 

Pigs,  age  to  breed 230 

Pigs,  alterative  powder  for.  251 

Pigs,  apoplexy  in  235 

Pigs,  ashes  for. .......  ..  229 

Pigs,  beans  for 229 

Pigs,  black  teeth  lu 234 


59« 


CONTENTS. 


TAGS. 

Pigs,  bleeding  of 237 

Pigs,  blind  staggers  in 238 

Pigs,    brain,    inflammation 

of  the 235 

Pigs,  bran  for 229 

Pigs,  bone  dust  for  . . .  229 

Pigs,  breeds 230 

Pigs,  breed,  age  to 230 

Pigs,  breeding 230 

Pigs,  castration  of 229 

Pigs,  catarrh  in 238 

Pigs,  charcoal  for 229 

Pigs,  choking 234 

Pigs,  cholera. 234 

Pigs,  colic  in 233 

Pigs,  costiveness  in 238 

Pigs,  crossing  of. 230 

Pigs,  debility  in 233 

Pigs,  diarrhoea  in.........  238 

Pigs,  dropsy  in 238 

Pigs,  ear,  sore,  in 238 

Pigs,  emaciation 233 

Pigs,  epilepsy 233 

Pigs,  epizoot.  in 74 

Pigs,  fattening 231 

Pigs,  fattening,  bad  practice  232 
Pigs,  feet,  soreness  of  the . .  236 
Pigs,  fever,  medicine  for. . .  25 1 

Pigs,  fits  in 233 

Pigs,  food  for............  229 

Pigs,  frenzy  in..... 238 

Pigs — See  Hogs. 

Pigs,  how  to  feed. ... 231 

Pigs,  how  to  select . 229 

Pigs,   inflammation  of  the 

brain 231 

Pigs,  inflammation  of  the 

Fungs. 237 

Pigs,  itch  in 238 

Pigs,  jaundice  in 239 

Pigs,  kidney  worms  in 238 

Pigs,  lice  on 233 

Pigs,  lice,  how  to  destroy..  229 
Pigs,    lungs,   inflammation 

of  the 237 

Pigs,  mange  in 235 

Pigs,  measles  in 235 

Pigs,  medicines — See  Swine  251 
Pigs,  mild  diarrhoea,  remedy 

For 229 

Pigs,  milk  for 229 

Pigs,  oil  cake  for 229 

Pigs,  ophthalmia .........  233 

Pigs,  peas  for 229 

Pigs,  pigging 236 

Pigs,  posts  for  scratching..  229 

Pig,  preventives 238 

Pigs,  quinsy 236 

Pig  raising,  important  rules 

for 235 

Pigs,  red  eruption  in 238 

Pigs,  rheumatism  in 233 

Pigs,  salt  for 229 

Pigs,  scratching  post 229 

Pigs,  select,  how  t> 229 

Pigs,  shelter  for 231 

Pigs,  sick,  how  to  manage.  229 

Pigs,  sore  ears 238 

Pigs,  soreness  of  the  feet..  236 
Pigs,  staggers,  blind,  in.. .  238 
Pigs,  summer  care  of. 231 


PASS. 

Pigs,  superphosphate  for  . .  229 

Pigs,  sulphur  for 229 

Pigs— See  Swine. 

Pigs,  teeth,  black  in 234 

Pigs,  trichinae  in 234 

Pigs,  vermin  in 233 

Pigs,  winter  care  of 231 

Pigs,  worms,  kidney,  in...  238 
Pigs,  young,  rot  of  tails . . .  234 

Piles  in  dogs —  ..  277 

Piles,  ointment 344 

Piping  in  horse 80 

Pimples 345 

Pineapple,  preserved 301 

Pip  in  poultry 258 

Piper,  horse,  how  to  tell. . .     19 

Plague,  cattle 154 

Plank,  measurement 413 

Plants,  to  banish  red  spider  541 
Plants,  cabbage,  clubfoot  in  502 
Plants,  cabbage,  to  cultivate  502 
Plauts,  cabbage,  enemies  of  502 

Plants,  cabbage,  fly  in 502 

Plantlice 377 

Plantlouse 368 

Plant  louse,  apple  root 363 

Plants,  out-door,  label  for. .  546 

Planting  near  buildings 454 

Plaster,  mustard 345 

Plaster,  poor  man's 345 

Plaster,  rheumatic 345 

Plaster,  strengthening 345 

Plasterers'  work,  measuring  419 

Pleurisy  in  cattle 150 

Pleurisy  in  horse 84 

Pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle.  181 

Pleurodynia  in  horse 85 

Plows,  rusty,  to  clean 547 

Plum  borer ...  397 

Plum  tree,  culture  of 516 

Plum  curculio 372 

Plum  gouger — .  371 

Plum  weevil 372 

Plumbers'  work,  measure- 

mentof 414 

Plums,  grape  vine........  367 

Plums,  canning 284 

Plums,  purple,  preserved..  301 

Plums,  sweet,  pickled 296 

Plunging  horse 43 

Pneumonia,  acute,  in  horse.    83 

Pneumonia  in  horse 81 

Points  of  horse 7 

Poisons,    antidote    for,    in 

horses 89 

Poisons  and  their  antidotes.  326 

Poisons,  cattle 183 

Poison  ivy,  antidote  for. ...  331 
Poison,  horse,  antidote  for.     89 
Poisonous«fish^antidote  for.  330 
Poisonous  mushrooms,  anti- 
dote for 330 

Poker,  Indian,  antidote  for.  329 

Poll  evil  in  horse 58 

Poor  horses,  how  to  fatten.  144 

Poor  man's  plaster 345 

Poplar  pyramidal  worm.  —  385 
Pork,  cutting  up  and  curing  573 
Posts,  fence,  to  preserve. . .  522 
Posts,  scratching  for  pigs..  229 
Potash,  caustic,  antidote  for  327 


PARE. 

Potash,  nitrate,  antidote  for  331 
Potassium  cyanide,  antidote 

for 327 

Potato    beetle,   Colorado, 

bogus 38a 

Potato  bug 380 

Potato  bug,  modern,  anti- 
dote for 328 

Potato  disease,  preventive. .  547 

Potato  rot,  Barnet's  cure. . .  547 

Potato  stalk  borer 360 

Potato  stalk  weevil 360 

Potato  or  tomato  worm 361 

Potato  worm 387 

Potatoes,  earthing  up 546 

Potatoes,    to    keep4  from 

sprouting 289 

Potatoes,    raising    under 

straw 546 

Potatoes,  seed,  to  select...  551 

Potatoes,  storing 289 

Potatoes,  sweet,  culture  of.  547 

Potatoes,  sweet,  to  keep 290 

Potatoes,  sweet,  in  bulk,  to 

keep 290 

Pot  herbs,  to  cultivate 490 

Poultice,  bread  and  milk. . .  345 

Poultice,  linseed 345 

Poultice,  spice 345 

Poultry,  age  of 266 

Poultry,  age,  profitable 253 

Poultry,  apoplexy. ........  257 

Poultry,  best  for  chickens . .  256 

Poultry,  best  for  eggs 256 

Poultry,  best  for  table 256 

Poultry,  blindness  in 268 

Poultry,  bones  to  pulverize 

for 266 

Poultry,  breeds,   the  most 

popular 256 

Poultry,  canker  in 267 

Poultry,  caponizing. ... 269 

Poultry,  catarrh 259 

Poultiy — See  Chickens. 

Poultry,  consumption  in 26 1 

Poultry,  costiveness 268 

Poultry,  cramp  in 265 

Poultry,  crop  bound. 262 

Poultry,  croup  in 267 

Poultry,  diarrhoea  in 262 

Poultry,  diseases  of 256' 

Poultry,  drinking  and  feed- 
ing   253. 

Poultry,  droppings  of 255 

Poultry,  dry  picking  ......  268 

Poultry,  eggs,  eating  their.  265 
Poultry,    eggs,    layers    of 

small 256 

Poultry,  epilepsy ...... 257 

Poultry,  eggs,  great  layers .  256 
Poultry,  eggs,  layers  of  large  256 
Poultry,    eggs,    layers    of 

medium 256 

Poultry,  fattening 267 

Poultry,  fattening  coops...  267 
Poultry,    feathers,    eating 

thr'r 263. 

Pouhry,  feathers,  loss  of. . .  263 
Poultry,    fumigation    of 

houses 255 

Poultry,  gapes  in 259 


CONTENTS. 


59r 


MOh 
Poultry,  feeding  and  drink- 
ing   253 

Poultry,  giddiness  in 258 

Poultry,  good  sitters 256 

Poultry,  house  for 252 

Poultry  houses,  to  clear  of 

vermin .. 256 

Poultry  house,  fumigation  of  255 
Poultry  houses,  to  fumigate  268 

Poultry,  hardy  breeds 256 

Poultry — See  Hens.    . 
Poultry,  inflammation  of  the 

oil  vessel  in 268 

Poultry,  inflammation  of  the 

stomach 265 

Poultry  keepers'  guide 252 

Poultry,  killing 266 

Poultry,  large  breeds 256 

Poultry,  lice  on 264 

Poultry,  for  market 266 

Poultry,  management  of .. .  252 

Poultry,  megrims 265 

Poultry,  oil  vessel,  inflam- 
mation of  the 268 

Poultry,  paralysis 258 

Poultry,  picking.... 266 

Poultry,  pip  in 258 

Poultry,  to  preserve  in  win- 
ter  258 

Poultry,  profit  of 252 

Poultry,  profitable  age 253 

Foultry,  quiet  breeds 256 

Poultry,  rheumatism 265 

Poultry,  room  for 252 

Poultry,  roosts  for 252 

Poultiy,  roup  in 260 

Poultry,  rump-root  in 268 

Poultry,  stomach,  inflamma- 
tion of  the 265 

Poultry,  ulcers  in 266 

Poultry,  vermin  on 264 

Poultry,  vermin,  to  destroy  268 

Poultry,  vertigo  in 258 

Poultry,  white  comb 264 

Poultry,  wounds  of. 266 

Powder,  alterative  for  swine  25 1 
Powder,  astringent  for  cattle  249 
Powder,  putty,  antidote  for.  331 
Powders,    tonic,    alterative 

for  cattle 250 

Powders,  tooth 348 

Power  of  attorney 467 

Power  of  attorney,  revoca- 
tion  467 

Preserve    fruits,    without 

self-sealing  cans 297 

Preserve    fruits,    without 

sugar  or  vinegar 298 

Preserve,ginger,  imitation  of  299 
Preserve,  grapes,  in  bunches  299 

Preserve,  mushrooms 301 

Preserve,  orange,  whole...  299 
Preserve  small  fruits,  with- 
out cooking — 297 

Preserved  apples 298 

Preserved  apple,  crab. ....  298 

Preserved  cherries 300 

Preserved  citron  melons —  298 

Preserved  crab  apple 298 

Preserved   cucumbers,    to 
imitate  ginger 298 


PAGE. 

Preserved  currants. .......  299 

Preserved  damsons 300 

Preserved  dewberries 300 

Preserved  fruit   by  syrup, 

without  heat 298 

Preserved  ginger,  green 300 

Preserved  ginger,  mock  ...  301 

Preserved  gooseberries 300 

Preserved  grapes  in  vinegar  300 

Preserved  green  gages 300 

Preserved  green  ginger 300 

Preserved  huckleberries —  300 

Preserved  melon  citron 298 

Preserved  melon,  like  ginger  299 

Preserved  mock  ginger 301 

Preserved  orange  peel 301 

Preserved  peaches 301 

Preserved  pears 301 

Preserved  pine  apple 301 

Preserved  purple  plums —  301 

Preserved  quince 302 

Preserved  raspberries 302 

Preserved  rhubarb 302 

Preserved  strawberries 302 

Preserved  tomatoes 303 

Preserved  walnuts 303 

Preserved  whole  apricots..  298 

Preserved  yeast 292 

Preserving  birds 281 

Preserving  butter,  fresh...  502 

Preserving,  hints  on 297 

Preserving  rosebuds 290 

Preventives,  sheep,  rot  in. .  209 
Preventives,  sheep,  foot  rot 

in 215 

Preventives  in  swine 238 

Pricks  in  shoeing  horse. ...   119 

Pricking,  horse 129 

Priming  color,  painting. 423 

Profit  of  poultry 252 

Profitable  age  for  poultry..  253 
Promissory  note ..........  458 

Promissory  joint  note 458 

Proportions    of  points   of 

horse 12 

Pruner,  apple 407 

Pruner,  dies  nut 407 

Pruner,  hickory 407 

Pruner,  oak 407 

Pruner,  peach 407 

Prussic  acid,  or  hydrocyanic, 

antidote  for 327 

Public    lands,    agricultural 

college  scrip 484 

Public  lands,  homesteads..  485 
Public  lands,  how  to  acquire 

title  to 484 

Public  lands,  pre-emptions.  484 

Public  lands,  lees 486 

Public  lands,  soldiers'  and 

sailors' homesteads 486 

Public  lands,  locating  war- 
rants  484 

Public  lands,  cash  purchases  484 

Pruning 546 

Pruning  apple  trees 515 

Pruning  pear  trees 515,  543 

Puerperal  fever  in  cows. ...  158 

Puffs  in  horse 02 

Pulling  stumps 553 

Pumice  foot  in  horse 56 


FAQ*. 

Pumpkin  worm 39° 

Pumpkins  amongst  corn . . .  547 

Pumpkins,  drying 289 

Purchase  money,  mortgage 
for 464 

Purchase  sheep,  how  to  . . .  227 
Purchase  sheep,  what  kind.  228 
Purging  balls,  with  calomel, 

for  horses 242 

Purging,  cattle 146 

Purging  in  calves,  to  stop. .  250 
Purging   or    diarrhoea   in 

sheep 222 

Purging  drink  for  cattle. . . .  247 
Purging  drink  for  sheep —  250 
Purging  drink,  sulphur,  for 

cattle 247 

Purging,  sheep,  or  diarrhoea 

in 222 

Purgative  clyster  in  horse. .  242 
Purgative  drink  for  cattle..  24& 

Purple  copal  varnish.   443 

Purple  dye,  aniline 566- 

Purple  plums,  preserved. . .  301 
Putty  powder,  antidote  for.  334 
Pyramidal  grape  vine  worm  385 
Pyramidal  poplar  worm  . . .  385 
Pyramidal  raspberry  worm.  385 
Pyramidal  red-bud  worm..  385 
Phthisis  in  horse 85. 

Quarter  evil  in  cattle 171 

Queen  bee,  fertilization  of 

the 312 

Queen  bee,  rearing  of 316 

Quiet  breeds  of  poultry 256 

Quince  borer 355,  406 

Quinces,  canning 284 

Quince  curculio. 379 

Quinces,  preserved 302 

Quince  trees,  culture  of. . ..  516' 

Quinsy 34J. 

Quinsy  in  swine 236' 

Quit  claim  deed  ......  ....  462 

Quittor  in  horse 54 

Rabies  in  horse 102 

Rabbits,  fruit  trees,  to  pro- 
tect from.... 511 

Rabbit  skins,  to  cure 434 

Rabies,  cattle 192 

Radicicola  type,  or  root-in- 
habiting   404 

Radishes,  culture  of ...  547" 

Radishes,  fly 385 

Radish,  horse,  to  keep....  286 

Radish,  horse,  to  cultivate .  533. 

Radish  pods,  pickled......  295 

Rain  water,  to  keep  sweet .  289 

Raising  blood 333. 

Raising     pigs,      important 

rules  for 235, 

Rancid  butter,  to  restore. . .  501 

Rarey's  plan  illustrated. ...  138 

Raspberry  borer, 406 

Raspberry,  culture  of 518 

Raspberries,  preserved ....  30* 

Raspberry  pyramidal  worm  385 

Rats,  to  destroy 353 

Ratsbane,  antidote  for 325 

Rat  poison,  antidote  for . . .  330- 


<5oo 


CONTENTS. 


TXQM. 

Rearing    horses,    how    to 
manage....*.. ..........     43 

Receipt 467 

Receipt  on  account  .......  468 

Receipt  for  money  paid  by 
another  person  .........  465 

Receipt  for  rent  ..........  467 

Red  ants,  to  destroy  ......  350 

Red-brown  dye  ..........  570 

Red-bud  pyramidal  worm..  385 
Red  cabbage,  pickled  .....  295 

Red  copal  varnish .  442 

Red  dye 570 

Red  dye,  aniline 570 

Red  eruption  in  swine 238 

Red  gooseberries,  to  keep  .  285 

Red  lead,  antidote  for 329 

Red  pepper  worm 387 

Red  precipitate,  antidote  for  329 

Red  spider 369,  541 

Red  water  in  cattle 156 

Red  water  in  sheep 202 

Red  water,  true,  in  cattle..   157 

Refrigerants,  horse 246 

Release  of  all  demands 468 

Rennet,  mode  of  use 547 

Rent,  receipt  for 467 

Resin  soap,  to  make 290 

Respiration    of    horse,    to 

judge  by 15 

Restorative  for  the  hair 341 

Revocation  of  power  of  at- 
torney  467 

Rhubarb,  canning 284 

Rhubarb,  preserved 302 

Rheumatic  drink  for  cattle.  247 
Rheumatic  embrocation  for 

cattle 247 

Rheumatics  in  horse 56 

Rheumatic  inflammation  in 

horse 60 

Rheumatic  liniment .......  343 

Rheumatic  plaster 345 

Rheumatism 233,  345 

Rheumatism  in  cattle . .   1 50 

Rheumatism,     chronic,    in 

horse. 61 

Rheumatism  in  poultry 265 

Rheumatism  in  sheep 226 

Rhubarb,  culture  of 551 

Rinderpest,  cattle 158 

Ringbone,  blister  sweating, 

for  horses . ....  243 

Ringbone  in  horse 50 

Ringbone,  horse,  sweating 

blister  for 1 .  243 

Ringbone,     remedies      for 

horse 133 

Ringworm 346 

Roads  and  avenues,  plant- 
ing.......   453 

Roads  and  waiks,  construc- 
tion of 447 

Roads  and  walks,  laying  out  446 
Roarer,  horse,  how  to  tell .  20 
Roaring  in  horse,   remedy 

for 76 

Rocky  mountain  locust....  3 "3 
Rods,    lightning,    how    to 

erect 412 

Roller,  strawberry  leaf 368 


TXQZ. 

Rolling,  horse.... 43 

Roofing,  a  cheap  .... 431 

Roofing,  composition,  meas- 
uring  423 

Roofs,  construction  of.. 421 

Roojn  for  poultry  .........  252 

Roosters — See  Poultry. 
Roosts,  hen,  how  to  destroy 

vermin  in 270 

Roosts  for  poultry  ........  252 

Root-apple  plant  louse  ....  363 

Root-inhabiting,or  type  radi- 

cicola 404 

Root-louse,  grape 404 

Roots,  to  keep 291 

Roots,  pickled 296 

Rose  bug 366 

Roses,  mildew  on 537 

Rose  slug 377 

Rose  trees,  blight  in 551 

Rosebuds,  to  preserve 290 

Rot,  foot,  in  sheep 213 

Rot,  mixture  for  sheep 250 

Rot  in  sheep 207 

Rot  in  sheep,  preventive. . .  209 
Rot,  foot/sheep,  preventives  215 
Rot,  potato,  Barnet's  pre- 
ventive   547 

Rot,  tails  of  young  pigs 234 

Rot,  young  pigs,  tails  of. . .  344 
Round  headed   apple   tree 

borer 355 

Roup  in  geese 274 

Roup  in  poultry 260 

Rowels  and  seton  in  horse.   126 

Rump  root  in  poultry 268 

Running  away  horse,  rem- 
edy for 44 

Rupture  in  horse 96 

Rust  in  wheat 560 

Rye,  culture  of 55  x 

Saffranine  dye,  aniline 567 

Saffron,   meadow,   antidote 

for 329 

Sage,  culture  of 551 

Sale,  bill  of 458 

Sallenders  in  horse no 

Salts,  alkalies  and  their  anti- 
dotes for 327 

Salts,  spirits  of,  antidote  for  326 

Salt  rheum 346 

Salt  for  swine 229 

Saltpetre,  antidote  for 331 

Salting  pasture  for  sheep  ..  211 

Samphires,  pickled 295 

Sand  crack  in  horse,  how  to 

tell 24 

Sand  crack  in  horse,  remedy 

for. 56 

Sanding,  painting. ........  424 

Salve,  healing 346 

Sauer  kraut,  to  make......  291 

Sausages,  keeping 29 1 

Sausages,  making. ........  291 

Savine,  antidote  for  . . . .  33 1 

Saw-fly 374 

Saw,  to  put  in  order  ......  431 

Scab  in  sheep 216 

Scabby    sheep,    mild    oint- 
ment for 251 


PAOX. 

Scab,  sheep,  powerful  oint- 

mentfor 251 

Scab,     mercurial    ointment 

for,  in  sheep...*. 251 

Scab,  sheep,  smearing  mix- 

turefor 251 

Scalds  and  burns 320,  337 

Scalds  in  dogs 277 

Scalding  of  urine 349 

Scantling,  measurement  of.  413 
Scars    about    the    head    of 

horse . 20 

Scar  on  the  knee  of  horse, 

to  examine 21 

Scarlet  dye,  aniline 567 

Scarlet  dye 570 

Scratching  the  ear,  horse, 

how  to  prevent 41 

Scratching  posts  for  pigs. . .  229 

Scouring  rot  in  cattle '. ..   155 

Scours  in  sheep 225 

Scratches  in  horse 133 

Scurf  in  the  head. ......  JL  342 

Security,  note  with 458 

Sedative,  eye  lotion  for  cat- 
tle   249 

Sedative,  horse 246 

Seed  barley,  to  select 551 

Seed  corn,  to  select 551 

Seed  corn  worm 370 

Seed,  hedge 533 

Seed  oats,  to  select 551 

Seed  peanuts 550 

Seed  peas 382 

Seed  potatoes,  to  select ....   551 

Seed  wheat,  to  select 551 

Seed,  to  test 551 

Seedy  toe  in  horse 114 

Select    and   judge    horses, 

how  to.... 14 

Select  sheep,  how  to 227 

Serpents' bites 318 

Serpents,  bites  of,  embroca- 
tion for,  in  cattle 249 

Seton,  artificial,  for  cattle..   148 
Seton,  cattle,  mode  of  insert- 
ing  148 

Setons  and  rowels  in  horse.   126 
Setting,  how  to  prevent  hens  2  70 

Seven  year  itch 343 

Sewers,  measuring. ..  418 

Sex  of  eggs 273 

Shank  of  horse,  to  examine     21 

Shaving,  horse. . ..     35 

Shearing  sheep.. 221 

Shearing  sheep,   directions 

for 227 

Sheaths,    inflamed   tendon- 

ous,  in  horse 62 

Sheep 197 

Shoulder,   horse,   strain  of 

the 64 

Sheep,  after-pains 199 

Sheep,  age  of,  how  to  tell. .  225 

Sheep,  appetite,  loss  of 215 

Sheep,    astringent    powder 

for 251 

Sheep,   astringent   powder, 

caustic,  for  foot  rot 251 

Sheep,    arsenical   wash   for 
lice 251 


CONTENTS. 


60 1 


PACK. 

Sheep,  bites  in 223 

Sheep,  blown  in  ....  .... ..  205 

Sheep,  blast  in 205 

-Sheep,  blown,  physic  for ..  250 
■Sheep,  brain  in,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  ....... ..  204 

Sheep,   care  and    manage- 
ment of 225 

Sheep,  castration  ......  .. .   199 

Sheep,  catarrh  in.... 226 

Sheep,    caustic    astringent 

powder  for  foot  rot 25 1 

Sheep,  chockered .  207 

.  Sheep,  clatting  of. 1 98 

Sheep,  cleansing  of  wounds  224 
Sheep,  cold  and  discharge 

from  the  nose 206 

Sheep,  cooling  fever  drink .  250 

Sheep,  debility  in 222 

!  Sheep,  debility,  tonic  drink  251 
Sheep,  diarrhoea  or  purging  222 
Sheep,  directions  for  shear- 
ing   227 

•Sheep,  discharge  from  the 

nose,  and  cold 206 

Sheep,  diseases  of 197 

Sheep,  dizziness  in 223 

!  Sheep,  drink,  cooling  fever  250 
Sheep,  drink,  general  tonic  250 
Sheep,  drink,  purging. .., .  250 
Sheep,  drink,   strenghthen- 

ing 250 

Sheep,  drink,  tonic 250 

Sheep,  drink,  tonic,  for  de- 
bility  251 

Sheep,  dysentery 222 

Sheep,  epilepsy  in .....  212 

Sheep,  epizoot.  in 74 

Sheep,  erysipelas 22 1 

Sheep,    to    examine    after 

death 208 

Sheep,  eye,  lotion  for  cloudi- 
ness on  the 251 

:Sheep,  to  fatten  for  winter .  226 
Sheep,  fever  cooling  drink.  250 

Sheep,  fits  in 228 

Sheep,  flies  troubling 219 

Sheep,  fly  powder  for 25 1 

Sheep,  foot  rot  in 213 

Sheep,  rot  preventives ..-. .  215 
Sheep,     foot    rot,    caustic 

astringent  powder  for 251 

Sheep,  foundering 225 

Sheep,  fractures  in 223 

Sheep,  gad  fly,  to  protect 

from 226 

Sheep,  gall  lambs 199 

Sheep,  general  tonic  drinks   250 

Sheep,  giddiness 203 

:Sheep,  grub  in  the  head 223 

Sheep,  head,  grub  in 223 

Sheep,  head  sore 215 

Sheep,  head,  water  in  the..  203 

Sheep,  heaving 199 

Sheep,  how  to  purchase  .. .  227 

Sheep,  how  to  select 227 

Sheep,  influenza  in 207 

Sheep,  inflammation  of  the 

brain  in 204 

Sheep,  inflammation  of  the 
kidneys  in 212 


TXOX. 

Sheep,  inflammation  of  the 

lungs.... 204 

Sheep,  itch 221 

Sheep,  j  aundice  in 205 

Sheep,  kidneys,  inflamma- 

mation  of  the,  in .  212 

Sheep,  lambing  season  ....  197 
Sheep,  laxative  medicine...  250 

Sheep,  leaping 223 

Sheep,  lice  en 219 

Sheep  lice,  arsenical  wash 

for 251 

Sheep  lice,  mercurial  wash 

for 251 

Sheep,  lotion  for  cloudiness 

on  the  eye 251 

Sheep,  lungs,  inflammation 

of  the 204 

Sheep,  maggots  in 22 1 

Sheep,  management  of  . 197 

Sheep,     management    and 

care  of 225 

Sheep,  mercurial  ointment 

for  scabs 251 

Sheep,  mercurial  wash  for 

lice  in 251 

Sheep,  mild  laxative 25 1 

Sheep,   mild  ointment  for 

scab 251 

Sheep,  mixture  for  the  rot .  250 

Sheep,  nipples,  sore 212 

Sheep,  nose,  discharge  from, 

and  cold 206 

Sheep,  ointment,  mercurial, 

for  scab 25 1 

Sheep,   ointment  for   sore 

heads 251 

Sheep  pastures,  salting 211 

Sheep,  physic  for  blown —  250 
Sheep,    powerful    ointment 

for  scab 251 

Sheep,  preventives  in  foot 

rot 215 

Sheep,  to  protect  from  the 

gad  fly 226 

Sheep,  purging,  or  diar- 
rhoea    222 

Sheep,  purging  drink  for  . .  250 

Sheep,  red  water  in 202 

Sheep,  rheumatism 226 

Sheep,  rotin 207 

Sheep  rot,  mixture  for. ....  250 

Sheep  rot,  preventives 209 

Sheep  rot,  foot 213 

Sheep  rot,  foot,  preventives  215 
Sheep,  salting  pastures....  211 

Sheep  scab 216 

Sheep  scab,  mild  ointment 

for 251 

Sheep  scab,  powerful  oint- 
ment for 251 

Sheep  scab,  smearing  mix- 
ture for 251 

Sheep  splints,  use  of 224 

Sheep,  scours  in 225 

Sheep  shearing 221 

Sheep  shearing,  directions 

for 227 

Sheep,  sore  heads 2I«j 

Sheep,  sore  heads,  ointment 

for 251 


rxaz. 
Sheep,  sore  nipples  in. ....  212 
Sheep  skins,  to  cure  with 

the  wool  on 434 

Sheep  skins,  to  prepare  for 

mats. ...... 432 

Sheep,    smearing    mixture 

for  scabs  ..............  251 

Sheep,  strengthening  drink  250 
Sheep,  stretches ..........  221 

Sheep,  sturdy....... .  2031 

Sheep,  ticks  on 219I 

Sheep,  tonic  drink 250 

Sheep,  tonic  drink,  for  de- 
bility  251 

Sheep,  water  in  the  head..  203 

Sheep,  water,  red,  in 202 

Sheep,  what  to  purchase. . .  228 

Sheep,  winter,  to  fatten 226 

Sheep,  womb  displaced. 199 

Sheep,  wounds  in 223 

Sheep,    wounds,   cleansing 

of 224 

Sheep,  yellows  in 205 

Shelly  foot  in  horse,  how  to 

tell 23 

Shelter  for  pigs 231 

Shingles,  measuring 423 

Shoes,  horse,  loss  of 39 

Shoes,  varnish  for 443 

Shoeing  horses 135 

Shoeing  horse,  pricks  in...  119 
Shoes  of  horses,  removal  of  39 
Shoeing  horses  in  winter  ..   134 

Shoulder,  big,  in  horses 132 

Shouldering  horse 44 

Shoulder  lameness  in  horse  57 
Shoulder  of  horse,  how  to 

examine 20 

Shying  horse 42 

Sick  headache 341 

Sick  swine,  how  to  manage  229 

Sickness  of  stomach 346 

Side-bone  in  horse 5  * 

Side-line  for  the  horse 1 22 

Sight  draft 458 

Silver,   nitrate  of,   antidote 

for 330 

Singeing  horse 35 

Sitfasts  in  horse 110 

Sitters,  poultry,  good 256 

Skeleton,  horse,  number  of 

bones  of 48 

Skins,  buck,  to  tan  .r 433 

Skins,  deer,  to  dress 410 

Skins,  fur,  to  tan 433 

Skins,     muskrat,     tanning 

with  the  fur  on 434 

Skins,  small,  to  tan 434 

Skins,  rabbit,  to  cure 434 

Skins,  small,  stretching  and 

curing 432 

Skins,  sheep,  to  cure  with 

the  wool  on 434 

Skins,  sheep,  to  prepare  for 

mats 432 

Skins,  to  tan  with  the  hair 

on 435 

Skylights,  measuring 422 

Slater's    and    tiler's  work, 

measurement 412 

Sleepy  staggers  in  horse. ..   105 


6o2 


CONTENTS. 


PAOK. 

Slimy  flux  in  cattle 155 

Slinking  calves,  cows  ......  161 

Slugs,  to  destroy 552 

Slug,  pear 377,  54* 

Slug,  rose... 377 

Slug  or  snail.............  368 

Slugs  in  wheat  .... . 560 

Slug  worms. ........ .  377 

Small     fruits,     preserving 

without  cooking 297 

Small  skins,  to  tan... 434 

Smearing  mixture  for  scabs 

in  sheep..... 251 

Smoked  hams,  to  keep 286 

Smoke  tree  beetle .........  406 

Smut  in  onion 538 

Smut  in  wheat  ...........  552 

Snails,  to  destroy .....  552 

Snail,  or  slug 368 

Snails,   lettuce,   to    protect 

from 535 

Snakes,  bites  of 318 

Snakes,  bites,  embrocation 

for,  in  cattle 249 

Snowballing   in    horse,   to 

prevent 119 

Soap,  hard,  to  make  ......  290 

Soup,  resin,  to  make......  290 

Soap,  soft,  to  make ...  290 

Soap,  yellow,  to  make 290 

Soft  corns... 335 

Soft  shell  eggs 273 

Soft  soap,  to  make r.  290 

Soften  the  hands 341 

Solution    of    blue    vitriol, 

horse,  use  of 244 

Solution  of  tin,  antidote  for  331 
Solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 

horse,  use  of 243 

Solvent  corns  ............  335 

Sore  ears  in  dogs.........  277 

Sore  ears  in  swine........  238 

Sore  feet  in  dogs  ....  .....  277 

Sore  head,  sheep.........  215 

Sore  heads  in  sheep,  oint- 
ment for . ....  251 

Sore  heels,  horse,  astringent 

ointment  for 242 

Sorelips 343 

Sore  mouth  in  cattle ...   154 

Sore  nipples  in  sheep  .....  212 
Sore  nipples,  ointment  for  .  344 

Sore  teats  in  cow 160 

Sore  teats  in  cattle,  oint- 

mentfor 248 

Sore  throat,  how  to  cure. . .  349 
Sore  throat  in  dogs  .......  277 

Sore  throat,  horse  ........     70 

Sore  throat  in  horse,  remedy 

for 88 

Sore  throat  liniment. ......  343 

Sores,  fever...... ........  339 

Soreness    of    the    feet   of 

swine 236 

Sorghum,  culture  of....  —  552 
Sorrel,  to  remove.... .....  552 

Sows,  farrow,  time  to 230 

Sows,  time  to  farrow.... ..  230 

Sows  near  farrowing,  treat- 
ment of. 239 

Sow,  gestation  in 229 


PACK. 

Sow,  gestation  in 230 

Spangled  peach  worm 393 

Spanish  fly,  antidote  for 328 

Spasm  of  the  diaphragm  in 

horse 86 

Spasmodic  colic  in  horse. . .  94 
Spavins,  blister  sweating  for 

horse 243 

Spavin  in  horse 51 

Spavin  in  horse,  how  to  tell  25 
Spavin,     horse,     sweating 

blister  for 243 

Spearsman,  ten-lined 380 

Spine  poultice..-- 345 

Spider,  garden,  to  destroy.  508 

Spider,  red 369 

Spinach,  culture  of 552 

Spine,   horse,  diseases  of, 

how  to  tell 25 

Splints  in  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine  .....     21 

Spirits  of  salts,  antidote  for  326 

Sprains 332 

Sprains  in  dogs 277 

Sprained  ankle 333 

Spotted  pelidnota 389 

Splints,  blister  sweating  for 

horse 243 

Splint,  horse.... 50 

Splints,     horse,     sweating 

blister  for. .......... 243 

Splint  on  mule 142 

Splints,  sheep,  use  of.. 224 

Spring  canker  worm 399 

Squash  bug.. 384 

Squash,  culture  of 552 

Stable,  arrangement  of 445 

Stables,  horse,  to  deodorize  144 
Stable,  horse,  treatment  of.     39 

Stables  for  horses I43 

Stacks,  corn,  mice  in. .  505 

Staggers,  blind,  in  swine  . .  238 

Staggers,  cattle 154 

Staggers,  mad,  in  horse  .. .  101 
Staggers,   laxative   for,    in 

horse.... 242 

Staggers  in  lambs 202 

Staggers,  sleepy,  in  horse. .  105 
Staggers,  stomach,  in  horse  89 
Stains,  hands,  to  remove. . .  341 

Staircases,  measuring 422 

Stalk,  potato,  borer 360 

Stalk,  potato,  weevil 360 

Stalk,  tomato,  borer. ......  360 

Steamingfood. ...........  521 

Steel  blue  beetle 387 

Stiffened  joints  ....... 343 

Stifle  diseases  in  horse  ....     25 

Stifle,  horse,  strain  of 67 

Stimulating   astringent   for 

cattle 248 

Stimulating  drink  for  cattle.  247 
Stimulating  drink  for  cattle.  248 
Stimulating   drink,    warm, 

for  cattle 248 

Stimulants,  horse 246 

Stings  of  bees 332 

Stings  and  bites  of  insects. .  318 
Stings  of  hornets,  cattle. .  184 

Stings  of  insects,  horse III 

Stings  of  wasps 332 


FAOE. 

Sting  of  wasps,  cattle 184 

Stock  laws.. 475 

Stock,  laws,  Maine 475 

Stock  laws,  New  Hampshire  475 

Stock  laws,  Vermont 475 

Stock  laws,  Massachusetts.  475 
Stock  laws,  Rhode  Island. .  476 
Stock  laws,  Connecticut . . .  476 

Stock  laws,  New  York 477 

Stock  laws,  New  Jersey. . .  477 
Stock  laws,  Pennsylvania.  .  477 

Stock  laws,  Delaware 477 

Stock  laws,  Maryland 477 

Stock  laws,  Virginia 478 

Stock  laws,  North  Carolina  478 
Stock  laws,  South  Carolina.  478 

Stock  laws,  Georgia 478 

Stock  laws,  Florida 478 

Stock  laws,  Alabama . . 478 

Stock  laws,  Mississippi 478 

Stock  laws,  Texas 479 

Stock  laws,  Arkansas 479 

Stock  laws,  Tennessee 479 

Stock  laws,  West  Virginia  .  479 

Stock  laws,  Kentucky 479 

Stock  laws,  Missouri 480 

Stock  laws,  Illinois 480- 

Stock  laws,  Indiana. 480 

Stock  laws,  Ohio 481 

Stock  laws,  Michigan 481 

Stock  laws,  Wisconsin 482- 

Stock  laws,  Minnesota 482 

Stock  laws,  Iowa 482 

Stock  laws,  Kansas 483 

Stock  laws,  Nebraska 483 

Stock  laws,  Oregon 483 

Stock  laws,  California 483 

Stomach,  bleeding  of  the  ..  346 
Stomach,  bleeding  from  the  319 
Stomach,  horse,  inflamma- 
tion of 89 

Stomach,  poultry,  inflamma- 
tion of...... .... 265 

Stomach,  sickness  of 346 

Stomach,  small,  in  horse  . .  13 
Stomach  staggers  in  horse .    89 

Stomachics,  nor se 246 

Stomachic  laxative  balls  for 

washy  horses 242 

Stone  blue,  antidote  for.. ..  328 

Stone  bruises  in  horse 54 

Storing  eggs...... 281 

Storing  potatoes 289 

Stoves,  to  mend  cracks  in..  414 
Stoves,  varnish  for ........  442 

Strains  of  hip-joint  in  horse  67 
Strain  of  the  back  of  horse .  63 
Strain  of  back   sinews  in 

horse ....    65 

Strains,  cattle 187 

Strain  of  coffin  joint  in  horse  65 
Strains,  cattle,  embrocation 

for 249 

Strains,  embrocation  for,  in 

cattle 249 

Strain  of  fetlock  in  horse. . .    65 

Strain,  hock,  in  horse 67 

Strains  of  horse 63 

Strain  of  knees  of  horse  ...     64 
Strains,  old,  charge  for,  in 
cattle 249 


CONTENTS 


60  $. 


PAGE . 

Strain  of  the  loins  in  horse.  63 
Strain  of  the  shoulder  in 

horse 64 

Strains,  stifle,  in  horse 67 

Strain  of  suspensory  liga- 
ments in  horse 65 

Stramonium,  antidote  for  ..  331 
Strangles  in  horse,  remedy 

for 88 

Strangulation  in  horse 96 

Strawberries,  canning 284 

Strawberries,  culture  of 517 

Strawberry  leaf  roller 368 

Strawberries,  preserved  . . .  302 

Straw  hats,  varnish  for  . 442 

Stray,  not  redeemed,  notice 

of  sale 468 

Stray,  notice  of  town  clerk.  465 
Strengthening      drink     for 

sheep 250 

Strengthening  lotion  for  eye 

in  cattle 249 

Strengthening  plaster 345 

Stretches,  sheep 221 

Stretching  and  curing  small 

skins 432 

String  halt  in  horse. ......   105 

Striped  blister  beetle 362 

Strong  tonic  for  cattle 249 

Strychnine,  antidote  for....  331 

Stubborn  horse 45 

Stumbling   horse,   how   fo 

tell  19 

Stumbling    horse,    remedy 

for 44 

Stumps,  to  remove 553 

Sturdy  sheep 203 

Stye,  cure  for 339 

Styptics,  horse 247 

Sublimate,  corrosive,  anti- 
dote for 329 

Suckers  in  apple  trees 490 

Suet,  to  keep 292 

Suffocation 332 

Suffocation  from  gases. .  332 

Sugar  of  lead,  antidote  for..  329 

Sugar,  maple,  to  make 537 

Sugar,    powdered,     white, 

horse,  use  of 243 

Sulphate  of  copper,  horse, 

use  of 243 

Sulphate  of  zinc,  antidote 

for 331 

Sulphur  ointment 344 

Sulphur  purging  drink  for 

cattle 247 

Sulphur  for  swine 229 

Sulphuric  acid,  antidote  for.  326 
Sumach  beetle,  jumping...  406 

Summer  care  of  pigs 23 1 

Sunburn  and  tan.... 346 

Sunday  contracts 487 

Sun  stroke 332 

Superphosphate  for  swine  .  229 
Suspensory  lijaments,horse, 

strain  of  the 65 

Surfeit  in  horse 108 

Swarming  of  bees,  drones..  314 
Swarming  of  bees,  artificial 

vs.  natural 310 

Sweating  blister  for  horse. .  243 


PAGE. 

Sweating    embrocation    for 

windgall  in  horse .  245 

Sweating    embrocation   for 

horse.... 245 

Sweet  potatoes,  to  keep....  290 

Swarming  of  bees 311 

Swarming  bees,  to  prevent  309 

Sweet  pickles 296 

Swarming  bees,  artificial...  311 
Sweet  cider,  how  to  keep..  281 

Sweet  lard,  to  keep  . 286 

Sweet  potatoes,  culture  of..  547 
Sweet  potatoes,  in  bulk,  to 

keep 290 

Swelling,  white 349 

Sweat,  to  produce 346 

Swelled  legs  in  horses Ill 

Sweeny  in  horse 133 

Sweet  herbs,  to  cultivate. . .  490 
Swelled  bowels  in  children.  334 
Swimming  in  the  head  in 

cattle 154 

Swine 229 

Swine,  age  to  breed 230 

Swine,    alterative    powder 

for 251 

Swine,  apoplexy 235 

Swine,  ashes  for 229 

Swine,  black-teeth  in 234 

Swine,  bleeding  of 237 

Swine,  bleeding 234 

Swine,  blind  staggers 238 

Swine,  brain,  Inflammation 

of  the 235 

Swine,  bone-dust  for 229 

Swine,  breeds 230 

Swine,  breed,  age  to......  230 

Swine  breeding 230 

Swine,  catarrh  in 238 

Swine,  charcoal  for 229 

Swine,  choking 234 

Swine,  cholera 234 

Swine,  colic  in 233 

Swine,  costiveness 238 

Swine,  crossing  of 230 

Swine,  debility,  general  .. .  233 

Swine,  diarrhcea  in 238 

Swine,  dropsy  in 238 

Swine,  ears  sore  in 238 

Swine,  emaciation  ........  233 

Swine,  epilepsy  ..........  233 

Swine,  epizoot.  in 74 

Swine,  eruptions,  red  in 238 

Swine,  feet,  soreness  of  the  236 
Swine,  fever,  medicines  for   251 

Swine,  fits 233 

Swine,  frenzy  in..........  230 

Swine — See  Hogs. 

Swine,  inflammation  of  the 

brain 231 

Swine,  inflammation  of  the 

lungs.... 237 

Swine,  itch  in 238 

Swine,  i  aundice  in 239 

Swine,  kidney  worms  in 238 

Swine,  lice  on 233 

Swine,  lice,  how  to  destroy  229 
Swine,  lungs,  inflammation 

of  the 237 

Swine,  mange  in 235 

Swine,  measles 235 


PAGE. 

Swine,  medicines,  fever,  for  251 

Swine,  ophthalmia 233. 

Swine — See  Pigs. 

Swinepigging 236* 

Swine,  powder,   alterative, 

for 251 

Swine,  preventives 238 

Swine,  quinsy 236 

Swine,  red  eruptions  in ... .  238 
Swine,  rot,  tails  of  young 

pigs 234 

Swine,  rheumatism 233 

Swine,  salt  for 229 

Swine,  sick,  how  to  manage  229 

Swine,  sore  ears 238 

Swine,  soreness  of  the  feet.  236 
Swine,  staggers,  blind,  in..  238 
Swine,  superphosphate  for.  229 

Swine,  sulphur  for 229 

Swine,  tails  of  young  pigs, 

rot 234 

Swine,  teeth,  black  in 234 

Swine,  trichinae 234 

Swine,  vermin  on ,  233 

Swine,  worms,  kidney  in  . .  238 
Synovial  membrane,  horse, 

diseases  of 61 

Synovial  membrane,  acute- 
inflammation  of,  in  horse     61 
Syrup,  hive,  Coxe's 341 

Tallow,  to  clarify 292 

Tallow,  to  harden 292 

Taming  horse 138 

Tan,  to  remove 347 

Tan  and  sunburn 34& 

Tanning  buckskins . 433 

Tanning  fur  skins 443 

Tanning  leather 434 

Tanning  muskrat  skins  with 

the  fur  on 434 

Tanning  skins  with  the  hair 

on 435 

Tanning  small  skins 434 

Tar  varnish 443 

Tartar  emetic,  antidote  for.  327 
Tartaric  acid,  antidote  for..  327 
Teats,  sore,  in  cattle,  oint- 
ment for 248 

Teats,  sore,  in  cows 1 60 

Teeth,  black,  in  swine 234 

Teeth,  care  of 347 

Teeth  and  gums,  wash  for.  347 

Teething 346 

Tendon,  horses,  diseases  of    60 

Ten-lined  spearsman 380 

Tent  caterpillar,  apple  tree.  394 
Tent  caterpillar  of  the  forest  392 

Tetanus  in  horse 10^ 

Tetter 347 

Thick-winded  horse,  how  to 

tell 19. 

Thorn  apple,  antidote  for..  331 

Thoroughpin  in  horse ot 

Thoroughpin  in  horse,  how 

to  tell 25 

Three-lined  leaf  beetle 362 

Thripe 387 

Throat,  cattle,  inflammation 

of  the 182 

Throat,  foreign  bodies  in  . .  332 


604 


CONTENTS. 


PASS. 

Throat,  horse,  diseases  of 
the 87 

Throat,  sore,  in  dogs 277 

Throat,  sore,  how  to  cure..  349 

Throat,  sore,  in  horse 70 

Throat,  sore,  horse,  remedy 

for 88 

Throat,  sore,  liniment 343 

Thoracic  organs  in  horse 
and  their  appendages,  dis- 
eases of  the — .     70 

Thrush,  cattle 158 

Thrush  in  horse 54 

Thrush,  horse,  how  to  tell.     24 
Thrush,  horse,  how  to  pre- 
vent      38 

Ticks  on  sheep 219 

Tiler's    and    slater's  work, 

measurement  of. 412 

Timber,  measuring 418 

Timber,   measuring  in  the 

tree 414 

Tin,  antidote  for 331 

Tin,  chloride  of,  antidote  for  33 1 
Tin,  oxide  of,  antidote  for.  331 
Tin,  solution  of,  antidote  for  331 

Tobacco,  antidote  for 331 

Tobacco,  assorting 556 

Tobacco,  coat-curing  of 556 

Tobacco,  culture  of 554 

Tobacco,  curing  of 557 

Tobacco,  cutting  of 556 

Tobacco  hawk-moth. .  387 

Tobacco  horn-blower 387 

Tobacco  hornworn 556 

Tobacco,  housed. 558 

Tobacco,  prized 558 

Tobacco,  stripping.- 558 

Tobacco,  suckers  on 556 

Tobacco,  topping 55^ 

Tobacco,  transplanting 556 

Tobacco  worm 387  556 

Tomatoes,  canning 284  292 

Tomato  catsup 292 

Tomatoes,  culture  of 553 

Tomatoes,  green,  pickled..  297 

Tomatoes,  pickled ...   297 

Tomato  plants,  to  raise 559 

Tomato  or  potato  worm 361 

Tomatoes,  preserved 303 

Tomato  stalk  borer 360 

Tomato  worm 387  390 

Tonic  ball  for  horses 247 

Tonic  drink  for  cattle.  ..247  248 
Tonic  drink,    debility,    for 

sheep 251 

Tonic    drink,    general,    for 

sheep 250 

Tonic  drink  for  murrain  in 

cattle 249 

Tonic  drink  for  sheep 250 

Tonics  for  horses 247 

Tonic  powders    for   cattte, 

alterative 250 

Tonic,  strong,  for  cattle  ...  249 

Tongue,  black,  in  cattle 158 

Tongue,  horse,  lolling  of..  132 
Tongue,  sore,  of  horses,  to 

cure 132 

Tooth  powders ..  348 

Toothache  remedies 348 


PAGE. 

Town  clerk,  stray  notice . . .  465 
Trachea,    cattle,    inflamma- 
tion of. 180 

Training  horses  ..........  136 

Training  apple  trees .... 515 

Training  pear  frees 515 

Transfer  varnish 443 

Transparent  green  varnish.  443 

Transplanting  at  night 553 

Trees,  apple  blight,  to  pre- 
serve from 489 

Trees,  apple,  canker  in,  to  399 

cure  the 489 

Trees,  apple,  old,  to  reno- 
vate   489 

Trees,  apple  suckers. 490 

Trees,  apple,  treatment  of.  489 
Trees,  canker  in,  to  cure.. 

Tree  cricket 367 

Tree,  elm  beetle 364 

Trees,    fruit,    moss   on,   to 

destroy 521 

Trees,   fruit,   ants   to  keep 

from 521 

Trees,  fruit,  mice  and  insects 

to  keep  from 521 

Trees,  fruit,  blight  on 521 

Trees,  fruit,  blossoms  in...  521 
Trees,      fruit,      amputated 
branches     and    wounds, 

coating  for 521 

Trees,  fruit,  overbearing...  522 

Trees,  measuring  the  height  413 

Trees,  measuring  timber  in.  414 

Trees,  oak 553 

Trees,  peach,   management 

of 539 

Trees,  peach,  mildew  on. . .  540 

Trees,  peach,  to  save 540 

Trees,  pear,  blight  in 546 

Trees,  pear,  mulching 543 

Trees,  pear,  planting 542 

Trees,  peer,  pruning 543 

Trees,  pear,  frozen  blight . .  546 

Trees,  pear,  winter  blight..  546 

Trees,  pear,  leaf  blight 546 

Trees,  pear,  summer  blight  546 

Trees,  rose,  blight  on . . 551 

Trevis  or  break  for  horse..  122 

Trichinae 234 

Trick  of  dealers  in  horses . .  45 

Trimming  horse 35 

Trot,  horse,  learning  to 136 

Trotting  horse,  to  judge  by  19 

True  red  water  in  cattle —  157 

Trumpeting  in  horse 81 

Tumors,  horse,  how  to  ex- 
amine for 20 

Tumors,  small  on  horse 61 

Turkeys,  charcoal  for 272 

Turkey  chicks,  chill  in 272 

Turkey  chicks,    paste     for 

weak 272 

Turkeys,  feeding 271 

Turkeys,  to  rear 271 

Turnip,  culture  of 559 

Turnip  flea  beetle ....  395 

Turnip  fly 385 

Turpentine  drink,  cattle,  for 

worm 247 

Turpentine  varnish 443 


PAGE. 

Tussock  moth,  white  mark.  369 
Twig  borer,  apple ........  407 

Twig  borer,  cherry 407 

Twig  borer,  grape-vine . 407 

Twig  borer,   hickory 407 

Twig  borer,  pear. 407 

Twig  girdler 408 

Twitch  for  the  horse 122 

Typhoid  fever  in  horses  ...   120 
Type,   gallaecola  or  gall-in- 
habiting.  402 

Type,  radicicola  or  root-in- 
habiting    404 

Udder,  downfall  of  the,  in 
cows. 159 

Ulcers,  cancerous,  in  caltle.  188 
Ulcer  in  elm  trees,  to  cure.  510 
Ulcer  on  eye-lid  of  cattle. . .  1 77 
Ulcers,    foul,   lotion  for  in 

horses 24b 

Ulcers  in  poultry 266 

Ulceration  or  caries  in  horse  48 
Ulceration  in  eye  of  cattle. .   1 78 

Unnerving,  horse 129 

Unsound,  horse  when 1 34 

Urinary  obstruction 349 

Urinary    passages,     cattle, 

stone  in  the 147 

Urine,  free  passage  of 349 

Urine,  horses,  retention  of  100 
Urine,  scalding  of  the 349 

Varicose     veins,     bleeding 

from 319 

Varnish,  amber 435 

Varnish,  amber  black 435 

Varnish,  amber  pale 436 

Varnish  for  basket  ware 437 

Varnish,  black 436 

Varnish,  black,  for  harness  441 
Varnish,    black,     for    iron 

work 436 

Varnish  brushes,  care  of. . .  435 

Varnish  for  cardwork 43  7 

Varnish,  Chinese 43  7 

Varnish  for  chromos 438 

Varnish,   coachmaker's . 437 

Varnish,  colorless 43  7 

Varnish,   copal 439 

Varnish,  copal  blue 437 

Varnish,  copal,  to  dissolve 

in  alcohol 438 

Varnish,  copal,  to  dissolve 

in  spirits  of  turpentine 438 

Varnish,  crystal 438 

Varnish,  dammar 440 

Varnish  for  engravings 440 

Varnish    for  engraving  on 

glass 440 

Varnish,    engraver's    stop- 
ping-out  440 

Varnish,  etching 440 

Varnish  for  xrames  of  hot- 
beds   440 

Varnish,   furniture 440 

Varnish,  glass 441 

Varnish,   gold 440 

Varnish,  green  copal 441 

Varnish,    ground  glass,    to 
imitate.......... 441 


CONTENTS. 


Cog; 


PASS. 

Varnish,  gutta«percha 442 

Varnish,  hair.............  442 

Varnish  for  harness.......  441 

Varnish  for  India  rubber..  441 
Varnish  for  iron..........  442 

Varnish,  Japan  black..  ....  442 

Varnish,  mahogany.......  442 

Varnish  for  maps.........  438 

Varnish  for  maps 440 

Varnish,  oak — 442 

Varnish  for  oil  paintings...  442 

Varnish  for  paintings . . .  438 

Varnish,  pale  carriage 437 

Varnish  for  paintings 442 

Varnish,  pearl  grey  copal.  .441 

Varnish  for  pictures 442 

Varnish,  purple  copal 443 

Varnish,  red  copal 442 

Varnish  for  shoes 443 

Varnish  for  stoves 442 

Varnish  for  straw  hats 442 

Varnish,  tar 443 

Varnish,  transfer 443 

Varnish,  transparent  green.  443 

Varnish,  turpentine 443 

Varnish,  violet  copal 443 

Varnish      for     water-color 

drawings 443 

Varnish     for     water-proof 
goods  .................  441 

Varnish,  to  make  white  co- 

pal. 443 

Varnish,  yellow  copal 443 

Varnish,  caution  in  making  435 

Varnishing  furniture 410 

Vaults,  measuring 418 

Vegetable  acid,  antidote  for  327 

Vegetables,  keeping 292 

Veins,  horse,  inflammation 

of. 125 

Veins,    varicose,     bleeding 

from 319 

Verdigris,  horse,  use  of —  243 
Verdigris  on  pickles  or  food 
cooked  in  foul  copper  ves- 
sels, antidote  for........  328 

Venereal  complaints 349 

Vermifuges,  horse........  247 

Vermillion,    Chinese,  anti- 
dote for. .. 329 

Vermillion,   English,    anti- 

dotefor.... 329 

Vermin  in  cattle 166 

Vermin,  cattle,  lotion  for..  250 
Vermin,    cattle,    mercurial 

ointment  for 250 

Vermin  in  dogs. 278 

Vermin,  how  to  destroy  in 

hen-roosts 270 

Vermin  on  poultry 264  268 

Vermin,   to    clean    poultry 

houses  of 256 

Vermin  on  swine 233 

Vesicants  for  horses......  243 

Vermin  in  water 353 

Vertigo  in  poultry 258 

Vicious  horse,  to  tie 45 

Vine,  grape,  Fidia 366 

Vine,  grape,  Hume  .......367 

Vinegar,  sweetened  by  lead, 
antidote  for...... ......  329 


PAGE . 

Vinegar,  cider 293 

Vitriol,  blue,  antidote  for..  328 
Vitriol,   blue,    solution    of, 

horse,  use  of. 244 

Vitriol,  oil  of,  antidote  for..  326 
Vitriol,  white,  antidote  for.  331 
Vives  in  horses. 88 

Wagons,  to  grease 560 

Waiver  of  exemption 464 

Walks  and  roads,  construc- 
tion of. 447 

Walks  and  roads,  laying  out  446 
Walking  horse,  to  judge  by     18 

Walnuts,  pickled 295 

Walnuts,  preserved 303 

Warbles  in  cattle 166 

Warbles  in  horse... ...   no 

Warm  drink,  stimulant  for 

cattle 248 

Warm  stimulant  drink  for 

cattle 248 

Warranty  deed....... 462 

Warts,  to  cure 348 

Warts,  cattle,  on  eyelids...  177 

Warts  on  horses 113 

Warts  on  nose  of  horse ....  134 
Warts,  oxen,  on  eyelids...  177 
Washing,  preparation  for..  576 
Wash,  arsenical,  for  lice  in 

sheep 351 

Wash  for  hair - 341 

Wash,  mercurial,  for  lice  in  251 
Wash  for  teeth  and  gums..  347 

Washes  for  horses - .  246 

Washy   horses,     stomachic 

laxative  balls  for 242 

Wasps,  cattle,  sting  of....   184 

Wasps,  sting  of 332 

Water,  black,  in  cattle 158 

Water  in  cavity  of  chest  of 

horse 85 

Water  farcin  in  horse 134 

Water-color  drawings,  var- 

nishfor.... 443 

Water  in  the  head,  sheep..  200 

Water  for  horses 135 

Water,  lakes 451 

Water  laurel,  antidote  for..  327 
Water,  rain,  to  keep  sweet.  289 

Water,  red,  in  cattle 156 

Water,  red,  in  sheep ..  202 

Water,  true  red,  in  cattle..  157 

Water,  vermin  in 353 

Watermelons,  large. ......  560 

Water-proof  goods,  varnish 

for 441 

Wax  for  canning  fruit. 444 

Wax,  ear,  hardened,  to  re- 
move   325 

Wax,  grafting 508 

Wax,  grafting,  liquid 5°8 

Wax  worm  or  bee  moth.. .  309 
Weak  foot  in  horse,  how  to 

tell 24 

Weaning  foal  in  mare,  and 

after  treatment  of  the 3 1 

Weaving  in  horse 42 

Webb  worm,  fall. 392 

Weeds,  cows. . .......   160 

Weeping  eyes 339 


PAOX. 

Weevil,  bean 386- 

Weevil,  New  York. 374 

Weevil,  pea 382 

Weevil,  plum 372 

Weevil,  potato  stalk 360- 

Weights  for  windows ......  43 1 

Wen,  horse,  to  cure 134 

Western  locust 378 

Western  potato  bug 380 

Wheat,  mildew  in,  to  pre- 
vent   56° 

Wheat,  rust  in,  to  prevent. .  560 

Wheat,  seed,  to  select. 551 

Wheat,  smut  in 552 

Wheat,  slugs  in,  to  destroy  560 

Whey,  alum,  for  cattle 248 

Wheezer,  horse,  how  to  tell     19 

Wheezing  in  horse 81 

White  comb  in  poultry....  264 
White    copal    varnish,     to 

make 443 

White  grub 368 

White  grub 371 

White-marked  tussock  moth  369 

White  swelling. 349 

White  vitriol,  antidote  for..  331 

Whiten  the  hands 342 

Whiten  nails 344 

Whistler,    horse,     how    to 

tell 19. 

Whistling  in  horse,  remedy 

for 76. 

Whitening,  measuring......  419. 

Whooping  cough 349 

Wills,  common  form ... 468 

Will,  codicil  to  a 468^ 

Will,  devise  of  an  estate  for 
life,  in  lieu  of  dower,  re- 
mainder to  his  children..  469' 
Will,  guardian,  appointment 

of 469 

Will,  power  of  executors  to 

convey  real  estate 469 

Will,  proviso  that  sums  ad- 
vanced to  children  shall 
be  taken  as  part  of  por- 
tion  469 

Wind,  broken,  in  horse ....     85 
Wind,  in  horse,  to  improve  134 

Wind,  thick,  in  horse 80 

Windgalls  in  horse 62 

Windgalis,  sweating  embro- 
cation in  horse 245 

Windows,  lines  for. .......  43 1 

Windows,  weights  for 431 

Wine,  antimonial,   antidote 

for 327- 

Wine,  apple. . . .. 305 

Wine,  apricot 305 

Wine,  blackberry ..... 305 

Wine,  currant. ...........  306 

Wine,  gooseberry. ........  306 

Wine,  grape. .. 306 

Wine,  sweetened  by  lead, 

antidote  for 329 

Winter,  beans  to  keep  fresh 

in 280 

Winter  butter 501 

Winter  care  of  pigs 23 1 

Winter,  how  to  make  hens 
lay  in 271 


€o6 


CONTENTS. 


s 


PAOK. 

Winter,  to  fatten  sheep  for-  226 
'Winter,  meat,  to  keep  fresh 

in 287 

Winter,  poultry,  to  preserve 

in 258 

Winter,  shoeing  horses  in. .  134 

Wintering  bees 313 

Wire  worm 368  560 

Withers,   fistula  of  the,  in 

horse 57 

Wolf  bane,  antidote  for....  327 

Wood,  cement  for 409 

Womb,  displaced  in  sheep.  199 

Wood-work,  measuring. 420 

Wood,    agreement   to    sell 

and  deliver 462 

Woodash  lye,  antidote  for..  327 

Woorara,  antidote  for 332 

Working  butter. 501 

Working  preparation 5  76 

Workman  s  lien 467 

Worm,    apple    or    codling 

moth 357 

Worm,  bag 369 

Worm,  ball,  for  horse 241 

Worm,  basket 369 

Worm,  bean 390 

Worm,  blue  spangled  peach  393 

Worm,  ball 390 

Worms,  canker 399 

Worms  in  cattle 149 

Worms,   cattle,    turpentine 

drink  for 247 

Worms  in  children 349 

Worm,  clover  hay 400 

Worm,  corn 390 

Worm,  corn  seed....  ....  .  370 

Worm,  cotton  army 375 


fa  ex. 

Worm,  currant.... 374 

Worm,  cut 358 

Worms  in  dogs. 276 

Worms,    drench,    mild,  in 

horse 241 

Worms,  dried  fruit,  to  pro- 
tect from 284 

Worm,  drop.............  369 

Worm,  elm  tree 364 

Worm,  fall  army 394 

Worm,  fall  canker 399 

Worm,  fall  web. 392 

Worm,  gooseberry ........  395 

Worm,  grass  or  army 379 

Worm,  hemp 390 

Worms  in  horses 96 

Worm,  horse,  mild  drench 

for 241 

Worm,  kidney,  in  swine 238 

Worm,  medicine,  horse .  247 

Worm,  poplar  pyramidal..  385 

Worm,  potato 387 

Worm,  potato  or  tomato 361 

Worm,  pumpkins 390 

Worm,    pyramidal     grape- 
vine   385 

Worm,  raspberry  pyramidal  385 
Worm,  red  bud  pyramidal.  385 

Worm,  red  pepper 387 

Worm,  slug 377 

Worm,  spring  canker 399 

Worm,  tobacco 387 

Worm,  tomato 387  390 

Worm,  tomato  or  potato. ..  361 

Worm,  wire 368  560 

Wounds 349 

Wounds  in  belly  of  cattle . .   185 
Wounds,  bleeding  of 319 


PAOK 

Wounds,  cattle 184 

Wounds  in  cattle,  treatment 
of.... 186 

Wounds,  cavity  of  the  chest, 

in  cattle.. 185 

Wounds  in  dogs 277 

Wounds  in  feet  of  cattle.. .  185 

Wounds,  gun-shot 320 

Wounds  of  joints  in  horses  69 
Wounds  of  knees  in  horses    69 

Wounds  of  poultry 266 

Wounds  in  sheep 223 

Wounds  in  sheep,  cleansing 
ofU.., 224 

Yeast  cakes 292 

Yeast,  to  keep 292 

Yeast,  preserved 292 

Yellow  bean,  common 383 

Yellows,  cattle,  drink  for..  247 

Yellow  copal  varnish 443 

Yellow  dye,  aniline 565 

Yellows  or  jaundice  in  cattle  152 
Yellow     orpiment,     horse, 

use  of 243 

Yellows,  peach 539 

Yellows  in  sheep 205 

Yellow  soap,  to  make 290 

Yoke,  ox,  how  to  make 433 

Young  pigs,  rot  of  tails 234 

Zinc,  acetate  of,  antidote  for  331 

Zinc,  antidote  for 33 1 

Zinc,  chloride  of,  horse,  use 

of 244 

Zinc,  oxide  of,  antidote  for.  331 
Zinc,  sulphate  of,  antidote 

for 331 


'•' 


AGENTS  WANTED. 


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Foundations  of  Success  &  Laws  ofTrafle 

By  DANIEL  R.  SHAFER,  A.  M., 

Author  of   "■100,000  Facts  for  the  People,"    "  Cyclopadia    of   Things    Worth 

Knowing"  Etc. 


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this  book. 


CURRENT  AND    IMPORTANT  EVENTS. 


THE  IRRESISTIBLE  CONFLICT  WITH  THE 

DEMON  ALCOHOL, 

Including  a  history  of  the  "  Murphy  Movement,"  the  "  Tidal 

Wave  of  Temperance"  and  the  LIFE  and  DEATH  Of  POPE 

PIUS  the  IX  and  election  of  his  successor  LEO  XIII 

with  the  description  of  the  Conclave  of  Caedi- 

nals,  "  Opium  its  Intemperate  use  and  Cure." 

B'Z"     EMIZN-EnSTT     WRITERS    .A-ISTD    LECTURER8. 
ILLUSTRATED. 

PRICE  IN  FINE  ENGLISH  CLOTH,  $1.50. 


AN  EXPOSITION  OF  THE  JEWISH  FAITH,  OR 

"  "What    Jews    Believe, " 

BY  THE  LEARNED  JEWISH  RABBI, 

DR.  SOLOMON  SCXSTETESCHEI]*. 


THE 

CROWNING  FEATURE, 

A  CHRONOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  EVENTS  OE  THE 

RUSSO -TURKISH    WAR. 

&j>  tfon.  SOS.  A.  &ACZTS. 

THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  EVENT  OF  THE  19tH  CENTURY, 

Gives  the  CAUSE  of  the  present  war  between  RUSSIA  and  TURKEY. 

A  POPULAR  AND  VALUABLE  BOOK. 

A  book  not  only  for  present  but  future  use.  As  a  work  of 
reference  it  is  absolutely  indispensable.  A  repository  of  valu 
able  information  upon  the  current  events  of  the  day,  thorough 
and  accurate.  Just  the  book  the  people,  and  the  book  for  agents 
to  sell  rapidly.  Address  the  publishers,  whose  names  will  be 
found  on  the  title  page  of  this  book. 


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